Voter turnout - Knowledge (XXG)

47: 696:. It tends to be lower in North America, Asia and Latin America than in most of Europe and Oceania. Based on all parliamentary elections between 1945 and 1997, Western Europe averages a 77% turnout, and South and Central America around 54%. The differences between nations tend to be greater than those between classes, ethnic groups, or regions within nations. Confusingly, some of the factors that cause internal differences do not seem to apply on a global level. For instance, nations with better-educated populaces do not have higher turnouts. There are two main commonly cited causes of these international differences: culture and institutions. However, there is much debate over the relative impact of the various factors. 984:. They listed five major forms of gratification that people receive for voting: complying with the social obligation to vote; affirming one's allegiance to the political system; affirming a partisan preference (also known as expressive voting, or voting for a candidate to express support, not to achieve any outcome); affirming one's importance to the political system; and, for those who find politics interesting and entertaining, researching and making a decision. Other political scientists have since added other motivators and questioned some of Riker and Ordeshook's assumptions. All of these concepts are inherently imprecise, making it difficult to discover exactly why people choose to vote. 625:(depending on state law) constituted about 2% of the voting-age population. By 2004, ineligible voters constituted nearly 10%. Ineligible voters are not evenly distributed across the country – 20% of California's voting-age population is ineligible to vote – which confounds comparisons of states. Furthermore, they argue that an examination of the Census Bureau's Current Population Survey shows that turnout is low but not declining among the youth, when the high youth turnout of 1972 (the first year 18- to 20-year-olds were eligible to vote in most states) is removed from the trendline. 825:

relatively unique among democracies. The Brennan Center for Justice reported that in 2016 fourteen states passed restrictive voting laws. Examples of these laws are photo ID mandates, narrow times for early voter, and limitations on voter registration. Barbour and Wright also believe that one of the causes is restrictive voting laws but they call this system of laws regulating the electorate. The Constitution gives states the power to make decisions regarding restrictive voting laws. In 2008 the Supreme Court made a crucial decision regarding Indiana's

685: 1058:. In the past, these factors unquestionably influenced turnout in many nations, but nowadays the consensus among political scientists is that these factors have little effect in Western democracies when education and income differences are taken into account. A 2018 study found that while education did not increase turnout on average, it did raise turnout among individuals from low socioeconomic status households. Public-sector employees have higher voter turnout than private-sector employees. 773:

media increase political engagement over time. Social media is not always used effectively and may sometimes have a negative impact on the results of the election. Barack Obama utilized Facebook to his benefit during his first run for presidency and truly jumpstarted the use of social media in political campaigns. We recently saw the utilization of social media and perhaps the negative impacts social media has on campaigns in the recent 2020 election.

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services. It also serves as the electoral register. In order to avoid duplications and to gather statistics on demography, the Padrón is supervised by a national government agency, the Instituto National de Estatística (INE). La Oficina Electoral del Censo is the bureau, as part of the INE, responsible for compiling the electoral roll. Every Spanish citizen or EU resident, older than 18 years, is automatically included in the voter register.

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usually midweek during the spring or autumn to maximize turnout. Variations in turnout between elections tend to be insignificant. It is extremely rare for factors such as competitiveness, weather, and time of year to cause an increase or decrease in turnout of more than five percentage points, far smaller than the differences between groups within society, and far smaller than turnout differentials between nations.

1121:, voters rationally estimate the costs and benefits of participating in an election. Benefits exceed the costs if a close outcome of the election is expected and voters believe their ballot may be decisive for the outcome. Additionally, in these elections parties increase their mobilization efforts. Although the logic of instrumental voting applies to all elections, the effects are more prominent in democracies and 1273:

decreases turnout on average, it does not do so in competitive elections." Some research has also investigated the effect of temperature on turnout, with some finding increased temperatures to moderately increase turnout. Some other studies, however, found temperature to have no significant impact on turnout. These variations in turnout can also have partisan impacts; a 2017 study in the journal

