972:
1015:). An aircraft flying at this speed is operating at its optimal aerodynamic efficiency. According to the above equations, the speed for minimum drag occurs at the speed where the induced drag is equal to the parasitic drag. This is the speed at which for unpowered aircraft, optimum glide angle is achieved. This is also the speed for greatest range (although V
1085:
The engine specific fuel consumption is normally expressed in units of fuel flow rate per unit of thrust or per unit of power depending on whether the engine output is measured in thrust, as for a jet engine, or shaft horsepower, as for a propeller engine. To convert fuel rate per unit thrust to fuel
1027:
since this gives 3-5% greater speed for only 1% less range. Flying higher where the air is thinner will raise the speed at which minimum drag occurs, and so permits a faster voyage for the same amount of fuel. If the plane is flying at the maximum permissible speed, then there is an altitude at which
494:
From this equation it is clear that the induced drag varies with the square of the lift; and inversely with the square of the equivalent airspeed; and inversely with the square of the wingspan. Deviation from the non-planar wing with elliptical lift distribution are taken into account by dividing the
214:
at a high angle of attack will generate an aerodynamic reaction force with a high drag component. By increasing the speed and reducing the angle of attack, the lift generated can be held constant while the drag component is reduced. At the optimum angle of attack, total drag is minimised. If speed is
1031:
The speed for maximum endurance (i.e. time in the air) is the speed for minimum fuel flow rate, and is always less than the speed for greatest range. The fuel flow rate is calculated as the product of the power required and the engine specific fuel consumption (fuel flow rate per unit of power). The
231:
The vortices reduce the wing's ability to generate lift, so that it requires a higher angle of attack for the same lift, which tilts the total aerodynamic force rearwards and increases the drag component of that force. The angular deflection is small and has little effect on the lift. However, there
227:
When producing lift, air below the wing is at a higher pressure than the air pressure above the wing. On a wing of finite span, this pressure difference causes air to flow from the lower surface, around the wingtip, towards the upper surface. This spanwise flow of air combines with chordwise flowing
202:
Lift is produced by the changing direction of the flow around a wing. The change of direction results in a change of velocity (even if there is no speed change), which is an acceleration. To change the direction of the flow therefore requires that a force be applied to the fluid; the total
1457:
Winglets, which are small, nearly vertical, winglike surfaces mounted at the tips of a wing, are intended to provide, for lifting conditions and subsonic Mach numbers, reductions in drag coefficient greater than those achieved by a simple wing-tip extension with the same structural weight
1523:
947:
the wing area is held constant, then induced drag will be inversely proportional to aspect ratio. However, since wingspan can be increased while decreasing aspect ratio, or vice versa, the apparent relationship between aspect ratio and induced drag does not always hold.
652:
175:" is the actual lift on the wing; it is perpendicular to the effective relative airflow in the vicinity of the wing. The lift generated by the wing has been tilted rearwards through an angle equal to the downwash angle in three-dimensional flow. The component of "L
1006:
Induced drag must be added to the parasitic drag to find the total drag. Since induced drag is inversely proportional to the square of the airspeed (at a given lift) whereas parasitic drag is proportional to the square of the airspeed, the combined overall
164:
146:
For a constant amount of lift, induced drag can be reduced by increasing airspeed. A counter-intuitive effect of this is that, up to the speed-for-minimum-drag, aircraft need less power to fly faster. Induced drag is also reduced when the
350:
232:
is an increase in the drag equal to the product of the lift force and the angle through which it is deflected. Since the deflection is itself a function of the lift, the additional drag is proportional to the square of the lift.
1019:
will decrease as the plane consumes fuel and becomes lighter). The speed for greatest range (i.e. distance travelled) is the speed at which a straight line from the origin is tangent to the fuel flow rate curve.
731:
998:
His experiments were carried out at relatively low airspeeds, slower than the speed for minimum drag. He observed that, at these low airspeeds, increasing speed required reducing power. (At higher airspeeds,
943:
wing will produce less induced drag than a wing of low aspect ratio. While induced drag is inversely proportional to the square of the wingspan, not necessarily inversely proportional to aspect ratio,
1028:
the air density will be sufficient to keep it aloft while flying at the angle of attack that minimizes the drag. The optimum altitude will increase during the flight as the plane becomes lighter.
