Eugène Viollet-le-Duc - Knowledge (XXG)

2996: 977:, a new Republican government took power, and the Empress Eugénie fled into exile, as Germans marched as far as Paris and put it under siege. At the same time, on September 23, Viollet-le-Duc's primary patron and supporter, Prosper Mérimée, died peacefully in the south of France. Viollet-le-Duc supervised the construction of new defensive works outside Paris. The war was a disaster as he wrote in his journal on the 14th December 1870: "Disorganization is everywhere. The officers have no confidence in the troops, and the troops have no confidence in the officers. Each day, new orders and new projects which contravene those of the day before." He fought with the French army against the Germans at Buzenval on 24 January 1871. The battle was lost, and the French capitulated on 28 January. Viollet-le-Duc wrote to his wife on February 28, "I don't know what will become of me, but I do not want to return any more to administration. I am disgusted by it forever, and want nothing more than to pass the years that remain to me in study and in the most modest possible life." Always the scholar, he wrote a detailed study of the effectiveness and deficiencies of the fortifications of Paris during the siege, which was to be used for the 1917 defense of Verdun and the construction of the 1237:"If you study for a moment a church of the 13th century", he wrote, "you see that all of the construction is carried out according to an invariable system. All the forces and the weights are thrust out to the exterior, a disposition which gives the interior the greatest open space possible. The flying buttresses and contreforts alone support the entire structure, and always have an aspect of resistance, of force and stability which reassures the eye and the spirit; The vaults, built with materials that are easy to mount and to place at a great height, are combined in an easy disposition that places the totality of their weight on the piles; that the most simple means are always employed...and that all the parts of these constructions, independent of each other, even as they rely on each other, present an elasticity and a lightness needed in a building of such great dimensions. We can still see (and this is only found in Gothic architecture) that human proportions are the one fixed rule." 1828: 558: 522: 633:

and removing the marble neoclassical structures and decoration which had been added to the choir during the reign of Louis XIV. Mérimée warned them to be careful: "In such a project, one cannot act with too much prudence or discretion...A restoration may be more disastrous for a monument than the ravages of centuries." The Commission on Historical Monuments approved most of Viollet-le-Duc's plans, but rejected his proposal to remove the choir built under Louis XIV. Viollet-le-Duc himself turned down a proposal to add two new spires atop the towers, arguing that such a monument "would be remarkable but would not be Notre-Dame de Paris". Instead, he proposed to rebuild the original medieval spire and bell tower over the transept, which had been removed in 1786 because it was unstable in the wind.

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plans and photographs and archeological records, which would guarantee exactness. (2) The restoration had to involve not just the appearance of the monument, or the effect that it produced, but also its structure; it had to use the most efficient means to assure the long life of the building, including using more solid materials, used more wisely. (3) the restoration had to exclude any modification contrary to obvious evidence; but the structure could be adapted to conform to more modern or rational uses and practices, which meant alterations to the original plan; and (4) The restoration should preserve older modifications made to the building, with the exception of those which compromised its stability or its conservation, or those which gravely violated the value of its historical presence.

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caused the building to start to collapse in the first place and to construct a more solid and stable structure. He lightened the roof and built new arches to stabilize the structure, and slightly changed the shape of the vaults and arches. He was criticized for these modifications in the 1960s, though, as his defenders pointed out, without them the roof would have collapsed under its own weight. Mérimée's deputy, Lenormant, inspected the construction and reported to Mérimée: "The young Leduc seems entirely worthy of your confidence. He needed a magnificent audacity to take charge of such a desperate enterprise; it's certain that he arrived just in time, and if we had waited only ten years the church would have been a pile of stones." This restoration work lasted 19 years.

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large number of structures had been built up against the old walls. Once he obtained funding and made his plans, he began demolishing all structures which had been added to the ramparts over the centuries, and restored the gates, walls and towers to their original form, including the defence platforms, roofs on the towers and shelters for archers that would have been used during a siege. He found many of the original mountings for weapons still in place. To accompany his work, he published a detailed history of the city and its fortifications, with his drawings. Carcassonne became the best example of medieval military architecture in France, and also an important tourist attraction.

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found in medieval structures. "The monuments of the Middle Ages were carefully calculated, and their organism is delicate. There is nothing in excess in their works, nothing useless. If you change one of the conditions of these organisms, you change all the others. Many people consider this a fault; for us, this is a quality which we too often neglect in our modern construction....Why should we build expensive walls two meters thick, if walls fifty centimeters thick , offer sufficient stability? In the structure of the Middle Ages, every portion of a work fulfilled a function and possessed an action."

546: 534: 594: 3110: 773: 1314: 570: 1326: 1180:, the villa he constructed in Lausanne, a house on the model of a Savoyard chalet, but with a minimum of decoration, illustrating his new doctrine of form following function. He made one last visit to inspect Carcassonne, whose work was now under his son's direction. After an exhausting summer of hiking in the Alps in 1879, he became ill and died in Lausanne on 17 September 1879. He was buried in the cemetery of La Sallaz in Lausanne. In 1946 his grave and monument were transferred to the Cemetery of Bois-le-Vaux (Section XVIII) in Lausanne. 1633: 1290:, which allow more light into the church. The contemporary view of the controversy of his restoration is summarized on a descriptive panel near the altar of the cathedral: "The great restoration, carried to fruition by Viollet-le-Duc following the death of Lassus, supplied new radiance to the cathedral – whatever reservations one might have about the choices that were made. The work of the nineteenth century is now as much a part of the architectural history of Notre-Dame as that undertaken in previous centuries." 880:. Napoleon bought the ruin for 5000 francs in 1812, and Mérimée declared it an historic monument in 1848. In 1857 Viollet-le-Duc began designing an entirely new chateau on the ruins. This structure was not designed to recreate anything exactly that had existed, but a castle which recaptured the spirit of the Gothic, with lavish neo-Gothic decoration and 19th-century comforts. Pierrefonds and its inside decorations would not only influence William Burges and his Cardiff and Coch castles but also the castles of 384: 1836: 618: 1665: 1618: 1342: 510: 1649: 713: 606: 1374: 1097:, owned by the descendants of the former King, Louis-Philippe. The chateau had been confiscated by Napoleon III in 1848 but was returned to the family in 1872. It was a massive project to turn it into a residence, involving at times three hundred workers. Viollet-le-Duc designed all the work to the finest details, including the floor tiles, the gas lights in the salons, the ovens in the kitchen, and the electric bells for summoning servants. 1298:

tiles, a choice that has been reversed in more recent restorations. His critics also claimed that Viollet-le-Duc sought a "condition of completeness" which never actually existed at any given time. The principal counter-argument made by Viollet-le-Duc's defenders was that, without his prompt restorations, many of the buildings that he restored would have been lost, and that he did the best that he could with the knowledge that was then available.

1695: 428: 49: 1090:, and the city was now part of Germany. The German government invited Viollet-le-Duc to comment on their plans for the restoration, which involved a more grandiose Romanesque tower. Viollet-le-Duc informed the German architect that the planned new tower was completely out of character with the original facade and style of the cathedral. His advice was accepted, and the church was restored to its original form. 1079:

vaulting, like the original spire. He also added new decoration, crowning the spire at mid-height with gables, another original element, and removing the original tiles. He was also criticized for the materials and ornaments he added to the towers, including gargoyles. His structural design was preserved, but in 1925 his gargoyles and original ornamentation were removed, and the spire was recovered with tiles.

1142: 2856: 1971: 1714: 2968: 920:, where Julius Caesar defeated the Gauls, a siege whose actual site was disputed by historians, he asked Viollet-le-Duc to locate the exact battlefield. Viollet-le-Duc conducted excavations at various purported sites, and finally found vestiges of the walls built at the time. He also designed the metal frame for the six-metre-high statue of the Gallic chief 1279:, in the Oise Valley. Some historians condemned these restorations as non-historical invention. His defenders pointed out that Viollet-le-Duc did not make any decisions on the restoration of Notre-Dame by himself; all of his plans were approved by Prosper Mérimée, the Inspector of Historical Monuments, and by the Commission of historic monuments. 1234:, is the return of an art which was born in our country....Leave to Rome what belongs to Rome, and to Athens what belongs to Athens. Rome didn't want our Gothic (and was perhaps the only one in Europe to reject it) and they were right, because when one has the good fortune to possess a national architecture, the best thing is to keep it." 816:. In Amiens, he cleared the interior of the French classical decoration added under Louis XIV, and proposed to make it resolutely Gothic. He gave the Emperor a tour of his project in September 1853; the Empress immediately offered to pay two-thirds of the cost of the restoration. In the same year he undertook the restoration of the 701:, one of the largest in France, which had been built over many centuries in a variety of different styles. He wrote, "his goal should be to save in each part of the monument its own character, and yet to make it so that the united parts don't conflict with each other; and that can be maintained in a state that is durable and simple." 1302:

parts of the world. His cardinal principle was to retain but not to restore the surviving remains of an ancient structure; and in this respect he departed emphatically from the tradition of Viollet-le-Duc and his successors in France and Italy, where exuberant restoration frequently obscured the evidence upon which it was based ...”