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also declined. Some argue that technological developments in society such as "automobilization," suburban living, and "an explosive proliferation of home entertainment devices" have contributed to a loss of community, which in turn has weakened participation in civic life. At the same time, some forms of participation have increased. People have become far more likely to participate in

1147:, the turnout in the election was close to 60%, resulting in a record number of popular votes for both candidates (around 62 million for Bush and 59 million for Kerry). However, this race also demonstrates the influence that contentious social issues can have on voter turnout; for example, the voter turnout rate in 1860 wherein anti- 339:. Compared to countries with plurality electoral systems, voter turnout improves and the population is more involved in the political process in ~70% of cases. The exceptions to the rule can include cases where a plurality system has an unusually high number of competitive districts, for example, before it transitions to a proportional one. 217:, all citizens and residents are included in the official population register, which is simultaneously a tax list, voter registration, and membership in the universal health system. Residents are required by law to report any change of address to the register within a short time after moving. This is also the system in 547: 1237:

found that internet voting in local elections in Ontario, Canada, only had a modest impact on turnout, increasing turnout by 3.5 percentage points. The authors of the study say that the results "suggest that internet voting is unlikely to solve the low turnout crisis, and imply that cost arguments do

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Various measures have been proposed to attempt to increase voter turnout. One of these is to make election days national holidays in order to give potential voters more time and freedom to vote. This has been implemented in multiple democracies of which have higher voter turnouts than the U.S., which

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has increased over the last few decades, bringing barriers to voting in a district where one is a recent arrival, including knowing little about the local candidates and issues. It has been argued that democratic consolidation (the stabilization of new democracies) contributes to the decline in voter

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In the United States, it has been common to report turnout as the sum of votes for the top race on the ballot, because not all jurisdictions report the actual number of people who went to the polls nor the number of undervotes or overvotes. Overvote rates of around 0.3 percent are typical of well-run

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There are philosophical, moral, and practical reasons that some people cite for not voting in electoral politics, typically owing to obstacles to voting, though some of the practical reasons for abstention have more to do with rare, difficult to predict situations arising from flaws in the design of

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parties, which try to appeal to all the voters, to choose from. A four-wave panel study conducted during the 2010 Swedish national election campaign, show (1) clear differences in media use between age groups and (2) that both political social media use and attention to political news in traditional

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The season and the day of the week (although many nations hold all their elections on the same weekday) can also affect turnout. Weekend and summer elections find more of the population on holiday or uninterested in politics, and have lower turnouts. When nations set fixed election dates, these are

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Google extensively studied the causes behind low voter turnout in the United States, and argues that one of the key reasons behind lack of voter participation is the so-called "interested bystander". According to Google's study, 48.9% of adult Americans can be classified as "interested bystanders",

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Rosenstone and Hansen contend that there is a decline in turnout in the United States and that it is the product of a change in campaigning strategies as a result of the so-called new media. Before the introduction of television, almost all of a party's resources would be directed towards intensive

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Differing methods of measuring voter turnout can contribute to reported differences between nations. There are difficulties in measuring both the numerator, the number of voters who cast votes, and the denominator, the number of voters eligible to vote. In Sweden, validated individual-level turnout

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can reduce turnout, though this effect is generally rather small, with most studies finding each millimeter of rainfall to reduce turnout by 0.015 to 0.1 percentage points. At least two studies, however, found no evidence that weather disruptions reduce turnout. A 2011 study found "that while rain

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in saying that it does not violate the constitution. Since then almost half of the states have passed restrictive voting laws. These laws contribute to Barbour and Wrights idea of the rational nonvoter. This is someone who does not vote because the benefits of them not voting outweighs the cost to

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in elections. Countries that use proportional representation systems have higher turnouts when compared to those that do not. The reasoning that has been given for this is that voters feel they "are given a more meaningful choice at the ballot box" and that a proportional electoral system leads to

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Other forms of political participation have declined, such as voluntary participation in political parties and the attendance of observers at town meetings. Meanwhile, church attendance, membership in professional, fraternal, and student societies, youth groups, and parent-teacher associations has