785:
527:
1406:
With infinite span, fluid motion is 2-D and in the direction of flow perpendicular to the span. Infinite span can, for example, be simulated using a foil completely spanning a wind tunnel.
408:
895:
segment (or a 2D wing) would experience no induced drag. The drag characteristics of a wing with infinite span can be simulated using an airfoil segment the width of a
102:
438:
465:
228:
air, which twists the airflow and produces vortices along the wing trailing edge. Induced drag is the cause of the vortices; the vortices do not cause induced drag.
866:
141:
1376:
835:
812:
488:
378:
515:
187:
acting on a body is usually thought of as having two components, lift and drag. By definition, the component of force parallel to the oncoming flow is called
261:
171:
in the vicinity of the wing. The grey vertical line labeled "L" is the force required to counteract the weight of the aircraft. The red vector labeled "L
910:
to reduce the induced drag. Winglets also provide some benefit by increasing the vertical height of the wing system. Wingtip mounted fuel tanks and wing
906:
used curved trailing edges on their rectangular wings. Some early aircraft had fins mounted on the tips. More recent aircraft have wingtip-mounted
963:
is the largest component of total drag, at almost 48%. Reducing induced drag can therefore significantly reduce cost and environmental impact.
1689:
1655:
1613:
1357:
1265:
659:
987:
published the results of his experiments on various flat plates. At the same airspeed and the same angle of attack, plates with higher
1311:
887:
According to the equations above, for wings generating the same lift, the induced drag is inversely proportional to the square of the
1727:
1558:
1470:
1399:
1335:
1213:
1193:
925:
wing of a given span. A small number of aircraft have a planform approaching the elliptical — the most famous examples being the
879:. Similar methods can also be used to compute the minimum induced drag for non-planar wings or for arbitrary lift distributions.
1133:
1781:
521:
To compare with other sources of drag, it can be convenient to express this equation in terms of lift and drag coefficients:
647:{\displaystyle C_{D,i}={\frac {D_{\text{i}}}{{\frac {1}{2}}\rho _{0}V_{E}^{2}S}}={\frac {C_{L}^{2}}{\pi A\!\!{\text{R}}e}}}
742:
1791:
1421:
1766:
988:
959:
speed, induced drag is the second-largest component of total drag, accounting for approximately 37% of total drag.
204:
1111:
1464:
1051:
496:
841:
This indicates how, for a given wing area, high aspect ratio wings are beneficial to flight efficiency. With
1786:
1023:
The curve of range versus airspeed is normally very shallow and it is customary to operate at the speed for
1449:
A design approach and selected wind-tunnel results at high subsonic speeds for wing-tip mounted winglets
1447:
971:
1593:
1024:
956:
929:
902:
An increase in wingspan or a solution with a similar effect is one way to reduce induced drag. The
876:
788:
441:
1737:
1370:
960:
952:
922:
911:
385:
1585:
1723:
1685:
1651:
1619:
1609:
1554:
1546:
1395:
1353:
1331:
1307:
1261:
1209:
1189:
1041:
940:
184:
80:
415:
1601:
1066:
933:
449:
236:
50:
1760:
844:
1715:
1181:
918:
903:
869:
196:
1364:
For a two-dimensional wing at low Mach numbers, the drag contains no induced or wave drag
819:
796:
472:
362:
113:
1597:
1745:
Invariant
Formulation for the Minimum Induced Drag Conditions of Nonplanar Wing Systems
1237:
1056:
1046:
1000:
984:
976:
907:
500:
345:{\displaystyle D_{\text{i}}={\frac {L^{2}}{{\frac {1}{2}}\rho _{0}V_{E}^{2}\pi b^{2}}}}
152:
1775:
1280:
1392:
Marine rudders and control surfaces : principles, data, design and applications
1003:
came to dominate, causing the power required to increase with increasing airspeed.)