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devoted more time to studying the geography of the Alps around Mont-Blanc. He spent his summers hiking in the mountains and writing articles about his travels. He launched a public campaign for the re-forestation of the Alps, and published a detailed map of the area in 1876. He spent more and more time at

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Mortimer Wheeler's entry on English archaeologist Charles R Peers for the Dictionary of National Biography (1971) is worth quoting for its critique of Viollet-le-Duc: “he laid down the principles which have governed architectural conservation in the United Kingdom and have served as a model in other

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The existence of an opposition between Ruskin and Viollet le Duc on restoration is today questioned by new research based on Ruskin's own writtings: "there is no book on architecture which has everything correct apart from Viollet le Duc’s Dictionnary". And at the end of his life Ruskin expressed the

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Another component in Viollet-le-Duc's theory was how the design of a building should start from its program and the plan, and end with its decorations. If this resulted in an asymmetrical exterior, so be it. He dismissed the symmetry of classicist buildings as vain, caring too much about appearances

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He was criticized for the abundance of Gothic gargoyles, chimeras, fleurons, and pinnacles which he added to Notre-Dame Cathedral. These decorations had existed in the Middle Ages but had largely been removed during the reign of Louis XIV. The last original gargoyles had been taken down in 1813. He

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He drew conclusions from medieval architecture that he applied to modern architecture. He noted that it was sometimes necessary to employ an iron frame in restoration to avoid the danger of fires, as long as the new structure was not heavier than the original, and kept the original balance of forces

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In his final years his son Eugène-Louis became the head of the Commission of Historic Monuments. He took on just one new project, the restoration of the cloister of the Augustines at Toulouse. He completed his series of dictionaries of architectural periods, designed for a general audience. He also

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he concentrated in particular on the use of iron and other new materials, and the importance of designing buildings whose architecture was adapted to their function, rather than to a particular style. The book was translated into English in 1881 and won a large following in the United States. The

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The bells in the two towers had been taken out in 1791 and melted down to make cannons. Viollet-le-Duc had new bells cast for the north tower and a new structure built inside to support them. Viollet-le-Duc and Lassus also rebuilt the sacristy, on the south side of the church, which had been built

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to power, his father became chief of the bureau of royal residences. The new government created, for the first time, the position of Inspector General of Historic Monuments. Eugène's uncle Delécluze agreed to take Eugène on a long tour of France to see monuments. They travelled from July to October

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was also criticized in the 20th century. His critics pointed out that the pointed caps of the towers he constructed were more typical of northern France, not the region where Carcassonne was located, near the Spanish border. Similarly he added roofs of northern slate tiles rather than southern clay

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or spire of Notre-Dame de Paris, which had been constructed in about 1250, was removed in 1786 after it was damaged by the wind. Viollet-le-Duc designed and constructed a new spire, ornamented with statuary, which was taller than the original and modified to resist the weather, but in harmony with

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called for leaving the ruin of the Hotel de Ville exactly as it was, "a ruin of a magical palace, A marvel of the picturesque. The country should not condemn it without appeal to restoration by Viollet-le-Duc." The government asked Viollet-le-Duc to organize a competition. He presented two options;

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Napoleon III provided additional funding for the continued restoration of Notre-Dame. Viollet-le-Duc was also to replace the great bestiary of mythical beasts and animals which had decorated the cathedral in the 18th century. In 1856, using examples from other medieval churches and debris from

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had built a formidable series of towers, galleries, walls, gates and interlocking defences that resisted all sieges until 1355. The fortifications were largely intact, since the surroundings of the city were still a military defensive zone in the 19th century, but the towers were without tops and a

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which lasted twenty-five years. Their project involved primarily the facade, where many of the statues over the portals had been beheaded or smashed during the Revolution. They proposed two major changes to the interior: rebuilding two of the bays to their original medieval height of four storeys,

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In 1843, Mérimée took Viollet-le-Duc with him to Burgundy and the south of France, on one of his long inspection tours of monuments. Viollet-le-Duc made drawings of the buildings and wrote detailed accounts of each site, illustrated with his drawing, which were published in architectural journals.

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in 1569, and during the French Revolution, the facade and statuary on the facade were destroyed. The vaults of the roof were weakened, and many of the stones had been carried off for other projects. When Mérimée visited to inspect the structure he heard stones falling around him. In February 1840

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is just a mould for architects. they all come out practically identical." He was a talented and meticulous artist; he travelled around France to visit monuments, cathedrals, and other medieval architecture, made detailed drawings and watercolours. In 1834, at the age of twenty, he married Élisabeth

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just outside Paris. Saint-Denis had undergone a restoration by a different architect, Francois Debret, who had rebuilt one of the two towers. However, in 1846, the new tower, overloaded with masonry, began to crack, and Viollet-le-Duc was called in. He found no way the building could be saved and

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of 1858: "To restore a building is not to maintain it, repair it or remake it: it is to re-establish it in a complete state which may never have existed at any given moment." He then explained that it had to meet four conditions: (1) The "re-establishment" had to be scientifically documented with

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was his final major restoration project; it was rebuilt following his plans between 1873 and 1876. Work continued after his death. His reconstruction of the bell tower was later criticized; he eliminated the original octagonal base and added a new spire, which rested on the walls, and not on the

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in Toulouse, one of the landmarks of French Romanesque architecture. Napoleon III invited Viollet-le-Duc to study possible restorations overseas, including in Algeria, Corsica, and in Mexico, where Napoleon had installed a new Emperor, Maximilian, under French sponsorship. He also saw the

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Once the project was approved, Viollet-le-Duc made drawings and photographs of the existing decorative elements; then they were removed and a stream of sculptors began making new statues of saints, gargoyles, chimeras and other architectural elements in a workshop he established, working from his

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The task was all the more difficult because up until that time no scientific studies had been made of medieval building techniques, and there were no schools of restoration. He had no plans for the original building to work from. Viollet-le-Duc had to discover the flaws of construction that had

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of 1830. The new spire was completed, taller and more strongly built to withstand the weather; it was decorated with statues of the apostles, and the face of Saint Thomas, patron saint of architects, bore a noticeable resemblance to Viollet-le-Duc. The spire was destroyed on 15 April 2019, as a

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and William Morris were ferocious opponents of Viollet le Duc's restorations. But Ruskin never criticised Viollet le Duc's restoration work in itself, but criticised the principal of restoration itself. Indeed, at the beginning of his career Ruskin had a very radical opinion on restoration: "a

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His architectural theory was largely based on finding the ideal forms for specific materials and using these forms to create buildings. His writings centered on the idea that materials should be used "honestly". He believed that the outward appearance of a building should reflect the rational

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there was much resistance against him, but he attracted two hundred students to his course, who applauded his lecture at the end. But while he had many supporters, the faculty professors and certain students campaigned against him. His critics complained that, aside from having little formal

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during the reign of that king. Viollet-le-Duc took out the old choir, including the altar where Napoleon Bonaparte had been crowned Emperor and replaced them with a Gothic altar and decoration which he designed. When he modified the choir, he also constructed new bays with small Gothic

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buildings that were to be soon demolished. His notes were useful when preparing his published works. His study of medieval and Renaissance periods was not limited to architecture but extended also to such areas as furniture, clothing, musical instruments, armament, and geology.

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When not engaged in Paris, Viollet-le-Duc continued his long tours into the French provinces, inspecting and checking the progress of more than twenty different restoration projects that were under his control, including seven in Burgundy alone. New projects included the

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architectural training himself, he had only built a handful of new buildings. He tired of the confrontations and resigned on 16 May 1863, and continued his writing and teaching outside the Beaux-Arts. In response to the Beaux-Arts he initiated the creation of the

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to either restore the building to its original state, with its historic interior; or to demolish it and build a new city hall. In July 1872 the government decided to preserve the Renaissance facade, but otherwise to completely demolish and rebuild the building.

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drawings and photographs of similar works in other cathedrals of the same period. He also designed a new treasury in the Gothic style to serve as the museum of the cathedral, replacing the residence of the Archbishop, which had been destroyed in a riot in 1831.