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For the numerator, it is often assumed that the number of voters who went to the polls should equal the number of ballots cast, which in turn should equal the number of votes counted, but this is not the case. Not all voters who arrive at the polls necessarily cast ballots. Some may be turned away

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and improved access to polls, such as increasing the number of possible voting locations, lowering the average time voters wait in line, or requiring companies to give workers some time off on voting day. A 2017 study found that turnout among older voters increases the earlier polling places open,

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efforts and mass-marketing can have important effects on turnout. Partisanship is an important impetus to turnout, with the highly partisan more likely to vote. Turnout tends to be higher in nations where political allegiance is closely linked to class, ethnic, linguistic, or religious loyalties.

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If there are many elections in close succession, voter turnout tends to decrease as the public tires of participating. In low-turnout Switzerland, the average voter is invited to go to the polls an average of seven times a year; the United States has frequent elections, with two votes per year on

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Institutional factors drive the vast majority of differences in turnout rates. For example, simpler parliamentary democracies where voters get shorter ballots, fewer elections, and a multi-party system that makes accountability easier see much higher turnout than the systems of the United States,

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candidate Abraham Lincoln won the election was the second-highest on record (81.2 percent, second only to 1876, with 81.8 percent). Nonetheless, there is evidence to support the argument that predictable election results—where one vote is not seen to be able to make a difference—have

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is likely greater than zero, this term has no effect on voter turnout. Enos and Fowler (2014) conducted a field experiment that exploits the rare opportunity of a tied election for major political office. Informing citizens that the special election to break the tie will be close (meaning a high

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Demographics also have an effect. Older people tend to vote more than youths, so societies where the average age is somewhat higher, such as Europe; have higher turnouts than somewhat younger countries such as the United States. Populations that are more mobile and those that have lower marriage

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Many causes have been proposed for what some see as a decline in voter participation though all offered in this section are heavily disputed. When asked why they do not vote, many people report that they have too little free time. However, over the last several decades, studies have consistently

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In the United States, for example, there is no accurate registry of exactly who is eligible to vote, since only about 70–75% of people choose to register themselves. Thus, turnout has to be calculated based on population estimates. Some political scientists have argued that these measures do not

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has also a similar system called "Padrón Municipal de Habitantes", held by municipalities. Persons register themselves in the Padrón as local residents (every resident in Spain must be registered in any municipality). The Padrón is used for providing most local, regional, and national government

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and smear campaigns give voters a negative impression of the entire political process. The evidence for this is mixed: elections involving highly unpopular incumbents generally have high turnout; some studies have found that mudslinging and character attacks reduce turnout, but that substantive

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shows some correlation between higher standards of living and higher turnout. The age of a democracy is also an important factor. Elections require considerable involvement by the population, and it takes some time to develop the cultural habit of voting, and the associated understanding of and

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Voter registration has been found to be a barrier to democratic participation. Therefore, another measure cited to boost election turnout is to have automatic voter registration, a measure that has been implemented in various democracies around the world. studies have shown that increased voter

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A 2018 study found that "young people who pledge to vote are more likely to turn out than those who are contacted using standard Get-Out-the-Vote materials. Overall, pledging to vote increased voter turnout by 3.7 points among all subjects and 5.6 points for people who had never voted before."

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A 2017 experimental study found that by sending registered voters between the ages of 18 and 30 a voter guide containing salient information about candidates in an upcoming election (a list of candidate endorsements and the candidates' policy positions on five issues in the campaign) increased

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Structural differences between democracies, including the complexity of the system and ease of voting are more often used to explain differences in turnout between nations, with United States voters in particular suffering from a complicated maze of federalism and separation of powers that is

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However, since different ethnic groups typically have different levels of education and income, there are important differences in turnout between such groups in many societies. Other demographic factors have an important influence: young people are far less likely to vote than the elderly.

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Turnout differences appear to persist over time; in fact, the strongest predictor of individual turnout is whether or not one voted in the previous election. As a result, many scholars think of turnout as habitual behavior that can be learned or unlearned, especially among young adults.

