274:, where a group of 'radicals' collapsed into two distinct factions over the question of whether power should be seized immediately (and thus minimizing both public participation and shakeup of party officials) or later on with a broader political base to draw from. These sub-factions, in different localities, sometimes collapsed into even further infighting over minute ideological points, which were driven forward by changing circumstances on the national stage. Often in these cases, there was no such distinct social class that these factions represented. The fighting increasingly became an attempt to dominate the political scene and ensure the continued control of one's own faction at the expense of others. Events going on at the elite level of politics had a significant influence on the movement as well, and a crucial part of Violent Struggle was the constant attempt not to end up on the wrong side of the political battle being waged in the bureaucracy and in the halls of power. Attempts to win elite favor could lead competing factions to engage in a spiral of increasingly radical acts that were detached from the core ideological beliefs of its members, as happened with escalating violent confrontations at
177:
288:
257:
Maoist system of ranking people by their "class background." Many of those lacking a 'good class background', and its associated privileges, were more likely to engage in left factions. Students in families with cadre associations skewed conservative, and were more likely to defend existing political authorities or otherwise pursue much more moderate actions. These 'conservative' factions tended to characterize the radicals as full of "petty-bourgeois revolutionary spirit' and acting against proper revolutionary authorities. Factions existed not just among students and workers, but also within the
38:
244:, and against it from the left. Factional conflict between Red Guard and rebel organizations happened for a wide range of reasons: some purely for the seizure and dominance of political power, others were fought over pre-existing class resentments, while still more struggled to stay afloat in the turmoil of changing alliances. One of the primary reasons for the emerging factionalism was about social discontent and access to privileges. In
321:
cannons and even tanks were used in battles. According to some documents, different factions received weapons from supporting army branches, while some factions even raided local armories or created their own guns. The total number of guns used in the violent struggles was approximately 18.77 million (some say 1.877 million). These developments brought many regions of the country into a state of virtual civil war.
2378:
261:. Wading into a complicated web of shifting alliances and political positions, local army units often had to contend with the dual tasks of interpreting contradictory orders from above, and then actually carrying them out within the constraints of chaotic regional conditions. For example, from 1967 to 1969, military units in
334:
was forced to issue several announcements to stop the battles. As a result, the factions gradually turned in their weapons and dissolved their armed teams, or were crushed by the force of the PLA. Factional violence on a local level declined precipitously after this point, and the purges carried out
320:
on July 23. At the same time, Chairman Mao called for a "nationwide arming of the left", which emboldened radicals and swayed some PLA formations onto the side of the rebels. Faction clashes subsequently entered into a new phase of violence which rocked the nation. Weapons such as guns, grenades,
256:
writes that the political orientation of Red Guard factions could often reflect the social group of its members, with deep-seated economic and social motivations being a driver for conflict. One of the decisive factors pushing students to conservative or radical factions was their relation to the
278:
throughout 1967 and 1968. Sometimes, support received from the center could be arbitrary or based on misperceptions about the relative conformity that one faction had versus their rivals. Nevertheless, at varying points the passion and political convictions of factions participants were equally
265:
became embroiled in civilian factional politics and sharply divided into 'Kick' (tipai 踢派) and 'Support' (zhipai 支派) factions based on whether they wished to support the left or kick it out. These splits were driven by ideological beliefs, personal rivalries and ambitions, as well as pragmatic
269:
Splits between factions were not solely a question of broader social issues though. Questions of strategy and tactics were also a factor. In these debates, the question of whether a faction was 'radical' or 'conservative' could become increasingly muddy. As a rule, the clean division between
232:, the wife of Mao Zedong, promoted the idea of "Wen Gong Wu Wei (文攻武卫)", meaning "attack with reason, defend with force". During this time, a dizzying array of political groups and factions rose and fell throughout China - a situation which often led to bloody conflict between groups.