163:
1647:
Taking Flight: Inventing the Aerial Age, from
Antiquity Through the First World War
1501:
992:
926:
216:
66:
62:
46:
1679:
1645:
936:. For modern wings with winglets, the ideal lift distribution is not elliptical.
1605:
896:
211:
1681:
The Bird Is on the Wing: Aerodynamics and the
Progress of the American Airplane
1008:
1623:
1061:
74:
27:
Type of aerodynamic resistance against the motion of a wing or other airfoil
1491:
by Daniel O. Dommasch, Sydney S. Sherby, Thomas F. Connolly, 3rd ed. (1961)
1208:, Figure 3.29, Ninth edition. Longman Scientific & Technical, England.
17:
1743:
Luciano Demasi, Antonio Dipace, Giovanni
Monegato, and Rauno Cavallaro.
888:
168:
148:
1394:(1st ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 41.
1245:. 2005 Boeing Performance and Flight Operations Engineering Conference.
892:
235:
The vortices created are unstable, and they quickly combine to produce
215:
increased beyond this, total drag will increase again due to increased
70:
54:
1748:
1390:
Molland, Anthony F. (2007). "Physics of control surface operation".
726:{\displaystyle C_{L}={\frac {L}{{\frac {1}{2}}\rho _{0}V_{E}^{2}S}}}
1260:(Sixth ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. p. 20.
868:
being a function of angle of attack, induced drag increases as the
1531:
970:
162:
191:; and the component perpendicular to the oncoming flow is called
1416:
1414:
58:
1684:. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. p. 23.
995:
and experienced lower drag than those with lower aspect ratio.
179:" parallel to the free stream is the induced drag on the wing.
1547:"Control of Turbulent Flows for Skin Friction Drag Reduction"
1747:, AIAA Journal, Vol. 52, No. 10 (2014), pp. 2223–2240.
1297:
1295:
1293:
1011:
shows a minimum at some airspeed - the minimum drag speed (V
1134:"Why Aspect Ratio doesn't Matter – Understanding Aerospace"
467:
is the ratio of circumference to diameter of a circle, and
1304:
251:
wing with an elliptical lift distribution, induced drag D
57:
coming at it. This drag force occurs in airplanes due to
53:
force that occurs whenever a moving object redirects the
1545:
Coustols, Eric (1996). Meier, GEA; Schnerr, GH (eds.).
116:
83:
1032:
power required is equal to the drag times the speed.
847:
822:
799:
745:
662:
530:
503:
475:
452:
418:
388:
365:
264:
1732:
Abbott, Ira H., and Von
Doenhoff, Albert E. (1959),
780:{\displaystyle A\!\!{\text{R}}={\frac {b^{2}}{S}}\,}
167:
Induced drag is related to the angle of the induced
1762:Doug McLean, Common Misconceptions in Aerodynamics
1455:(Technical report). NASA. 19760019075. p. 1:
860:
829:
806:
779:
725:
646:
509:
482:
459:
432:
402:
372:
344:
135:
96:
1112:"Bjorn's Corner: Aircraft drag reduction, Part 3"
1086:rate per unit power one must divide by the speed.
750:
749:
632:
631:
1551:Control of Flow Instabilities and Unsteady Flows
1239:Wingtip Devices: What They Do and How They Do It
1528:Special Course on Skin Friction Drag Reduction
1650:. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 147.
8:
1522:Robert, JP (March 1992). Cousteix, J (ed.).
1485:The Elements of Aerofoil and Airscrew Theory
919:the elliptical spanwise distribution of lift
410:is the standard density of air at sea level,
1586:"Drag Reduction: A Major Task for Research"
1352:(Sixth ed.). Waltham, MA. p. 61.