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Viollet-le-Duc was often accused by certain critics, in his own time and later, of pursuing the spirit of the Gothic style in some of his restorations instead of strict historical accuracy. Many art historians also consider that the British architectural writer

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With the money from the sale of his drawings and paintings, Viollet-le-Duc set off on a long tour of the monuments of Italy, visiting Rome, Venice, Florence and other sites, drawing and painting. In 1838, he presented several of his drawings at the

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to power and transformed France from a republic to an empire. The coup accelerated some of Viollet-le-Duc's projects as his patron Prosper Mérimée had introduced him to the new Emperor. He moved forward with the slow work of restoration of the

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within the statue, to which the skin would be anchored. After consultations with the metalwork foundry Gaget, Gauthier & Co., Viollet-le-Duc chose the metal which would be used for the skin, copper sheets, and the method used to shape it,

1104:. In his final years, he continued to supervise the restoration projects that were underway for the Commission of Historical Monuments. He engaged in polemics about architecture in the press, and was elected to the Paris municipal council. 995:

He returned later to Paris after the Commune had been suppressed and saw the ruins of most of the public buildings of the city, burned by the Commune in its last days. He received his only commission from the new government of the

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While most of his attention was devoted to restorations, Viollet-le-Duc designed and built a number of private residences and new buildings in Paris. He also participated in the most important competition of the period, for the new

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Napoleon III asked Viollet-le-Duc if he could restore a medieval chateau for the Emperor's own use near Compiègne, where the Emperor traditionally passed September and October. Viollet-le-Duc first studied a restoration of the

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commenced, Viollet-le-Duc hurried back to Paris, and offered his services as a military engineer; he was put into service as a colonel of engineers, preparing the defenses of Paris. In September, the Emperor was captured at the

1752: 1719: 656: 1985:(1833–1895) was a devotee of Viollet-le-Duc and during 1874 to 1881 translated several of his publications into English to popularise his principles in Great Britain. The later works of the English designer and architect 545: 1226:, the leading architectural school of France, which he refused to attend as a student, and where he taught briefly as a professor, before being pressured to depart. In 1846 he engaged in a fervent exchange in print with 1133:, in which the sheets were heated and then struck with wooden hammers. An advantage of this choice was that the entire statue would be light for its volume, as the copper need be only 0.094 inches (2.4 mm) thick. 498:

With his experience he became the most prominent academic scholar on French medieval architecture and his medieval dictionnary, with over 4000 drawings, contains the largest iconography on the subject to this day.

957:. Between 1866 and 1870, his major project was the ongoing transformation of Pierrefonds from a ruin into a royal residence. His plans for the metal framework he had designed for Pierrefonds were displayed at the 992:, where he engage in his passion for mountains, making detailed maps and a series of thirty-two drawings of the alpine scenery. While in Lausanne he was also asked to undertake the restoration of the cathedral. 1932:(1870–71). He was so influenced by the conflict that during his later years he described the idealized defense of France by the analogy of the military history of Le Roche-Pont, an imaginary castle, in his work 1188:

Viollet-le-Duc married Elisabeth Tempier in Paris on 3 May 1834. The couple had two children, but separated a few years after marriage, and spent little time together; he was continually on the road. The writer

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Viollet-le-Duc was born in Paris in 1814. His grandfather was an architect, and his father was a high-ranking civil servant, who in 1816 became the overseer of the royal residences of Louis XVIII. His uncle

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he gave Viollet-le-Duc the mission of restoring and reconstructing the church so it would not collapse, while "respecting exactly in his project of restoration all the ancient dispositions of the church".

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Templier, and in the same year he was named an associate professor of ornamental decoration at the Royal School of Decorative Arts, which gave him a more regular income. His first pupils there included

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In the beginning of 1864, he celebrated the conclusion of his most important project, the restoration of Notre-Dame. In January of the same year he completed the first phase of the restoration of the

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had to oversee the demolition of the tower, saving the stones. He concentrated on restoring the interior of the church, and was able to restore the original burial chamber of the kings of France.

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building should be looked after and if not it should be left to die". Viollet le Duc's position on the subject was more nuanced: "if a building has not been upkept it should be restored".

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Viollet-le-Duc's restorations sometimes involved non-historical additions, either to assure the stability of the building, or sometimes simply to maintain the harmony of the design. The

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His writings on decoration and on the relationship between form and function in architecture had a fundamental influence on a whole new generation of architects, including all the major

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had an extremely rigid system, based entirely on copying classical models, and Eugène was not interested. Instead he decided to get practical experience in the architectural offices of

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He was later criticized also for the stained glass windows he designed and had made for the chapels around the ground level of the cathedral, which feature intricate Gothic designs in

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The western façade of Notre-Dame pictured in the early 1860s towards the end of the restoration. The spire has been rebuilt and the statues of the kings are only partially restored.

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Throughout his life Viollet le Duc wrote over 100 publications on architecture, decoration, history, archeology etc.... some of which would become international best-sellers:

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prior to World War II. His theories are also represented by the French military theory of "Deliberate Advance", which stresses that artillery and a strong system of

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The new government of the French Third Republic made little use of his expertise in the restoration of the major government buildings which had been burned by the

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In 1863, Viollet-le-Duc was named a professor at the École des Beaux-Arts, the school where he had refused to become a student. In the fortress of neoclassical

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Napoleon III also called upon Viollet-le-Duc for a wide variety of archeological and architectural tasks. When he wished to put up a monument to mark the

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for its rational representation of its construction. For him, "Greek architecture served as a model for the correspondence of structure and appearance."

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In 1844, with the backing of Mérimée, Viollet-le-Duc, just thirty years old, and Lassus, then thirty-seven, won a competition for the restoration of

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Notre-Dame as his model, his workshop produced dragons, chimeras, grotesques, and gargoyles, as well as an assortment of picturesque pinnacles and

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to propose a plan for the completion of the cathedral there. The project was rejected by the local authorities as too ambitious and too expensive.

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1831 throughout the south of France, and he returned with a large collection of detailed paintings and watercolours of churches and monuments.

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Viollet-le-Duc's drawings of iron trusswork were innovative for the time. Many of his designs emphasizing iron would later influence the

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in the Alps. While on his mapping excursion in the Alps in July 1870, he learned that war had been declared between Prussia and France.

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in Paris, which had been turned into a storage depot after the Revolution. In February 1843, King Louis Philippe sent him to the

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consecration of the third church that he had designed, the neo-Gothic church of Saint-Denis de l'Estree, in the Paris suburb of

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Viollet-le-Duc's success at Vezelay led to a large series of projects. In 1840, in collaboration with his friend the architect

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who subsequently condemned him to death. He escaped to Pierrefonds, where he had a small apartment before going in exile in

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Throughout his career Viollet-le-Duc made notes and drawings, not only for the buildings he was working on but also on

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In May 1871 he left his home in Paris just before national guardsmen arrived to draft him into the armed force of the

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Design for a concert hall, dated 1864, expressing Gothic principles in modern materials; brick, stone and cast iron.

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interested Viollet-le-Duc, his friend and mentor, in the project. As chief engineer, Viollet-le-Duc designed a brick

605: 2952: 2863:

at Wikisource, English translation: as of September 2021, only a grand total of ten terms have been translated (see

3723: 3715: 3013: 893: 857: 3783: 3743: 3623: 3441: 3388: 1685: 1506: 873: 779: 751: 860:, and the dining car, with a massive golden eagle as the centrepiece of the décor, is at the Railroad Museum of 824:. A devotee of the pure Gothic, he described the chapel as "one of the finest specimens of Gothic in decline". 333:. His mother hosted her own salon, which women could attend as well as men. There, in 1822 or 1823, Eugène met 3543: 3424: 3403: 3167: 647: 277: 246: 2041:" Avant-garde et tradition dans les arts du décor en France. Lectures critiques autour de Guillaume Janneau. " 1259: 1028: 1266:

He was also criticized later for his modifications of the choir of Notre-Dame, which had been rebuilt in the

3383: 1784: 1728: 1639: 1534: 1528: 1483: 1227: 1223: 1130: 1094: 937: 817: 735: 690: 551:

The treasury of the cathedral, designed by Viollet-le-Duc to replace destroyed Archbishop's residence (1849)

349: 171: 3341: 1901: 849: 383: 238: 2932: 2920: 2908: 2902: 2896: 2890: 2884: 3528: 3194: 2842: 1855: 1835: 1434: 997: 885: 3086: 2659:

Anthony Chapman. 2007. The gatehouse of Pevensey Castle. Sussex Archaeological Collections 145: 97-118.

487: 447: 357: 334: 1877:

In several unbuilt projects for new buildings, Viollet-le-Duc applied the lessons he had derived from

1854:

wrote that "there have been two supremely eminent theorists in the history of European architecture –

1100:

In 1874 Viollet-le-Duc resigned as diocesan architect of Paris and was succeeded by his contemporary,

3835: 3830: 3809: 3689: 3674: 3638: 1559: 1194: 1083: 881: 877: 872:, which had the highest medieval tower in France. When this proved too complicated, he settled upon 629: 479: 187: 2938: 2926: 1806:. Viollet-Le-Duc traces the history of domestic architecture among the different "races" of mankind. 3664: 3505: 3453: 3092: 2914: 1946:

strongly influenced French military defensive thinking. Viollet-le-Duc's critique of the effect of

1929: 1878: 1847: 1732: 1623: 1517: 1418: 1161: 1125: 1087: 969: 909:. A jury of noted architects narrowed it down to five, including projects from Viollet-le-Duc and 905:. There were one hundred seventy-one projects proposed in the original competition, presented the 869: 813: 372: 322: 265:

admitted in his late life "We all cribbed on Viollet-le-Duc even though no one could read French".