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Recently, several scholars have considered the possibility that B includes not only a personal interest in the outcome, but also a concern for the welfare of others in the society (or at least other members of one's favorite group or party). In particular, experiments in which subject

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confidence in the electoral process. This factor may explain the lower turnouts in the newer democracies of Eastern Europe and Latin America. Much of the impetus to vote comes from a sense of civic duty, which takes time and certain social conditions that can take decades to develop:

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found that Swiss cantons that reduced the costs of postal voting for voters by prepaying the postage on return envelopes (which otherwise cost 85 Swiss Franc cents) were "associated with a statistically significant 1.8 percentage point increase in voter turnout". A 2016 study in the

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This measurement captures all who are registered to vote. This has the advantage of being easy to measure and readily accessible, though overlooks those who are unwilling or unable to register due to barriers such as a complex registration or re-registration process.

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In New Zealand, registration is supposed to be universal. This does not eliminate uncertainty in the eligible population because this system has been shown to be unreliable, with a large number of eligible but unregistered citizens creating inflated turnout figures.

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A 2018 PlosOne study found that a "partisan who is married to a co-partisan is more likely to vote. This phenomenon is especially pronounced for partisans in closed primaries, elections in which non-partisan registered spouses are ineligible to participate."

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This measures all the voters allowed to vote under current law, which in some places includes people who have not registered or re-registered to vote. This is more difficult to measure as more categories of people are disenfranchised and can include

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as they are politically informed but are reticent to involve themselves in the civic and political sphere. This category is not limited to any socioeconomic or demographic groups. Google theorizes that individuals in this category suffer from

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Some parts of society are more likely to vote than others. As turnout approaches 90%, significant differences between voters and nonvoters lessen, but in lower turnout elections the differences between voters and nonvoters can be dramatic.

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Kristoffer Holt; Adam Shehata; Jesper Strömbäck; Elisabet Ljungberg (1 February 2013). "Age and the effects of news media attention and social media use on political interest and participation: Do social media function as leveller?".

303:. Individual votes for the federal legislature are thus less likely to have a significant effect on the complex web of systems, which probably explains some of the low average turnouts in that more complicated democracy. By contrast 617:, Michael McDonald and Samuel Popkin argued, that at least in the United States, voter turnout since 1972 has not actually declined when calculated for those eligible to vote, what they term the voting-eligible population. In 1972, 1191:

found that, in the United States, incarceration had no significant impact on turnout in elections: ex-felons did not become less likely to vote after their time in prison. Also in the United States, incarceration, probation, and a

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because they are ineligible, some may be turned away improperly, and some who sign the voting register may not actually cast ballots. Furthermore, voters who do cast ballots may abstain, deliberately voting for nobody, or they may

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found that a single postcard by election officials to unregistered eligible voters boosted registration rates by a percentage point and turnout by 0.9 percentage points, with the strongest effects on young, first-time voters.

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has not decreased, even if the perception of less leisure time results in less participation. While wages and employment decrease voter turnout in gubernatorial elections, they appear to not affect national races.

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Gerber, Alan S.; Huber, Gregory A.; Fang, Albert H.; Gooch, Andrew (2018). "Nongovernmental Campaign Communication Providing Ballot Secrecy Assurances Increases Turnout: Results From Two Large-Scale Experiments*".

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According to a 2018 study, get-out-the-vote groups in the United States who emphasize ballot secrecy along with reminders to vote increase turnout by about 1 percentage point among recently registered nonvoters.

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as an example of a nation with low salience. The nation's administration is highly decentralized, so that the federal government has limited powers. Important decisions are also placed before the population in a

838:, as they are interested in political life but believe that their individual effect would be negligible. These individuals often participate politically on the local level, but shy away from national elections. 4716:

Lasala-Blanco, Narayani; Shapiro, Robert Y.; Rivera-Burgos, Viviana (February 2017). "Turnout and weather disruptions: Survey evidence from the 2012 presidential elections in the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy".