1375:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1524:"Drag reduction: an industrial challenge"
1127:
1125:
852:
846:
826:
821:
803:
798:
776:
765:
759:
751:
744:
711:
706:
696:
682:
676:
667:
661:
633:
618:
613:
607:
592:
587:
577:
563:
556:
550:
535:
529:
502:
479:
474:
456:
451:
429:
423:
417:
399:
393:
387:
369:
364:
333:
320:
315:
305:
291:
284:
278:
269:
263:
121:
115:
88:
82:
1579:
1577:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1167:
921:produces the minimum induced drag for a
875:The above equation can be derived using
1590:Aerodynamic Drag Reduction Technologies
1105:
1103:
1099:
1078:
967:Combined effect with other drag sources
1722:, Pitman Publishing Limited, London.
1462:
1368:
891:. A wing of infinite span and uniform
1350:Aerodynamics for engineering students
1188:. Pitman Publishing Limited, London.
7:
199:the lift greatly exceeds the drag.
73:wings that redirect air to cause a
1740:, Standard Book Number 486-60586-8
1487:(1926); referenced in Fig. 5.4 of
25:
1446:Richard T. Whitcomb (July 1976).
207:of the fluid acting on the wing.
1161:, Figure 1.30, NAVWEPS 00-80T-80
1132:Illsley, Michael (4 July 2017).
239:which trail behind the wingtip.
203:aerodynamic force is simply the
1644:Hallion, Richard (8 May 2003).
1348:Houghton, E. L. (2012). "1.6".
1283:, and Von Doenhoff, Albert E.,
1159:Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators
914:may also provide some benefit.
1256:Anderson, John D. Jr. (2017).
939:For a given wing area, a high
837:is the span efficiency factor.
255:can be calculated as follows:
1:
1469:: CS1 maint: date and year (
1287:, Section 1.2 and Appendix IV
877:Prandtl's lifting-line theory
151:is higher, or for wings with
107:lift-induced drag coefficient
1592:. Springer. pp. 17–27.
1258:Fundamentals of aerodynamics
1606:10.1007/978-3-540-45359-8_3
1110:Bjorn Fehrm (Nov 3, 2017).
403:{\displaystyle \rho _{0}\,}
243:Calculation of induced drag
1808:
1422:"Induced Drag Coefficient"
1326:Anderson, John D. (2005),
951:For a typical twin-engine
1678:Hansen, James R. (2004).
1588:. In Peter Thiede (ed.).
814:is a reference wing area,
495:induced drag by the span
97:{\textstyle D_{\text{i}}}
65:redirecting air to cause
1502:"Skybrary: Induced Drag"
1052:Oswald efficiency number
1734:Theory of Wing Sections
1285:Theory of Wing Sections
1138:Understanding Aerospace
433:{\displaystyle V_{E}\,}
1749:doi: 10.2514/1.J052837
1328:Introduction to Flight
1204:Kermode, A.C. (1972).
980:
862:
831:
808:
781:
727:
648:
511:
484:
461:
460:{\displaystyle \pi \,}
434:
404:
374:
346:
180:
137:
98:
77:. It is symbolized as
69:and also in cars with
1782:Aircraft aerodynamics
1584:Marec, J.-P. (2001).
1489:Airplane Aerodynamics
1302:McLean, Doug (2012).
1236:McLean, Doug (2005).
974:
883:Reducing induced drag
863:
861:{\displaystyle C_{L}}
832:
809:
782:
728:
649:
512:
485:
462:
435:
405:
375:
347:
166:
138:
99:
1530:. AGARD Report 786.