167: 1364: 1348: 1332: 1222:

During the entire career of Viollet-le-Duc, he was engaged in a dispute with the doctrines of the

961:. He also began a new area of study, researching the geology and geography of the region around 924:

that would be placed on the site. He later designed a similar frame for a much larger statue, the

442:, the architect with whom he had trained, he was named deputy inspector of the enlargement of the 3791: 3767: 1928:

Viollet-le-Duc had a second career in the military, primarily in the defense of Paris during the

1917: 1909: 1700: 1466: 1169: 1075: 1032: 836: 809: 341: 293: 289: 242: 210: 3458: 2704: 1812:(1877), where Viollet-le-Duc applied his ideas of rational construction to Russian architecture. 1413: 439: 361: 345: 2670: 1989:

were greatly influenced by Viollet-le-Duc, most strongly in Burges's designs for his own home,

3669: 3549: 3538: 3274: 3136: 3046: 3036: 2991: 2982: 2800: 2779: 2760: 2640: 2567: 2273: 2059: 1982: 1113: 925: 876:, a castle begun by Louis of Orleans in 1396, then dismantled in 1617 after several sieges by 491: 404: 234: 230: 218: 175: 1072:, one of the inventors of the skyscraper, often invoked the phrase, "Form follows function." 3654: 3360: 3311: 3280: 3131: 3079: 3000: 2878: 2093: 2083: 1012: 917: 698: 458: 443: 431: 395: 261:, who considered Viollet-le-Duc as the father of modern architecture. The English architect 123: 1263:

the rest of the design. In the 19th and 20th century, his flèche was a target for critics.

831:

which he had first begun planning in 1849. The first fortifications had been built by the

364:, while devoting much of his time to drawing medieval churches and monuments around Paris. 3659: 3632: 3571: 3354: 3347: 3098: 2827: 2175: 1990: 1940:, twice translated into English). Accessible and well researched, it is partly fictional. 1789: 1447: 1424: 1267: 1255:

regret that "no one in England had done the work that Viollet le Duc had done in France".

974: 840: 821: 642: 483: 368: 179: 154: 1897: 1283:

modelled the new gargoyles and monsters on examples from other cathedrals of the period.

198: 427: 3618: 3152: 3073: 2179: 2146: 2004:

was presented in Paris in 1965, and there was a larger, centennial exhibition in 1980.

1986: 1913: 1889: 1851: 1522: 1428: 1172:

in 1937, but the Museum of French Monuments was preserved and can be seen there today.

1069: 376: 305: 301: 273: 262: 254: 250: 206: 54: 31: 2951: 1768:

Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français de l'époque Carolingienne à la Renaissance.

1580:

Barons d'Arbelles' Funeral chapel, cemetery des Carmes, Clermont-Ferrand (Puy-de-Dôme)

348:). He passed his baccalaureate examination in 1830. His uncle urged him to enter the 48: 3824: 3684: 3367: 2947: 2794: 2633: 2008: 1959: 1905: 1008: 985: 921: 214: 1141: 3448: 3326: 1994: 1955: 1893: 1867: 1800:

Histoire de l'habitation humaine, depuis les temps préhistoriques jusqu'à nos jours

1272: 1020: 978: 804: 330: 258: 202: 1874:

at the expense of practicality and convenience for the inhabitants of the house.

1975: 1970: 1885: 1743:

His work was published, first in serial form, and then as full-scale books, as:

1736: 1655: 1512: 1456: 1384: 1294: 1247: 1157: 1101: 1001: 902: 828: 719: 412: 297: 269: 226: 222: 194: 183: 2987: 2978: 2728:"Eugène Viollet-le-Duc's 200th birthday: Architect celebrated in Google doodle" 827:

In November 1853, he provided the costs and plans for the medieval ramparts of

344:. He returned to Paris in 1829 as a student at the college de Bourbon (now the 2855: 1407: 962: 17: 2962:. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 107–108. 2447: 662:

The southern façade of Notre-Dame pictured in 1847, early in the restoration.

494:. The windows were unfortunately destroyed in 1940 during World War II. 419:, for which, between 1838 and 1844, he made nearly three hundred engravings. 2851:(1854). 3rd English ed., James Parker & Co., Oxford & London (1907). 1947: 1810:

L'art russe: ses origines, ses éléments constructifs, son apogée, son avenir

1287: 832: 462: 159: 2635:

A Social History of Knowledge II: From the Encyclopaedia to Knowledge (XXG)

2967: 2820: 461:, which many considered as impossible. The church had been sacked by the 3436: 1488: 1470: 1380: 989: 861: 490:, to restore the stained glass windows in the chapel holding the tomb of 451: 326: 163: 95: 1774:

Cités et ruines américaines Mitla, Palenqué, Izamal, Chichen-Itza, Uxmal

1319:

Residence and studio of Viollet-le-Duc at 68 rue Condorcet, Paris (1862)

563:

Window of the Chapel of Saint-Clotilde designed by Viollet-le-Duc (1864)

2875:

Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle

1831:

Project for an iron-frame house with glazed earthenware cladding (1871)

1753:

Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle

1720:

Dictionnaire Raisonné de L'Architecture Française du XIe au XVIe siècle

1168:

opened in 1882, after his death. The Palais was reconstructed into the

308:

were directly influenced from drawings in Viollet-le-Duc's Dictionary.

3474: 2688:

The Architectural Theory of Viollet-le-Duc – Readings and Commentary,

2562: 2548:

Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XI au XVI siecle

2097: 1951: 1441: 1207:

Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XI au XVI siecle

1024: 285: 3005: 1974:

An imported idiom: Viollet-le-Duc's slate-covered conical towers at

1205:

Viollet-le-Duc famously defined restoration in volume eight of his

1082:

His reputation had reached outside of France. The spire and roof of

820:, long occupied by the military, along with its chapel, similar to 325:, an art critic and hosted a literary salon, which was attended by 158:; 27 January 1814 – 17 September 1879) was a French 2621:

Descriptive plaque near altar of Notre-Dame, recorded May 22, 2018

1969: 1834: 1712: 1276: 1140: 426: 382: 1846:

Viollet-le-Duc is considered by many to be the first theorist of

375:, building a barricade. Following the revolution, which brought 1093:

In 1872 Viollet-le-Duc was engaged in the reconstruction of the

3478: 3009: 2861:

Dictionary of French Architecture from the 11th to 16th Century

1904:. His writings inspired several American architects, including 1577:

Duc de Morny's Funeral chapel, cemetery du Père-Lachaise, Paris

1574:Église Saint-Denis-de-l'Estrée, Saint-Denis (Seine-Saint-Denis) 697:

In May 1849, he was named the architect for the restoration of

166:

landmarks in France. His major restoration projects included

2796:

Enlightening the World: The Creation of the Statue of Liberty

2429: 2427: 2402: 2400: 2398: 1306:

Existing buildings designed and constructed by Viollet-le-Duc

162:

and author, famous for his restoration of the most prominent

3108: 2043:(in French). France: Université de Provence - Aix-Marseille. 1993:

in London's Holland Park district, and Burges's designs for

1748:

Dictionary of French Architecture from 11th to 16th Century

1046:

Dictionary of French Architecture from 11th to 16th Century

2111:

Barker, Michael (1992). "An appraisal of Viollet-le-Duc".

1605:

Building, 23 rue Chauchat - 42 rue Lafayette, Paris (1864)

1602:

His own property, building, 68 rue Condorcet, Paris (1862)

1152:

He became engaged in the planning and construction of the

539:

View of the spire of Notre-Dame restored by Viollet-le-Duc

394:

On his return to Paris, he moved with his family into the

2361: 2359: 705:

Imperial projects: Carcassonne, Vincennes and Pierrefonds

337:, a writer who would play a decisive role in his career. 2231: 2229: 2227: 2202: 2200: 1816:

Histoire d'un Dessinateur: Comment on Apprend à Dessiner

1058:

Histoire d'un Dessinateur: Comment on Apprend à Dessiner

340:

In 1825 he began his education at the Pension Moran, in

2126: 2124: 2122: 852:. He engaged in a new project for restoration of the 794:

Polychrome decoration at Pierrefonds by Viollet-le-Duc

3861:

French military personnel of the Franco-Prussian War

1596:

Building, 80 boulevard du Montparnasse, Paris (1859)

1583:

Indoor mainrooms, Château de Pregny, Pregny (Suisse)

623:

Saint Thomas on the spire, resembling Viollet-le-Duc

3802: 3705: 3647: 3606: 3580: 3521: 3412: 3298: 3219: 3184: 3145: 3119: 3054: 2264: 2262: 2260: 2258: 2256: 1760:

language edition, including numerous illustrations.