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The Power Commission was established to discover what is happening to our democracy. It sought to establish why people were disengaging from formal democratic politics in Britain and how these trends could be

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showed that concern for the well-being of others is a major factor in predicting turnout and political participation. This motivation is distinct from D, because voters must think others benefit from the

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deny 5–6 million Americans of the right to vote, with reforms gradually leading more states to allow people with felony criminal records to vote, while almost none allow incarcerated people to vote.

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Bryant, Lisa A.; Hanmer, Michael J.; Safarpour, Alauna C.; McDonald, Jared (2020-06-19). "The Power of the State: How Postcards from the State Increased Registration and Turnout in Pennsylvania".

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boosts turnout while being popular with voters. Another form of voter fatigue occurs when voters are asked to weigh-in on dozens of contests, as occurs in some parts of the United States.

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McGuire, William; O'Brien, Benjamin Gonzalez; Baird, Katherine; Corbett, Benjamin; Collingwood, Loren (2020). "Does Distance Matter? Evaluating the Impact of Drop Boxes on Voter Turnout".

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rates tend to have lower turnout. In countries that are highly multicultural and multilingual, it can be difficult for national election campaigns to engage all sectors of the population.

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A strong factor affecting voter turnout is whether voting is compulsory, as countries that enforce compulsory voting tend to have far higher voter turnout rates. For example, in

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initiatives. In the modern era, these resources have been redirected to expensive media campaigns in which the potential voter is a passive participant. During the same period,

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and persons who are considered 'mentally incompetent' in the United States. Voter turnout everywhere would be higher if measured by eligibility and not voting-age population.

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Socioeconomic factors are significantly associated with whether individuals develop the habit of voting. The most important socioeconomic factor affecting voter turnout is

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https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/abs/who-votes-city-election-timing-and-voter-composition/39CE6B9F0E906228F695248C874C0C36

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Gomez, Brad T.; Hansford, Thomas G.; Krause, George A. (2007-08-01). "The Republicans Should Pray for Rain: Weather, Turnout, and Voting in U.S. Presidential Elections".

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in the United States has an even lower chance of determining the outcome. Other studies claim that the Electoral College actually increases voting power. Studies using

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More importantly than changes in specific election outcomes, voter turnout has seismic long-term implications on the abilities of democracies to function. For example,

1046:. Income has some effect independently: wealthier people are more likely to vote, regardless of their educational background. There is some debate over the effects of 2779:

Sigman, Rachel, and Staffan I. Lindberg. "Neopatrimonialism and democracy: An empirical investigation of Africa's political regimes." V-Dem Working Paper 56 (2017).

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population' (VAP). For the American presidential elections of 2004, turnout could then be expressed as 60.32% of voting eligible population, rather than 55.27% of

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Penalties for failing to vote are not always strictly enforced, and sanctions for non-voters are often mild. For instance, while voting is nominally compulsory in

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Barbour, Christine, and Gerald C. Wright. KEEPING THE REPUBLIC: Power and Citizenship in American Politics. Place of Publication Not Identified: CQ, 2016. Print.

2859: 279:. In Australia, people who do not vote are subject to a small fine, which is easily waived if one of many acceptable excuses for failing to vote is provided. In 1214:

found that preregistration – allowing young citizens to register before being eligible to vote – increased turnout by 2 to 8 percentage points. A 2019 study in

1038:. The more educated a person is, the more likely they are to vote, even controlling for other factors that are closely associated with education level, such as 1927: 613:

Since around 1985, there appears to be a gradual decrease in voter turnout globally when looking at the voting-age population. However, a 2001 article in the

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Andersson, Henrik; Lajevardi, Nazita; Lindgren, Karl-Oskar; Oskarsson, Sven (2022). "Effects of Settlement into Ethnic Enclaves on Immigrant Voter Turnout".