378:
argues, however, that the death toll caused by the violent struggles committed at the hand of insurgent Red Guards or rebel groups is only a fraction of the deaths caused by the violent purges at the hands of state forces, for example during the
2353:
654:
126:
During much of the fighting weapons were either acquired by the rebel groups through raids on arms depots or direct support from local military establishments. Weapons used in armed conflicts included some 18.77 million
176:
329:
In the summer of 1968, the violent struggles had grown out of control in a number of places, Ultimately, the PLA was the only organization which was capable of restoring order to the country, and so the
1762:
314:
thought that counter-revolutionaries appeared in the military and thus publicly proposed the idea of "Wen Gong Wu Wei (文攻武卫)", or "attack with reason, defend with force". Jiang's idea was published by
383:
campaign. Walder put the deaths at the hand of insurgent organizations from 1966 to 1971 at 37,046. In comparison, Walder put the deaths at the hand of state forces during the same period at 130,378.
270:'conservative' and 'radical' became harder to sustain as 1967 progressed, and sub-groupings would drive conflict even within existing factions. An illustrative example is the situation in
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1717:
676:
2245:
347:
Chinese researchers have pointed out that the death toll in violent struggles ranged from 300,000 to 500,000. Serious cases of violent struggles included the battles in
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331:
120:
1616:
1062:
287:
2048:
151:
have revealed that 237,000 people were killed and another 7,030,000 were injured or permanently disabled. Notable violent struggles include the battles in
2407:
2193:
834:
147:. Researchers have pointed out that the death toll in violent struggles ranged from 300 thousand to 500 thousand, while certain documents from the
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743:
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in
December 1966 were regarded as the first large-scale violent struggles in mainland China. In January 1967, factions in Shanghai started the "
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2112:
1810:
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116:
2020:
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1016:
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92:
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with PLA support, but succeeded nowhere else. The violent struggles across China escalated significantly in the summer of 1967 after
1609:
1499:
372:
in 1996 claims that 237,000 people died due to the violent struggles, and another 7,030,000 were injured or permanently disabled.
2157:
1687:
1659:
1378:"The Policy of the Military "Supporting the Left" and the Spread of Factional Warfare in China's Countryside: Shaanxi, 1967–1968"
45:. At least 1,700 people were killed during the violent faction clash in Chongqing, with 400–500 of them buried in this cemetery.
2255:
2041:
397:
249:
209:
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Much of the early phase of faction clashes involved street brawls, brick throwing, and low level violence. However, after the
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62:
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1602:
197:
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96:
258:
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708:
248:, for instance, fighting between student-based Red Guards was often predicated on the ability to apply to join the
578:
Andreas, Joel (August 2002). "Battling over
Political and Cultural Power during the Chinese Cultural Revolution".
2235:
1692:
830:
380:
336:
2285:
2077:
2013:
1823:
1757:
1480:"Passion, Reflection, and Survival: Political Choices of Red Guards at Qinghua University, June 1966-}uly 1968"
417:
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2213:
1805:
1772:
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709:"August 2016: The Chinese Cultural Revolution at Fifty | Origins: Current Events in Historical Perspective"
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140:
37:
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1951:
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important determiners and should not dismissed in favor of wholly cynical and pragmatic motivations.
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1199:"Students and Class Warfare: The Social Roots of the Red Guard Conflict in Guangzhou (Canton)"
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The
Cultural Revolution brought to the forefront numerous power struggles both within the
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as well as the
Chinese government to take multiple interventions in the summer of 1968.
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himself, the "Shanghai model" spread to other regions of China where factions began to
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193:
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1971:
1905:
1886:
217:
677:"The Cultural Revolution: all you need to know about China's political convulsion"
1008:
The Power of Place: Contentious
Politics in Twentieth-Century Shanghai and Bombay
914:
854:
2250:
2147:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1976:
1911:
1900:
1727:
1531:
649:
645:"Chronology of Mass Killings during the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)"
640:
479:
17:
1479:
1283:
1198:
2316:
2188:
1981:
1966:
1946:
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1921:
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271:
245:
189:
152:
112:
104:
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campaign would herald the end of this portion of the
Cultural Revolution.