1556:

Saint-Gimer Church, Carcassonne, Carcassonne (Aude)

1137:

National Museum of French Monuments and final years

641:in 1756, but had been burned by rioters during the 241:. He also influenced the first modern architects, 130: 119: 111: 103: 84: 61: 39: 2701:"Survey of London: volume 37: Northern Kensington" 2632: 2151:Heavenly Mansions and Other essays on Architecture 1788:, which he had avoided in his youth and despised. 1547:Château du Tertre, Ambrières-les-Vallées (Mayenne) 1112:While planning the design and construction of the 417:Picturesque and romantic images of the old France 1571:Château Jacquesson, Châlons-en-Champagne (Marne) 1086:had been damaged by German artillery during the 457:His first real project was a restoration of the 2849:Essai sur l'architecture militaire au Moyen Âge 1565:Saint-Martin Church, Aillant-sur-Tholon (Yonne) 2799:. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. 2329:, Librarie des Imprimeries Réunies, Paris 1888 1823:Architectural theory and new building projects 3886:Members of the American Philosophical Society 3490: 3021: 8: 1553:Château de la Flachère, Saint-Vérand (Rhône) 1156:. He proposed to the Minister of Education, 928:, but died before that statue was finished. 438:In October 1838, with the recommendation of 434:, Viollet-le-Duc's first restoration project 2755:Poisson, Georges; Poisson, Olivier (2014). 2690:Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1990 2141: 2139: 2056:William Burges and the High Victorian Dream 3497: 3483: 3475: 3028: 3014: 3006: 2113:The Journal of the Decorative Arts Society 1568:Château de Montdardier, Montdardier (Gard) 352:, which had been created in 1806, but the 47: 36: 2077: 2075: 1888:movement, most noticeably in the work of 2703:. British History Online. Archived from 2682: 2680: 2584:. Royal Institute of British Architects. 2563:Du style Gothique au Dix-neuvième Siécle 2560:Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène (June 1846). 2534: 1826: 1802:(1875). Published in English in 1876 as 2997:Works by or about Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 2988:Works by Eugène-Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc 2953:"Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène Emmanuel" 2867:). French original (full content): see 2778:(in French). Encyclopedia Universalis. 2609: 2582:letter to his pupil Percy Morley Holder 2522: 2510: 2433: 2418: 2406: 2389: 2377: 2365: 2350: 2338: 2313: 2301: 2289: 2247: 2235: 2218: 2206: 2191: 2163: 2130: 2031: 2021:Abbatial church of Notre-Dame de Mouzon 1613: 1599:Building, 15 rue de Douai, Paris (1860) 1593:Building, 28 rue de Liège, Paris (1846) 1453:Basilica of St. Nazarius and St. Celsus 1309: 708: 652: 505: 367:At sixteen he participated in the July 3420:1984–1986 conservation and restoration 2475:Statue of Liberty: Building a Colossus 2058:. London University: Frances Lincoln. 1962:in the rear of an army are essential. 1197:in 1978) was his great-granddaughter. 835:; on top of these, in the Middle Ages 766:Plans of Pierrefonds by Viollet-le-Duc 3881:Honorary members of the Royal Academy 3464:National symbols of the United States 3379:Statue of Liberty commemorative coins 2469: 2467: 2465: 587:Choir gate designed by Viollet-le-Duc 153: 7: 3752:The Quai Saint-Michel and Notre-Dame 2498: 2486: 2007:Viollet-le-Duc was the subject of a 1673:(restored in the 1860s to the 1880s) 1542:Partial list of architectural design 932:End of the Empire and of Restoration 599:Reliquary designed by Viollet-le-Duc 182:, the medieval walls of the city of 3515:Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Paris 3158:Statue of Liberty National Monument 1275:modelled on those in the church of 1166:National Museum of French Monuments 1147:National Museum of French Monuments 321:was a painter, a former student of 3876:Recipients of the Royal Gold Medal 1954:prior to World War I and the 1703:, Switzerland (restored 1874–1910) 1671:Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse 1154:Paris Universal Exposition of 1878 959:Paris Universal Exposition of 1867 687:Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse 515:Facade about 1841, pre-restoration 415:, and began making a travel book, 25: 2877:(1875 edition, in French) at the 2726:Williams, Rob (27 January 2014). 1862:construction of the building. In 1379:Scots Kirk, Avenue de Rumine 26, 3856:French ecclesiastical architects 3760:Notre-Dame, une fin d'après-midi 3431:Egypt Carrying the Light to Asia 3319:Working on the Statue of Liberty 2966: 2854: 2599:. London: George Allen éditions. 1764:Dictionary of French Furnishings 1693: 1678: 1663: 1647: 1631: 1616: 1462:Basilica of St. Sernin, Toulouse 1372: 1356: 1340: 1324: 1312: 787: 771: 759: 743: 727: 711: 667: 655: 616: 604: 592: 580: 575:Drawing of the interior traverse 568: 556: 544: 532: 520: 508: 423:First architectural restorations 390:painted by Viollet-le-Duc (1835) 388:Women's Banquet at the Tuileries 282:International Exhibition of 1862 136: 3374:Statue of Liberty Forever stamp 2473:Interviewed for Watson, Corin. 2268:A. Trintignac and M.J. Coloni, 2002:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 1814–1879 1293:The restoration of ramparts of 907:1855 Paris Universal Exposition 3846:19th-century French architects 3776:The Notre Dame de Paris Mosque 3047:Liberty Enlightening the World 2979:Works by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 2821:Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc 2597:Praeterita (memories of youth) 1804:Habitations of Man in All Ages 1723:, A. Morel editor, Paris, 1868 1610:Restorations by Viollet-le-Duc 1404:Basilica of St. Mary Magdalene 1118:Liberty Enlightening the World 147:Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc 66:Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc 1: 3399:United States ten-dollar bill 3235:Strengthen the Arm of Liberty 2871:, or at the Internet Archive: 2671:"Designing Building Failures" 2270:Decouvrir Notre-Dame de Paris 1924:Military career and influence 1866:, Viollet-le-Duc praised the 1864:Entretiens sur l'architecture 1841:Entretiens sur l'architecture 1780:Entretiens sur l'architecture 1065:Entretiens sur l'architecture 1050:Entretiens sur l'architecture 1017:Palace of the Legion of Honor 943:École Spéciale d'Architecture 854:Cathedral of Clermont-Ferrand 268:His writings also influenced 3556:Musée de Notre Dame de Paris 3384:American Platinum Eagle coin 2831:Dictionary of Art Historians 2793:Khan, Yasmin Sabina (2010). 2776:Dictionnaire des Architectes 2759:(in French). Paris: Picard. 2272:Les Editions du Cerf, 1984, 2090:academiccommons.columbia.edu 2054:Mordaunt Crook, Joe (2013). 2039:Froissart, Rossella (2011). 