845:
820:
797:
743:
660:
528:
501:
473:
450:
416:
386:
363:
262:
136:{\textstyle C_{D,i}}
114:
81:
1598:2001adrt.conf...17M
1206:Mechanics of Flight
1157:Hurt, H. H. (1965)
830:{\displaystyle e\,}
807:{\displaystyle S\,}
716:
623:
597:
483:{\displaystyle b\,}
442:equivalent airspeed
373:{\displaystyle L\,}
325:
1792:Gliding technology
1738:Dover Publications
981:
961:Skin friction drag
953:wide-body aircraft
858:
827:
804:
777:
723:
702:
644:
609:
583:
507:
497:efficiency factor
480:
457:
430:
400:
370:
342:
311:
181:
133:
94:
1691:978-1-58544-243-0
1657:978-0-19-516035-2
1615:978-3-642-07541-4
1359:978-0-08-096632-8
1267:978-1-259-12991-9
1042:Aerodynamic force
991:produced greater
979:plus induced drag
774:
754:
721:
690:
642:
636:
602:
571:
559:
510:{\displaystyle e}
340:
299:
272:
185:aerodynamic force
91:
43:drag due to lift,
31:Lift-induced drag
16:(Redirected from
1799:
1763:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1675:
1669:
1668:
1666:
1664:
1641:
1635:
1634:
1632:
1630:
1581:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1567:
1542:
1536:
1535:
1519:
1513:
1512:
1510:
1508:
1498:
1492:
1481:
1475:
1474:
1468:
1465:cite tech report
1460:
1454:
1443:
1437:
1436:
1434:
1432:
1426:www.grc.nasa.gov
1418:
1409:
1408:
1387:
1381:
1380:
1374:
1366:
1345:
1339:
1324:
1318:
1317:
1299:
1288:
1278:
1272:
1271:
1253:
1247:
1246:
1244:
1233:
1216:
1202:
1196:
1179:
1162:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1129:
1120:
1119:
1107:
1087:
1083:
1067:Wingtip vortices
867:
865:
864:
859:
857:
856:
836:
834:
833:
828:
813:
811:
810:
805:
786:
784:
783:
778:
775:
770:
769:
760:
755:
752:
732:
730:
729:
724:
722:
720:
715:
710:
701:
700:
691:
683:
677:
672:
671:
653:
651:
650:
645:
643:
641:
637:
634:
622:
617:
608:
603:
601:
596:
591:
582:
581:
572:
564:
561:
560:
557:
551:
546:
545:
516:
514:
513:
508:
490:is the wingspan.
489:
487:
486:
481:
466:
464:
463:
458:
439:
437:
436:
431:
428:
427:
409:
407:
406:
401:
398:
397:
379:
377:
376:
371:
351:
349:
348:
343:
341:
339:
338:
337:
324:
319:
310:
309:
300:
292:
289:
288:
279:
274:
273:
270:
237:wingtip vortices
197:angles of attack
142:
140:
139:
134:
132:
131:
103:
101:
100:
95:
93:
92:
89:
51:aerodynamic drag
21:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1797:
1796:
1772:
1771:
1761:
1757:
1712:
1707:
1706:
1696:
1694:
1692:
1677:
1676:
1672:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1643:
1642:
1638:
1628:
1626:
1616:
1583:
1582:
1575:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1544:
1543:
1539:
1521:
1520:
1516:
1506:
1504:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1482:
1478:
1461:
1452:
1445:
1444:
1440:
1430:
1428:
1420:
1419:
1412:
1402:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1367:
1360:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1330:, McGraw-Hill.
1325:
1321:
1314:
1301:
1300:
1291:
1279:
1275:
1268:
1255:
1254:
1250:
1242:
1235:
1234:
1219:
1203:
1199:
1180:
1165:
1156:
1152:
1142:
1140:
1131:
1130:
1123:
1109:
1108:
1101:
1096:
1091:
1090:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1038:
1018:
1014:
969:
904:Wright brothers
885:
870:angle of attack
848:
843:
842:
818:
817:
795:
794:
761:
741:
740:
692:
681:
663:
658:
657:
624:
573:
562:
552:
531:
526:
525:
499:
498:
471:
470:
448:
447:
419:
414:
413:
389:
384:
383:
361:
360:
329:
301:
290:
280:
265:
260:
259:
254:
245:
225:
210:An aircraft in
195:. At practical
178:
174:
161:
153:wingtip devices
117:
112:
111:
84:
79:
78:
41:, or sometimes
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1805:
1803:
1795:
1794:
1789:
1787:Drag (physics)
1784:
1774:
1773:
1770:
1769:
1756:
1755:External links
1753:
1752:
1751:
1741:
1730:
1711:
1708:
1705:
1704:
1690:
1670:
1656:
1636:
1614:
1573:
1559:
1537:
1514:
1493:
1476:
1438:
1410:
1400:
1382:
1358:
1340:
1319:
1313:978-1119967514
1312:
1289:
1281:Abbott, Ira H.