1030:
1028:
447:"Chaos of Cultural Revolution Echoes at a Lonely Cemetery, 50 Years Later"
1956:
1876:
221:
185:
100:
1576:
119:
of rebel groups, and gradually grew out of control in 1968, forcing the
87:, refers to the violent conflicts between different factions (mostly of
1926:
1331:"Forces of Disorder: The Army in Xuzhou's Factional Warfare, 1967–1969"
919:
599:
225:
156:
132:
1594:
1248:
1094:
A social history of Maoist China : conflict and change, 1949-1976
1092:
2306:
352:
348:
262:
213:
160:
136:
70:
2251:
Hunan
Provincial Proletarian Revolutionary Great Alliance Committee
1284:"The Radical Students in Kwangtung During the Cultural Revolution"
286:
175:
108:
36:
144:
1763:
Counterattack the Right-Deviationist
Reversal-of-Verdicts Trend
1598:
266:
attempts to make sense of orders from the central government.
212:. These seizures of power were successful in the provinces of
128:
359:, each of which saw deaths of at least thousands of people.
180:
Establishment of the
Shanghai Revolutionary Committee, 1967
27:
Factional conflicts in China during the
Cultural Revolution
1250:
Fractured Rebellion : The Beijing Red Guard Movement
803:
The Central Government of the People's Republic of China
485:
Historical Dictionary of the Chinese Cultural Revolution
30:
For the concept of tension between social classes, see
95:" composed mostly of students and workers) during the
1197:
Chan, Anita; Rosen, Stanley; Unger, Jonathan (1980).
1128:
1126:
1124:
1122:
538:"Factional Conflict at Beijing University, 1966–1968"
107:
in December 1966, and then spread to other areas of
2299:
2181:
2065:
2005:
1854:
1781:
1680:
1632:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1150:
509:Jian, Guo; Song, Yongyi; Zhou, Yuan (2009-09-17).
200:was established. After receiving the support from
111:in 1967 which brought the country to the state of
2246:Central Organization and Propaganda Leading Group
1057:
1055:
2329:List of campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party
1329:Guoqiang, Dong; Walder, Andrew G. (2017-09-04).
332:Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
252:and perceived prospects for upward advancement.
121:Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party
99:(1966–1976). The factional conflicts started in
877:
875:
1555:"Rebellion and Repression in China, 1966–1971"
115:. Most violent struggles took place after the
1610:
1486:, Stanford University Press, pp. 60–63,
1473:
1471:
512:The A to Z of the Chinese Cultural Revolution
363:
208:from the local governments, establishing the
8:
1526:
1524:
848:
846:
825:
823:
2049:Sweep Away All Cow Demons and Snake Spirits
1617:
1603:
1595:
1484:The Chinese Cultural Revolution as History
909:
907:
1393:
915:"1967:"革命样板戏"开始推行_大国脚印：网友心中60年最具影响力的60件事"
440:
438:
139:, millions of other ammunitions and even
2354:3rd Plenum of the 11th Central Committee
947:"China's Cultural Revolution, Explained"
805:(in Chinese). 2012-02-08. Archived from
1192:
1190:
1188:
1040:Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies
434:
131:(some say 1.877 million), 2.72 million
635:
633:
631:
629:
627:
625:
623:
621:
619:
617:
1423:
1421:
1242:
1240:
1086:
1084:
1082:
7:
41:The Cultural Revolution Cemetery in
984:(in Chinese). Joint Publishing HK.
536:Walder, Andrew G. (December 2006).
1748:Criticize Lin, Criticize Confucius
25:
2408:Riots and civil disorder in China
1376:Tanigawa, Shinichi (2017-06-21).
2377:
2376:
2312:Mao Zedong's cult of personality
2158:Learn from Dazhai in agriculture
1688:Down to the Countryside Movement
1660:Seven Thousand Cadres Conference
2042:Six Articles of Public Security
1174:from the original on 2020-06-22
1134:"Glossary (English to Chinese)"
1005:Frazier, Mark W. (2019-05-16).
927:from the original on 2021-01-07
777:from the original on 2021-01-03
746:from the original on 2021-01-03
657:from the original on 2021-08-01
184:The violent faction clashes in
2281:Worker-Peasant-Soldier student
2241:Central Case Examination Group
1723:One Strike-Three Anti Campaign
1011:. Cambridge University Press.