1858:and Eugène Viollet-le-Duc." 1393:Partial list of restorations 482:he began the restoration of 3851:French architecture writers 3732:The Hunchback of Notre-Dame 3394:American Innovation dollars 1550:Château d'Abbadia (Hendaye) 527:Proposed doorway decoration 474:Sainte-Chapelle and Amboise 27:French architect and author 3902: 3871:Preservationist architects 3724:Liberty Leading the People 3716:The Coronation of Napoleon 3442:personification of Liberty 3404:Statue of Liberty Division 3068:Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi 2182:, accessed 31 October 2021 1794:Discourses on Architecture 1122:Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi 801:French coup d'état of 1851 29: 3866:Gothic Revival architects 3624:Relics of Sainte-Chapelle 3512: 3389:Presidential dollar coins 3176:Musée des Arts et Métiers 3106: 3062:Édouard René de Laboulaye 3043: 2847:, English translation of 2448:"Paul Abadie, architecte" 2085:The great flaw in the man 1934:Histoire d'une Forteresse 1588:Partial list of buildings 950:Cathedral of Saint Sernin 288:, the aesthetic works of 135: 46: 3544:Coronation of Napoleon I 3425:Statue of Liberty Museum 3168:Statue of Liberty Museum 2774:Grodecki, Louis (1999). 2546:Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène, 2153:. London: Cresset Press. 2082:Kennedy, Travis (2018). 1642:(restored in the 1860s) 1501:Château de Roquetaillade 1191:Geneviève Viollet-le-Duc 648:Notre-Dame de Paris fire 278:Arts and Crafts movement 190:in the Bordeaux region. 155:[øʒɛnvjɔlɛlədyk] 30:Not to be confused with 3250:Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 2959:Encyclopædia Britannica 2905:Construction – Cyborium 2325:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, 1688:(carried out 1857–1885) 1484:Saint-Antonin-Noble-Val 1054:L'histoire d'une Maison 938:Beaux-Arts architecture 738:(restored in the 1860s) 691:Basilica of Saint-Denis 172:Basilica of Saint Denis 3784:Assassin's Creed Unity 3534:Saint-Étienne de Paris 3342:Statue of Liberty play 3245:Fayetteville, Arkansas 3113: 2477:(TV documentary, 2001) 2450:. Histoire-vesinet.org 2327:La Cité de Carcassonne 1981:The English architect 1978: 1902:Hendrik Petrus Berlage 1843: 1832: 1724: 1686:Château de Pierrefonds 1507:Château de Pierrefonds 1149: 874:Château de Pierrefonds 780:Château de Pierrefonds 752:Château de Pierrefonds 750:Drawing by VLD of the 680:Saint-Denis and Amiens 435: 391: 319:Étienne-Jean Delécluze 239:Hendrik Petrus Berlage 3841:Architects from Paris 3680:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 3529:Pillar of the Boatmen 3335:The Statue of Liberty 3275:Île aux Cygnes, Paris 3255:Overland Park, Kansas 3195:Centennial Exposition 3193:Right arm and torch: 3127:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 3112: 2973:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 2935:Tabernacle – Zodiaque 2844:Military Architecture 2757:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 2673:. Cornell University. 2631:Burke, Peter (2013). 2595:Ruskin, John (1903). 2580:Ruskin, John (1887). 2011:on January 27, 2014. 1997:near Cardiff, Wales. 1973: 1856:Leon Battista Alberti 1838: 1830: 1716: 1435:Basilica of St. Denis 1218:Gothic vs. Beaux-Arts 1144: 1023:, the library of the 998:French Third Republic 886:Neuschwanstein Castle 430: 386: 41:Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 3690:Jean-Louis Georgelin 3675:Jean-Baptiste Lassus 3639:Shirt of Saint Louis 3562:2016 bombing attempt 3260:Pine Bluff, Arkansas 2975:at Wikimedia Commons 2686:Hearn, M. F. (ed.), 2669:Ochshorn, Jonathan. 2501:, pp. 118, 125. 1944:Annals of a Fortress 1938:Annals of a Fortress 1785:École des Beaux-Arts 1658:(restored 1853–1879) 1640:Château de Vincennes 1626:(restored 1845–1870) 1560:Scots Kirk, Lausanne 1529:Château de Vincennes 1331:Maison Courmont, 28 1228:Quatremère de Quincy 1224:École des Beaux-Arts 1195:prix Broquette-Gonin 1084:Strasbourg Cathedral 882:Ludwig II of Bavaria 878:Louis XIII of France 858:Château de Compiègne 818:Château de Vincennes 736:Château de Vincennes 722:(restored 1853–1879) 630:Notre-Dame Cathedral 611:Drawing of the spire 480:Jean-Baptiste Lassus 350:École des Beaux-Arts 188:Roquetaillade castle 3665:Pierre de Montreuil 3506:Notre-Dame de Paris 3454:Black Tom explosion 3344:(American football) 3201:Madison Square Park 3093:Richard Morris Hunt 2612:, pp. 218–222. 2537:, pp. 710–711. 2436:, pp. 307–308. 2409:, pp. 287–288. 2380:, pp. 243–250. 2147:Summerson, Sir John 1930:Franco-Prussian War 1879:Gothic architecture 1848:modern architecture 1717:Front cover of the 1654:The walled town of 1624:Notre-Dame de Paris 1088:Franco-Prussian War 1040:Author and theorist 970:Franco-Prussian War 814:Cathedral of Amiens 718:The walled town of 502:Notre-Dame de Paris 323:Jacques-Louis David 312:Youth and education 168:Notre-Dame de Paris 3792:Notre-Dame on Fire 3768:View of Notre-Dame 3370:(1954–1965 stamps) 3338:(1985 documentary) 3306:In popular culture 3210:Paris World's Fair 3114: 3101:, pedestal funding 2899:Charnier – Console 2826:2018-07-07 at the 2707:on 24 October 2012 1979: 1918:Frank Lloyd Wright 1910:John Wellborn Root 1844: 1833: 1725: 1701:Lausanne Cathedral 1511:Fortified city of 1170:Palais de Chaillot 1150: 1076:Lausanne Cathedral 1068:Chicago architect 1033:Edmond de Goncourt 945:in Paris in 1865. 894:Emperor Wilhelm II 810:Cathedral of Reims 754:before restoration 488:Château of Amboise 436: 392: 358:Jacques-Marie Huvé 342:Fontenay-aux-Roses 300:, William Morris, 294:Christina Rossetti 290:Edward Burne-Jones 243:Frank Lloyd Wright 211:Henry van de Velde 3818: 3817: 3787:(2014 video game) 3670:Pierre de Chelles 3558:(1951–2008) 3550:Notre-Dame Affair 3539:Notre-Dame school 3472: 3471: 3174:Original statue: 3037:Statue of Liberty 2992:Project Gutenberg 2983:Project Gutenberg 2971:Media related to 2859:Works related to 2806:978-0-8014-4851-5 2766:978-2-7084-0952-1 2568:Project Gutenberg 2353:, pp. 158–9. 2250:, pp. 96–99. 1983:Benjamin Bucknall 1535:Château d'Amboise 1114:Statue of Liberty 1108:Statue of Liberty 1095:Château d'Amboise 926:Statue of Liberty 492:Leonardo da Vinci 247:Mies van der Rohe 176:Mont Saint-Michel 144: 143: 88:17 September 1879 16:(Redirected from 3893: 3655:Maurice de Sully 3499: 3492: 3485: 3476: 3361:Medal of Liberty 3312:The New Colossus 3288:United Kingdom: 3281:Flame of Liberty 3166:Original torch: 3132:Maurice Koechlin 3089:, donated copper 3030: 3023: 3016: 3007: 3001:Internet Archive 2970: 2963: 2955: 2941:Table analytique 2929:Quai – Synagogue 2893:Arts – Chapiteau 2879:Internet Archive 2858: 2810: 2789: 2770: 2743: 2742: 2740: 2738: 2723: 2717: 2716: 2714: 2712: 2697: 2691: 2684: 2675: 2674: 2666: 2660: 2657: 2651: 2650: 2638: 2628: 2622: 2619: 2613: 2607: 2601: 2600: 2592: 2586: 2585: 2577: 2571: 2570: 2557: 2551: 2544: 2538: 2532: 2526: 2520: 2514: 2508: 2502: 2496: 2490: 2484: 2478: 2471: 2460: 2459: 2457: 2455: 2443: 2437: 2431: 2422: 2416: 2410: 2404: 2393: 2387: 2381: 2375: 2369: 2363: 2354: 2348: 2342: 2336: 2330: 2323: 2317: 2311: 2305: 2299: 2293: 2287: 2281: 2266: 2251: 2245: 2239: 2233: 2222: 2216: 2210: 2204: 2195: 2189: 2183: 2176:"Léon Gaucherel" 2173: 2167: 2161: 2155: 2154: 2143: 2134: 2128: 2117: 2116: 2108: 2102: 2101: 2098:10.7916/D8CV61JX 2079: 2070: 2069: 2051: 2045: 2044: 2036: 1792:'s translation, 1759: 1697: 1682: 1667: 1651: 1638:The keep of the 1635: 1620: 1518:Château de Coucy 1427:in Paris (under 1376: 1360: 1344: 1328: 1316: 1162:Trocadéro Palace 1013:Tuileries Palace 1011:, including the 918:Battle of Alesia 890:Haut-Kœnigsbourg 870:Château de Coucy 791: 775: 763: 747: 734:The keep of the 731: 715: 699:Amiens Cathedral 671: 659: 620: 608: 596: 584: 572: 560: 548: 536: 524: 512: 396:Tuileries Palace 371:which overthrew 157: 152: 140: 124:Royal Gold Medal 91: 75: 73: 51: 37: 21: 3901: 3900: 3896: 3895: 3894: 3892: 3891: 3890: 3821: 3820: 