1273:
1266:
1248:
1217:
1197:
1163:
1150:
1121:
1098:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1088:
1077:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1070:
1069:
1064:
1059:
1057:Parasitic drag
1054:
1049:
1044:
1037:
1034:
1025:99% best range
1016:
1012:
1001:parasitic drag
985:Samuel Langley
977:parasitic drag
975:Total drag is
968:
965:
884:
881:
855:
851:
839:
838:
825:
815:
802:
792:
773:
768:
764:
758:
748:
734:
733:
719:
714:
709:
705:
699:
695:
689:
686:
680:
675:
670:
666:
655:
640:
630:
627:
621:
616:
612:
606:
600:
595:
590:
586:
580:
576:
570:
567:
555:
549:
544:
541:
538:
534:
506:
492:
491:
478:
468:
455:
445:
426:
422:
411:
396:
392:
381:
368:
354:
353:
336:
332:
328:
323:
318:
314:
308:
304:
298:
295:
287:
283:
277:
268:
252:
244:
241:
224:
221:
205:reaction force
176:
172:
160:
157:
130:
127:
124:
120:
87:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1804:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1779:
1777:
1768:
1764:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1729:
1728:0-273-01120-0
1725:
1721:
1717:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1693:
1687:
1683:
1682:
1674:
1671:
1659:
1653:
1649:
1648:
1640:
1637:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1562:
1560:9783709126882
1556:
1552:
1548:
1541:
1538:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1518:
1515:
1503:
1497:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1480:
1477:
1472:
1466:
1459:
1451:
1450:
1442:
1439:
1427:
1423:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1401:9780750669443
1397:
1393:
1386:
1383:
1378:
1372:
1365:
1361:
1355:
1351:
1344:
1341:
1337:
1336:0-07-123818-2
1333:
1329:
1323:
1320:
1315:
1309:
1305:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1274:
1269:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1249:
1241:
1240:
1232:
1230:
1228:
1226:
1224:
1222:
1218:
1215:
1214:0-582-42254-X
1211:
1207:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1194:0-273-01120-0
1191:
1187:
1183:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1154:
1151:
1139:
1135:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1106:
1104:
1100:
1093:
1082:
1079:
1072:
1068:
1065:
1063:
1060:
1058:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1026:
1021:
1010:
1004:
1002:
996:
994:
990:
986:
978:
973:
966:
964:
962:
958:
954:
949:
946:
942:
937:
935:
931:
928:
924:
920:
915:
913:
909:
905:
900:
898:
894:
890:
882:
880:
878:
873:
871:
853:
849:
823:
816:
800:
793:
790:
771:
766:
762:
756:
746:
739:
738:
737:
717:
712:
707:
703:
697:
693:
687:
684:
678:
673:
668:
664:
656:
638:
628:
625:
619:
614:
610:
604:
598:
593:
588:
584:
578:
574:
568:
565:
553:
547:
542:
539:
536:
532:
524:
523:
522:
519:
517:
504:
476:
469:
453:
446:
443:
424:
420:
412:
394:
390:
382:
366:
359:
358:
357:
334:
330:
326:
321:
316:
312:
306:
302:
296:
293:
285:
281:
275:
266:
258:
257:
256:
250:
242:
240:
238:
233:
229:
222:
220:
218:
213:
208:
206:
200:
198:
194:
190:
186:
170:
165:
158:
156:
154:
150:
144:
128:
125:
122:
118:
109:
108:
85:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
1744:
1733:
1720:Aerodynamics
1719:
1716:L. J. Clancy
1710:Bibliography
1695:. Retrieved
1680:
1673:
1661:. Retrieved
1646:
1639:
1627:. Retrieved
1589:
1564:. Retrieved
1550:
1540:
1527:
1517:
1505:. Retrieved
1496:
1488:
1484:
1483:Glauert, H.