859:Independent Chinese PEN Center
364:
75:
66:
58:
1:
2413:Political and cultural purges
2291:Xiang River Storm and Thunder
2153:Learn from Daqing in industry
2028:Hai Rui Dismissed from Office
1478:Zheng, Xiaowei (2006-03-22),
1063:"A Short History of Shanghai"
445:Buckley, Chris (2016-04-04).
2108:Continuous Revolution Theory
2098:Cow demons and snake spirits
2021:Quotations from Chairman Mao
1665:Socialist Education Movement
945:Ramzy, Austin (2016-05-14).
889:(in Chinese). Archived from
675:Phillips, Tom (2016-05-11).
488:. Rowman & Littlefield.
482:; Zhou, Yuan (2015-07-23).
97:Chinese Cultural Revolution
2439:
1569:Cambridge University Press
1553:Walder, Andrew G. (2014).
1036:"China: The January Storm"
853:Ding, Shu (8 April 2016).
773:(in Chinese). 2014-08-26.
742:(in Chinese). 2013-03-19.
298:at the time, talking with
29:
2372:
2236:Cultural Revolution Group
1693:Cleansing the Class Ranks
1492:10.1515/9780804767989-003
1300:10.1017/s0305741000022013
1215:10.1017/s030574100001290x
765:"1980年邓小平接受外媒专访:坦率回应敏感话题"
557:10.1017/S0305741006000531
381:Cleansing the Class Ranks
337:Cleansing the Class Ranks
198:Shanghai People's Commune
2286:May Seventh Cadre School
2078:Newborn socialist things
2014:Bombard the Headquarters
1824:Shaoyang County Massacre
1758:1975 Banqiao Dam failure
1446:10.1177/0097700414533633
1395:10.1177/0097700417714159
1347:10.1177/0097700417729123
259:People's Liberation Army
236:Motivations and ideology
210:revolutionary committees
2256:Revolutionary committee
1806:Inner Mongolia incident
1773:1976 Tiananmen Incident
1743:Black Painting incident
1708:February Countercurrent
1428:Yan, Fei (2014-05-13).
1282:Rosen, Stanley (1977).
592:10.1023/A:1020949030112
398:Revolutionary committee
370:Chinese Communist Party
149:Chinese Communist Party
2226:May Sixteenth elements
1640:Anti-Rightist Campaign
1560:Social Science History
978:He, Shu (2010-08-01).
362:An official document (
303:
250:Communist Youth League
181:
46:
2261:8341 Special Regiment
2168:Five Black Categories
1834:Zhao Jianmin Spy Case
1768:1976 Nanjing incident
713:Ohio State University
290:
283:Escalation and height
179:
40:
2194:Conservative Faction
2123:One Divides into Two
2093:Big-character poster
1645:Great Chinese Famine
1253:. pp. 257–260.
2423:Civil wars in China
2418:Cultural Revolution
2173:Five Red Categories
2035:May 16 Notification
1738:10th Party Congress
1626:Cultural Revolution
1577:10.1017/ssh.2015.23
1288:The China Quarterly
1203:The China Quarterly
839:(in Chinese). 天地图书.
545:The China Quarterly
515:. Scarecrow Press.
276:Tsinghua University
85:Factional Conflicts
63:traditional Chinese
2349:Morning Sun (film)
2324:Great Leap Forward
2214:Ultra-Left Faction
2163:Stinking Old Ninth
1811:Guangdong Massacre
1718:9th Party Congress
1670:Taoyuan Experience
1650:Great Leap Forward
1141:The British Museum
951:The New York Times
883:"文革五十周年：必须再来一次反文革"
580:Theory and Society
451:The New York Times
310:on July 20, 1967,
304:
182:
55:simplified Chinese
47:
2390:
2389:
2339:Sino-Soviet split
2199:Little Red Guards
2143:Capitalist roader
2133:Eight model plays
1830:Yunnan Massacres
1753:Hangzhou incident
1733:Lin Biao incident
1655:Lushan Conference
1540:China News Digest
1536:"文革中"非正常死亡"了多少人？"
1260:978-0-674-05478-3
1104:978-1-107-12370-0
1091:Wemheuer, Felix.