3819: 3814: 3798: 3771:(1914 painting) 3763:(1902 painting) 3755:(1901 painting) 3747:(1890 painting) 3727:(1830 painting) 3719:(1807 painting) 3707: 3701: 3660:Jean de Chelles 3643: 3633:Virgin of Paris 3602: 3576: 3517: 3508: 3503: 3473: 3468: 3459:Musée Bartholdi 3408: 3355:Liberty Fanfare 3348:Liberty Weekend 3322:(1946 painting) 3314:" (1883 sonnet) 3294: 3228:United States: 3215: 3186: 3180: 3141: 3115: 3104: 3099:Joseph Pulitzer 3087:Eugène Secrétan 3050: 3039: 3034: 2946: 2917:Gable – Ouvrier 2887:Abaque – Aronde 2839: 2828:Wayback Machine 2817: 2807: 2792: 2786: 2773: 2767: 2754: 2751: 2746: 2736: 2734: 2732:The Independent 2725: 2724: 2720: 2710: 2708: 2699: 2698: 2694: 2685: 2678: 2668: 2667: 2663: 2658: 2654: 2647: 2630: 2629: 2625: 2620: 2616: 2608: 2604: 2594: 2593: 2589: 2579: 2578: 2574: 2559: 2558: 2554: 2545: 2541: 2533: 2529: 2521: 2517: 2509: 2505: 2497: 2493: 2485: 2481: 2472: 2463: 2453: 2451: 2445: 2444: 2440: 2432: 2425: 2417: 2413: 2405: 2396: 2388: 2384: 2376: 2372: 2364: 2357: 2349: 2345: 2337: 2333: 2324: 2320: 2312: 2308: 2300: 2296: 2288: 2284: 2267: 2254: 2246: 2242: 2234: 2225: 2217: 2213: 2205: 2198: 2190: 2186: 2174: 2170: 2162: 2158: 2145: 2144: 2137: 2129: 2120: 2110: 2109: 2105: 2081: 2080: 2073: 2066: 2053: 2052: 2048: 2038: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2017: 2000:An exhibition, 1991:The Tower House 1968: 1926: 1825: 1790:Henry Van Brunt 1757: 1711: 1704: 1698: 1689: 1683: 1674: 1668: 1659: 1652: 1643: 1636: 1627: 1621: 1612: 1590: 1544: 1448:Semur-en-Auxois 1425:Sainte-Chapelle 1395: 1388: 1377: 1368: 1361: 1352: 1345: 1336: 1329: 1320: 1317: 1308: 1268:Louis XIV style 1243: 1220: 1203: 1193:(winner of the 1186: 1139: 1110: 1042: 975:Battle of Sedan 934: 911:Charles Garnier 898: 841:Philip the Bold 822:Sainte-Chapelle 795: 792: 783: 776: 767: 764: 755: 748: 739: 732: 723: 716: 707: 682: 675: 672: 663: 660: 643:July Revolution 624: 621: 612: 609: 600: 597: 588: 585: 576: 573: 564: 561: 552: 549: 540: 537: 528: 525: 516: 513: 504: 484:Sainte-Chapelle 476: 448:Prosper Mérimée 440:Achille Leclère 425: 369:1830 revolution 362:Achille Leclère 346:Lycée Condorcet 335:Prosper Mérimée 314: 180:Sainte-Chapelle 150: 99: 93: 89: 80: 77: 76:27 January 1814 71: 69: 68: 67: 57: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3899: 3897: 3889: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3863: 3858: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3823: 3822: 3816: 3815: 3813: 3812: 3810:Île de la Cité 3806: 3804: 3800: 3799: 3797: 3796: 3788: 3780: 3772: 3764: 3756: 3748: 3740: 3728: 3720: 3711: 3709: 3703: 3702: 3700: 3699: 3692: 3687: 3682: 3677: 3672: 3667: 3662: 3657: 3651: 3649: 3645: 3644: 3642: 3641: 3636: 3626: 3621: 3616: 3610: 3608: 3604: 3603: 3601: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3577: 3575: 3574: 3569: 3564: 3559: 3553: 3547: 3541: 3536: 3531: 3525: 3523: 3519: 3518: 3513: 3510: 3509: 3504: 3502: 3501: 3494: 3487: 3479: 3470: 3469: 3467: 3466: 3461: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3445: 3444: 3434: 3427: 3422: 3416: 3414: 3410: 3409: 3407: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3386: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3365: 3364: 3363: 3358: 3345: 3339: 3331: 3330:(1949 musical) 3323: 3315: 3308: 3302: 3300: 3296: 3295: 3293: 3292: 3285: 3284: 3277: 3270: 3269: 3268: 3267: 3262: 3257: 3252: 3247: 3242: 3232: 3225: 3223: 3217: 3216: 3214: 3213: 3205: 3204: 3198: 3190: 3188: 3182: 3181: 3179: 3178: 3171: 3170: 3163: 3162: 3161: 3160: 3153:Liberty Island 3149: 3147: 3143: 3142: 3140: 3139: 3137:Joachim Giæver 3134: 3129: 3123: 3121: 3117: 3116: 3107: 3105: 3103: 3102: 3096: 3090: 3084: 3083: 3082: 3074:Gustave Eiffel 3071: 3065: 3058: 3056: 3052: 3051: 3044: 3041: 3040: 3035: 3033: 3032: 3025: 3018: 3010: 3004: 3003: 2994: 2985: 2976: 2964: 2950:, ed. (1911). 2948:Chisholm, Hugh 2944: 2943: 2942: 2936: 2930: 2924: 2923:Palais – Puits 2918: 2912: 2906: 2900: 2894: 2888: 2872: 2852: 2838: 2837:External links 2835: 2834: 2833: 2816: 2813: 2812: 2811: 2805: 2790: 2784: 2771: 2765: 2750: 2747: 2745: 2744: 2718: 2692: 2676: 2661: 2652: 2646:978-0745650432 2645: 2623: 2614: 2602: 2587: 2572: 2552: 2539: 2527: 2525:, p. 336. 2515: 2513:, p. 328. 2503: 2491: 2489:, p. 120. 2479: 2461: 2438: 2423: 2421:, p. 302. 2411: 2394: 2392:, p. 262. 2382: 2370: 2368:, p. 190. 2355: 2343: 2341:, p. 158. 2331: 2318: 2306: 2304:, p. 138. 2294: 2292:, p. 114. 2282: 2252: 2240: 2223: 2211: 2196: 2184: 2180:British Museum 2168: 2156: 2135: 2118: 2103: 2071: 2065:978-0711233492 2064: 2046: 2030: 2028: 2025: 2024: 2023: 2016: 2013: 1987:William Burges 1967: 1964: 1925: 1922: 1914:Louis Sullivan 1890:Hector Guimard 1852:John Summerson 1824: 1821: 1820: 1819: 1813: 1807: 1797: 1777: 1771: 1761: 1710: 1707: 1706: 1705: 1699: 1692: 1690: 1684: 1677: 1675: 1669: 1662: 1660: 1653: 1646: 1644: 1637: 1630: 1628: 1622: 1615: 1611: 1608: 1607: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1589: 1586: 1585: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1563: 1557: 1554: 1551: 1548: 1543: 1540: 1539: 1538: 1532: 1526: 1520: 1515: 1509: 1504: 1497: 1496: 1492: 1491: 1486: 1480: 1479: 1475: 1474: 1464: 1459: 1450: 1446:Notre-Dame in 1444: 1438: 1432: 1422: 1416: 1412:St. Martin in 1410: 1400: 1399: 1394: 1391: 1390: 1389: 1378: 1371: 1369: 1362: 1355: 1353: 1346: 1339: 1337: 1330: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1311: 1307: 1304: 1242: 1239: 1219: 1216: 1202: 1199: 1185: 1182: 1138: 1135: 1109: 1106: 1070:Louis Sullivan 1041: 1038: 1029:Hotel de Ville 933: 930: 797: 796: 793: 786: 784: 777: 770: 768: 765: 758: 756: 749: 742: 740: 733: 726: 724: 717: 710: 706: 703: 681: 678: 677: 676: 673: 666: 664: 661: 654: 646:result of the 626: 625: 622: 615: 613: 610: 603: 601: 598: 591: 589: 586: 579: 577: 574: 567: 565: 562: 555: 553: 550: 543: 541: 538: 531: 529: 526: 519: 517: 514: 507: 503: 500: 475: 472: 424: 421: 405:Léon Gaucherel 377:Louis Philippe 313: 310: 306:Edward Poynter 302:Simeon Solomon 274:William Morris 263:William Burges 255:Louis Sullivan 251:Auguste Perret 231:Eugène Grasset 219:École de Nancy 207:Hector Guimard 142: 141: 133: 132: 128: 127: 121: 117: 116: 113: 109: 108: 105: 101: 100: 94: 92:(aged 65) 86: 82: 81: 78: 65: 63: 59: 58: 53:Photograph by 52: 44: 43: 40: 32:Violette Leduc 26: 24: 18:Viollet-le-Duc 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 3898: 3887: 3884: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3862: 3859: 3857: 3854: 3852: 3849: 3847: 3844: 3842: 3839: 3837: 3834: 3832: 3829: 3828: 3826: 3811: 3808: 3807: 3805: 3801: 3794: 3793: 3789: 3786: 3785: 3781: 3778: 3777: 3773: 3770: 3769: 3765: 3762: 3761: 3757: 3754: 3753: 3749: 3746: 3745: 3741: 3738: 3735:(1831 novel, 3734: 3733: 3729: 3726: 3725: 3721: 3718: 3717: 3713: 3712: 3710: 3704: 3698: 3697: 3693: 3691: 3688: 3686: 3685:Andrew Tallon 3683: 3681: 3678: 3676: 3673: 3671: 3668: 3666: 3663: 3661: 3658: 3656: 3653: 3652: 3650: 3646: 3640: 3637: 3634: 3630: 3627: 3625: 3622: 3620: 3617: 3615: 3612: 3611: 3609: 3605: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3589: 3586: 3585: 3583: 3579: 3573: 3570: 3568: 3565: 3563: 3560: 3557: 3554: 3551: 3548: 3545: 3542: 3540: 3537: 3535: 3532: 3530: 3527: 3526: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3511: 