1479:
1456:
1448:
1441:
1429:. Retrieved
1425:
1405:
1391:
1385:
1363:
1349:
1343:
1327:
1322:
1303:
1284:
1276:
1257:
1251:
1238:
1205:
1200:
1186:Aerodynamics
1185:
1182:Clancy, L.J.
1158:
1153:
1141:. Retrieved
1137:
1115:
1081:
1030:
1022:
1005:
997:
989:aspect ratio
982:
950:
944:
941:aspect ratio
938:
927:World War II
916:
901:
886:
874:
840:
789:aspect ratio
735:
520:
493:
380:is the lift,
355:
248:
246:
234:
230:
226:
217:profile drag
209:
201:
192:
188:
182:
145:
106:
105:
63:lifting body
47:aerodynamics
42:
38:
35:induced drag
34:
30:
29:
934:Thunderbolt
917:Typically,
897:wind tunnel
872:increases.
212:slow flight
159:Explanation
39:vortex drag
18:Vortex drag
1776:Categories
1431:9 February
1094:References
1009:drag curve
183:The total
104:, and the
1624:0179-9614
1371:cite book
1062:Wave drag
983:In 1891,
694:ρ
654:, where
626:π
575:ρ
454:π
391:ρ
327:π
303:ρ
75:downforce
1718:(1975),
1697:13 April
1663:13 April
1629:22 March
1566:24 March
1458:penalty.
1143:25 March
1036:See also
930:Spitfire
908:winglets
889:wingspan
223:Vortices
169:downwash
149:wingspan
49:, is an
1767:YouTube
1594:Bibcode
1553:: 156.
1534:: 2-13.
1184:(1975)
912:washout
893:airfoil
787:is the
440:is the
71:airfoil
55:airflow
1726:
1688:
1654:
1622:
1612:
1557:
1398:
1356:
1338:. p318
1334:
1310:
1264:
1212:
1192:
1116:Leeham
957:cruise
923:planar
356:where
249:planar
247:For a
1532:AGARD
1507:5 May
1453:(PDF)
1243:(PDF)
1073:Notes
61:or a
59:wings
1724:ISBN
1699:2022
1686:ISBN
1665:2022
1652:ISBN
1631:2022
1620:ISSN
1610:ISBN
1568:2022
1555:ISBN
1509:2015
1471:link
1433:2023
1396:ISBN
1377:link
1354:ISBN
1332:ISBN
1308:ISBN
1262:ISBN
1210:ISBN
1190:ISBN
1145:2022
1047:Drag
993:lift
932:and
736:and
193:lift
189:drag
67:lift
1765:on
1602:doi
955:at
177:eff
173:eff
110:as
45:in
1778::
1736:,
1618:.
1608:.
1600:.
1576:^
1549:.
1526:.
1467:}}
1463:{{
1424:.
1413:^
1404:.
1373:}}
1369:{{
1362:.
1306:.
1292:^
1220:^
1166:^
1136:.
1124:^
1114:.
1102:^
1017:MD
1013:MD
945:if
899:.
518:.
219:.
155:.
143:.
37:,
33:,
1701:.
1667:.
1633:.
1604::
1596::
1570:.
1511:.
1473:)
1435:.
1379:)
1316:.
1270:.
1147:.
1118:.
854:L
850:C
824:e
801:S
791:,
772:S
767:2
763:b
757:=
753:R
747:A
718:S
713:2
708:E
704:V
698:0
688:2
685:1
679:L
674:=
669:L
665:C
639:e
635:R
629:A
620:2
615:L
611:C
605:=
599:S
594:2
589:E
585:V
579:0
569:2
566:1
558:i
554:D
548:=
543:i
540:,
537:D
533:C
505:e
477:b
444:,
425:E
421:V
395:0
367:L
352:,
335:2
331:b
322:2
317:E
313:V
307:0
297:2
294:1
286:2
282:L
276:=
271:i
267:D
253:i
129:i
126:,
123:D
119:C
90:i
86:D
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