1018:978-1-108-48131-1
991:978-962-04-2995-8
981:為毛主席而戰——文革重慶大武鬥實錄
739:Phoenix New Media
522:978-0-8108-7033-8
495:978-1-4422-5172-4
418:Hangzhou incident
79:), also known as
16:(Redirected from
2430:
2380:
2379:
2118:Violent Struggle
2113:Seizure of power
2103:Bloodline theory
2083:Struggle session
2056:On Class Origins
1839:Shadian incident
1819:Daoxian massacre
1815:Hunan Massacres
1801:Guangxi Massacre
1619:
1612:
1605:
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1416:
1415:
1397:
1373:
1367:
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1326:
1320:
1319:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1247:Walder, Andrew.
1244:
1235:
1234:
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1183:
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734:"1980年：法拉奇对话邓小平"
730:
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408:Struggle session
376:Andrew G. Walder
367:
366:
77:
68:
60:
51:Violent Struggle
43:Chongqing, China
21:
18:Violent struggle
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2429:
2428:
2427:
2393:
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2386:
2368:
2364:Scar literature
2359:Boluan Fanzheng
2295:
2276:Barefoot doctor
2266:Sent-down youth
2219:Xiaoyao Faction
2177:
2061:
2001:
1850:
1846:Ruijin Massacre
1794:Daxing Massacre
1777:
1676:
1628:
1623:
1593:
1592:
1552:
1551:
1547:
1530:
1529:
1522:
1514:
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1175:
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1136:
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1120:
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1097:. p. 204.
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1034:
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939:
930:
928:
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912:
905:
896:
894:
881:
880:
873:
864:
862:
855:"文革死亡人数统计为两百万人"
852:
851:
844:
836:天地翻覆: 中国文化大革命历史
829:
828:
821:
812:
810:
797:
796:
789:
780:
778:
763:
762:
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749:
747:
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731:
727:
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715:. 5 August 2016
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242:Communist Party
238:
196:" during which
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28:
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22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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2403:1970s in China
2395:
2394:
2388:
2387:
2385:
2384:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2366:
2361:
2356:
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2336:
2334:Class struggle
2331:
2326:
2321:
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2309:
2303:
2301:
2300:Related topics
2297:
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2273:
2268:
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2238:
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2231:Five Man Group
2228:
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2222:
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2216:
2211:
2209:Scarlet Guards
2206:
2201:
2196:
2185:
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2178:
2176:
2175:
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2128:Democracy Wall
2125:
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2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2088:Feudal fascism
2085:
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2075:
2069:
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2063:
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2017:
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1994:
1989:
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1969:
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1959:
1954:
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1903:
1898:
1896:Zhang Chunqiao
1893:
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1713:Wuhan incident
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1614:
1607:
1599:
1591:
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1545:
1534:(2011-10-11).
1520:
1500:
1467:
1440:(2): 168–196.
1430:"Rival Rebels"
1417:
1368:
1341:(2): 139–169.
1321:
1274:
1259:
1236:
1184:
1170:. 2009-05-26.
1146:
1118:
1103:
1078:
1067:New York Times
1051:
1024:
1017:
997:
990:
970:
937:
923:(in Chinese).
903:
871:
842:
833:(2017-07-04).
819:
787:
756:
725:
700:
667:
613:
586:(4): 463–519.
570:
528:
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470:
433:
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427:
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423:Wuhan incident
420:
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344:
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308:Wuhan incident
294:, the wife of
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32:class struggle
26:
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2344:Two Whatevers
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2204:Rebel Faction
2202:
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2138:Loyalty dance
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1968:
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1937:Wang Dongxing
1935:
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1882:Deng Xiaoping
1880:
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1703:January Storm
1701:
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1698:12-3 incident
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1567:(3 & 4).
1566:
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1549:
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1542:(in Chinese).