3507: 3500: 3495: 3493: 3488: 3486: 3481: 3480: 3477: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3457: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3443: 3440: 3439: 3438: 3435: 3433: 3432: 3428: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3418: 3417: 3415: 3411: 3405: 3402: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3390: 3387: 3385: 3382: 3380: 3377: 3375: 3372: 3369: 3368:Liberty Issue 3366: 3362: 3359: 3357: 3356: 3352: 3351: 3349: 3346: 3343: 3340: 3337: 3336: 3332: 3329: 3328: 3324: 3321: 3320: 3316: 3313: 3309: 3307: 3304: 3303: 3301: 3297: 3291: 3287: 3286: 3283: 3282: 3278: 3276: 3272: 3271: 3266: 3263: 3261: 3258: 3256: 3253: 3251: 3248: 3246: 3243: 3241: 3240:Austin, Texas 3238: 3237: 3236: 3233: 3231: 3227: 3226: 3224: 3222: 3218: 3211: 3207: 3206: 3202: 3199: 3196: 3192: 3191: 3189: 3183: 3177: 3173: 3172: 3169: 3165: 3164: 3159: 3156: 3155: 3154: 3151: 3150: 3148: 3144: 3138: 3135: 3133: 3130: 3128: 3125: 3124: 3122: 3118: 3111: 3100: 3097: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3085: 3081: 3078: 3077: 3075: 3072: 3069: 3066: 3063: 3060: 3059: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3048: 3042: 3038: 3031: 3026: 3024: 3019: 3017: 3012: 3011: 3008: 3002: 2998: 2995: 2993: 2989: 2986: 2984: 2980: 2977: 2974: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2960: 2954: 2949: 2945: 2940: 2937: 2934: 2931: 2928: 2925: 2922: 2919: 2916: 2913: 2910: 2907: 2904: 2901: 2898: 2895: 2892: 2889: 2886: 2883: 2882: 2880: 2876: 2873: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2857: 2853: 2850: 2846: 2845: 2841: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2829: 2825: 2822: 2819: 2818: 2814: 2808: 2802: 2798: 2797: 2791: 2787: 2785:2-226-10952-8 2781: 2777: 2772: 2768: 2762: 2758: 2753: 2752: 2748: 2733: 2729: 2722: 2719: 2706: 2702: 2696: 2693: 2689: 2683: 2681: 2677: 2672: 2665: 2662: 2656: 2653: 2648: 2642: 2637: 2636: 2627: 2624: 2618: 2615: 2611: 2606: 2603: 2598: 2591: 2588: 2583: 2576: 2573: 2569: 2565: 2564: 2556: 2553: 2549: 2543: 2540: 2536: 2535:Grodecki 1999 2531: 2528: 2524: 2519: 2516: 2512: 2507: 2504: 2500: 2495: 2492: 2488: 2483: 2480: 2476: 2470: 2468: 2466: 2462: 2449: 2442: 2439: 2435: 2430: 2428: 2424: 2420: 2415: 2412: 2408: 2403: 2401: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2383: 2379: 2374: 2371: 2367: 2362: 2360: 2356: 2352: 2347: 2344: 2340: 2335: 2332: 2328: 2322: 2319: 2316:, p. 58. 2315: 2310: 2307: 2303: 2298: 2295: 2291: 2286: 2283: 2279: 2278:2-204-02087-7 2275: 2271: 2265: 2263: 2261: 2259: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2244: 2241: 2238:, p. 96. 2237: 2232: 2230: 2228: 2224: 2221:, p. 82. 2220: 2215: 2212: 2209:, p. 76. 2208: 2203: 2201: 2197: 2194:, p. 68. 2193: 2188: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2172: 2169: 2166:, p. 61. 2165: 2160: 2157: 2152: 2148: 2142: 2140: 2136: 2133:, p. 12. 2132: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2114: 2107: 2104: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2086: 2078: 2076: 2072: 2067: 2061: 2057: 2050: 2047: 2042: 2035: 2032: 2026: 2022: 2019: 2018: 2014: 2012: 2010: 2009:Google Doodle 2005: 2003: 1998: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1984: 1977: 1972: 1965: 1963: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1923: 1921: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1906:Frank Furness 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1882: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1869: 1865: 1859: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1842: 1837: 1829: 1822: 1817: 1814: 1811: 1808: 1805: 1801: 1798: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1786: 1781: 1778: 1775: 1772: 1769: 1766:(1858–1870) ( 1765: 1762: 1756:) – Original 1755: 1754: 1750:(1854–1868) ( 1749: 1746: 1745: 1744: 1741: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1722: 1721: 1715: 1708: 1702: 1696: 1691: 1687: 1681: 1676: 1672: 1666: 1661: 1657: 1650: 1645: 1641: 1634: 1629: 1625: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1604: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1591: 1587: 1582: 1579: 1576: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1564: 1561: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1545: 1541: 1536: 1533: 1530: 1527: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1510: 1508: 1505: 1503:, in Bordeaux 1502: 1499: 1498: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1481: 1477: 1476: 1473:, Switzerland 1472: 1468: 1465: 1463: 1460: 1458: 1454: 1451: 1449: 1445: 1443: 1440:St. Louis in 1439: 1436: 1433: 1430: 1426: 1423: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1411: 1409: 1405: 1402: 1401: 1397: 1396: 1392: 1386: 1382: 1375: 1370: 1366: 1359: 1354: 1350: 1343: 1338: 1334: 1327: 1322: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1303: 1299: 1296: 1291: 1289: 1284: 1280: 1278: 1274: 1269: 1264: 1261: 1256: 1252: 1249: 1240: 1238: 1235: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1217: 1215: 1211: 1208: 1200: 1198: 1196: 1192: 1183: 1181: 1179: 1173: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1148: 1143: 1136: 1134: 1132: 1127: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1107: 1105: 1103: 1098: 1096: 1091: 1089: 1085: 1080: 1077: 1073: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1059: 1055: 1052:(1863–1872), 1051: 1048:(1854–1868), 1047: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1031:. The writer 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1009:Paris Commune 1005: 1003: 999: 993: 991: 987: 986:Paris Commune 982: 980: 976: 971: 966: 964: 960: 956: 951: 946: 944: 939: 931: 929: 927: 923: 922:Vercingétorix 919: 914: 912: 908: 904: 897: 895: 891: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 865: 863: 859: 855: 851: 845: 842: 838: 837:Louis XI 834: 830: 825: 823: 819: 815: 811: 806: 802: 790: 785: 781: 774: 769: 762: 757: 753: 746: 741: 737: 730: 725: 721: 714: 709: 704: 702: 700: 695: 692: 688: 679: 670: 665: 658: 653: 651: 649: 644: 638: 634: 631: 619: 614: 607: 602: 595: 590: 583: 578: 571: 566: 559: 554: 547: 542: 535: 530: 523: 518: 511: 506: 501: 499: 495: 493: 489: 485: 481: 473: 471: 467: 464: 460: 459:Vézelay Abbey 455: 453: 449: 445: 444:Hôtel Soubise 441: 433: 432:Vézelay Abbey 429: 422: 420: 418: 414: 408: 406: 401: 397: 389: 385: 381: 378: 374: 370: 365: 363: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 338: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 311: 309: 307: 303: 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 279: 275: 271: 266: 264: 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 240: 236: 232: 228: 224: 220: 216: 215:Henri Sauvage 212: 208: 204: 200: 196: 191: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 156: 148: 139: 134: 129: 125: 122: 118: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98:, Switzerland 97: 87: 83: 79:Paris, France 64: 60: 56: 50: 45: 38: 33: 19: 3790: 3782: 3779:(2005 novel) 3774: 3766: 3758: 3750: 3744:The Bohemian 3742: 3730: 3722: 3714: 3695: 3679: 3581:Architecture 3449:Ellis Island 3429: 3353: 3333: 3327:Miss Liberty 3325: 3317: 3279: 3126: 3064:, originator 3045: 2957: 2874: 2848: 2843: 2830: 2795: 2775: 2756: 2749:Bibliography 2735:. 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