1541:
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1501:9780804767989
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904:
893:on 2021-02-24
892:
888:
884:
878:
876:
872:
860:
856:
849:
847:
843:
838:
837:
832:
831:Yang, Jisheng
826:
824:
820:
809:on 2020-08-21
808:
804:
800:
794:
792:
788:
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772:
771:
766:
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741:
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609:
605:
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581:
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571:
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562:
558:
554:
551:: 1023–1047.
550:
546:
539:
532:
529:
524:
518:
514:
513:
505:
502:
497:
491:
487:
486:
481:
474:
471:
460:
456:
452:
448:
441:
439:
435:
428:
424:
421:
419:
416:
414:
411:
409:
406:
404:
403:January Storm
401:
399:
396:
394:
393:Power seizure
391:
390:
386:
384:
382:
377:
373:
371:
360:
358:
354:
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342:
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338:
333:
324:
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319:
318:
313:
309:
302:(August 1967)
301:
297:
293:
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282:
280:
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273:
267:
264:
260:
255:
254:Andrew Walder
251:
247:
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235:
233:
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227:
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215:
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207:
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194:January Storm
191:
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166:
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150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
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117:power seizure
114:
110:
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98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
78:
72:
64:
56:
52:
44:
39:
33:
19:
2271:61 Renegades
2054:
2047:
2040:
2033:
2026:
2019:
2012:
1972:Yang Chengwu
1906:Wang Hongwen
1887:Gang of Four
1681:Major events
1564:
1558:
1548:
1539:
1532:Song, Yongyi
1513:, retrieved
1483:
1437:
1434:Modern China
1433:
1388:(1): 35–67.
1385:
1382:Modern China
1381:
1371:
1338:
1335:Modern China
1334:
1324:
1291:
1287:
1277:
1249:
1206:
1202:
1176:. Retrieved
1165:
1140:
1093:
1070:. Retrieved
1066:
1043:. Retrieved
1039:
1007:
1000:
980:
973:
962:. Retrieved
950:
940:
929:. Retrieved
918:
895:. Retrieved
891:the original
887:www.hybsl.cn
886:
863:. Retrieved
861:(in Chinese)
858:
835:
811:. Retrieved
807:the original
802:
779:. Retrieved
768:
759:
748:. Retrieved
737:
728:
717:. Retrieved
712:
703:
692:. Retrieved
681:The Guardian
680:
670:
659:. Retrieved
648:
641:Song, Yongyi
583:
579:
573:
548:
544:
531:
511:
504:
484:
480:Song, Yongyi
473:
462:. Retrieved
450:
374:
365:建国以来历史政治运动事实
361:
346:
328:
315:
305:
268:
239:
218:Heilongjiang
183:
141:armored cars
125:
93:rebel groups
84:
80:
74:
50:
48:
2148:Yiku sitian
1997:Ye Jianying
1992:Hua Guofeng
1987:Mao Yuanxin
1977:Chen Zaidao
1912:Peng Dehuai
1901:Yao Wenyuan
1855:Key figures
1728:Project 571
1571:: 513–539.
1294:: 390–399.
1209:: 397–446.
1167:Renmin Wang
1162:"（2）"文攻武卫""
650:Sciences Po
478:Jian, Guo;
368:) from the
335:during the
2397:Categories
2317:Mango cult
2189:Red Guards
1982:Kang Sheng
1967:Qiu Huizuo
1947:Ji Dengkui
1891:Jiang Qing
1872:Zhou Enlai
1867:Liu Shaoqi
1862:Mao Zedong
1789:Red August
1515:2022-12-20
1269:1262307607
1178:2020-04-03
1113:1090439919
1072:2020-04-03
1045:2020-04-03
964:2020-02-16
931:2020-06-09
897:2020-06-09
865:2020-02-16
813:2020-04-01
799:"1968年大事记"
781:2020-02-16
750:2020-02-16
719:2020-02-16
694:2020-02-16
661:2020-02-16
464:2020-02-16
429:References
413:Red Terror
343:Death toll
317:Wenhui Bao
312:Jiang Qing
300:Red Guards
296:Mao Zedong
292:Jiang Qing
230:Jiang Qing
206:grab power
202:Mao Zedong
89:Red Guards
2073:Four Olds
2006:Documents
1962:Wu Faxian
1942:Xie Fuzhi
1932:Chen Boda
1922:Peng Zhen
1782:Massacres
1585:143087356
1510:246167750
1462:145108614
1454:0097-7004
1412:148920995
1404:0097-7004
1363:148715322
1355:0097-7004
1316:144728829
1308:0305-7410
1231:154982790
1223:0305-7410
959:0362-4331
689:0261-3077
459:0362-4331
357:Chongqing
272:Guangzhou
246:Guangdong
190:Chongqing
159:, and in
153:Chongqing
135:, 14,828
113:civil war
105:Chongqing
2382:Category
2066:Concepts
1957:Qi Benyu
1877:Lin Biao
1172:Archived
925:Archived
775:Archived
744:Archived
655:Archived
608:55652966
565:36643030
387:See also
222:Shandong
186:Shanghai
133:grenades
101:Shanghai
1952:Wang Li
1927:Tao Zhu
1633:Prelude
920:Tencent
600:3108513
226:Guizhou
172:Origins
167:History
157:Sichuan
137:cannons
2307:Maoism
2182:Groups
1917:Wu Han
1583:
1508:
1498:
1460:
1452:
1410:
1402:
1361:
1353:
1314:
1306:
1267:
1257:
1229:
1221:
1111:
1101:
1015:
988:
957:
687:
606:
598:
563:
519:
492:
457:
353:Xuzhou
349:Luzhou
263:Xuzhou
214:Shanxi
161:Xuzhou
73::
71:pinyin
65::
57::
1581:S2CID
1506:S2CID
1458:S2CID
1408:S2CID
1359:S2CID
1312:S2CID
1227:S2CID
1137:(PDF)
604:S2CID
596:JSTOR
561:S2CID
541:(PDF)
155:, in
145:tanks
109:China
91:and "
81:Wudou
76:wǔdòu
1496:ISBN
1450:ISSN
1400:ISSN
1351:ISSN
1304:ISSN
1265:OCLC
1255:ISBN
1219:ISSN
1109:OCLC
1099:ISBN
1013:ISBN
986:ISBN
955:ISSN
770:Sina
685:ISSN
517:ISBN
490:ISBN
455:ISSN
355:and
224:and
188:and
143:and
129:guns
103:and
49:The
1573:doi
1488:doi
1442:doi
1390:doi
1343:doi
1296:doi
1211:doi
588:doi
553:doi
549:188
325:End
83:or
2399::
1579:.
1565:38
1563:.
1557:.
1538:.
1523:^
1504:,
1494:,
1482:,
1470:^
1456:.
1448:.
1438:41
1436:.
1432:.
1420:^
1406:.
1398:.
1386:44
1384:.
1380:.
1357:.
1349:.
1339:44
1337:.
1333:.
1310:.
1302:.
1292:70
1290:.
1286:.
1263:.
1239:^
1225:.
1217:.
1207:83
1205:.
1201:.
1187:^
1164:.
1149:^
1139:.
1121:^
1107:.
1081:^
1065:.
1054:^
1038:.
1027:^
953:.
949:.
917:.
906:^
885:.
874:^
857:.
845:^
822:^
801:.
790:^
767:.
736:.
711:.
683:.
679:.
653:.
647:.
643:.
616:^
602:.
594:.
584:31
582:.
559:.
547:.
543:.
453:.
449:.
437:^
351:,
220:,
216:,
163:.
69:;
67:武鬥
61:;
59:武斗
1908:)
1889:(
1618:e
1611:t
1604:v
1587:.
1575::
1490::
1464:.
1444::
1414:.
1392::
1365:.
1345::
1318:.
1298::
1271:.
1233:.
1213::
1181:.
1143:.
1115:.
1075:.
1048:.
1021:.
994:.
967:.
934:.
900:.
868:.
816:.
784:.
753:.
722:.
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664:.
610:.
590::
567:.
555::
525:.
498:.
467:.
53:(
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