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found that rainfall increased Republican vote shares, because it decreased turnout more among Democratic voters than Republican voters. Studies from the

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argues that salience, the perceived effect that an individual vote will have on how the country is run, has a significant effect on turnout. He presents

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increases turnout as voters see that their effort has an impact. This can be seen in the higher turnout rates of proportional parliamentary democracies.

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Statistics on voter turnout presented here show that the much-lamented decline in voter participation is an artifact of the way in which it is measured.

213:. Only new residents and citizens who have moved are responsible for bearing the costs and inconvenience of updating their registration. Similarly, in 1734: 276: 39: 1778: 1713: 5370:

Wolfinger, R., Glass, D., Squire, P. (1990). Predictors of electoral turnout:an international comparison. Policy Studies Review, 9(3), p551–574, 24p

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Persson, Mikael; Sundell, Anders; Öhrvall, Richard (2014-03-01). "Does Election Day weather affect voter turnout? Evidence from Swedish elections".

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In theory, one of the factors that is most likely to increase turnout is a close race. Following the Downsian Closeness hypothesis and the idea of

3675:; Van Dijk, D. (1998). "Timing of vote decision in first and second order Dutch elections 1978–1995. Evidence from artificial neural networks". 3149: 692:

Voter turnout varies considerably between nations. One dataset with voter turnouts by country and election is the Election turnout indicator in

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The International IDEA Voter Turnout Website contains the most comprehensive global collection of political participation statistics available.

2151: 1860: 860:, which takes into account the ability of voters to interact, have also found that the expected turnout for any large election should be zero. 443:

status or other factors that affect voting eligibility. This has the advantage of being an accessible indicator of how close a place may be to

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for adults up to 70 years of age, no one has ever been prosecuted for failing to vote, with voter turnout rates reaching as low as 57% in the

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Horiuchi, Yusaku; Kang, Woo Chang (2017-12-05). "Why Should the Republicans Pray for Rain? Electoral Consequences of Rainfall Revisited".

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Occupation has little effect on turnout, with the notable exception of higher voting rates among government employees in many countries.

283:, however, if a voter fails to participate in an election, they may be denied withdrawal of their salary from the bank for three months. 5045:

Arnold, Felix; Freier, Ronny (2016-03-01). "Only conservatives are voting in the rain: Evidence from German local and state elections".

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Jankowski, Richard (2002). "Buying a Lottery Ticket to Help the Poor: Altruism, Civic Duty, and Self-Interest in the Decision to Vote".

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with more than 158 million people cast their ballots on the same day, and has been called "the world's most complex one-day elections".

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status or other factors that might affect voting eligibility. This has the advantage of being easier to measure than 'eligible voters.'

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can suppress turnout. Minority voters are shown to mobilize when issues pertaining to their group identity become politically salient.

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Voter Turnout is a fundamental quality of fair elections and is generally considered to be a necessary factor for a healthy democracy.

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The basic formula for determining whether someone will vote, on the questionable assumption that people act completely rationally, is

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Krupnikov, Yanna (2011). "When Does Negativity Demobilize? Tracing the Conditional Effect of Negative Campaigning on Voter Turnout".

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Within countries there can be important differences in turnout between individual elections. Elections where control of the national

3711:"Who Votes: City Election Timing and Voter Composition" Zoltan L. Hajnal, Vladimir Kogan, and G. Agustin Markarian. 19 August 2021. 2696: 2079: 1311:

found that the parents to newly enfranchised voters "become 2.8 percentage points more likely to vote." A 2018 study in the journal

1168: 1097:, and by-elections to fill casual vacancies, typically have lower turnouts, as do elections for the parliament of the supranational 853: 614: 600: 265: 261: 257: 1077:. Canada banned the broadcasting of election results in any region where the polls have not yet closed; this ban was upheld by the 4425:

Gatrell, Jay D.; Bierly, Gregory D. (2013-07-03). "Weather and Voter Turnout: Kentucky Primary and General Elections, 1990-2000".

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There can also be regional differences in voter turnout. One issue that arises in continent-spanning nations, such as Australia,

704: 245: 5427: 2753: 1171:, found that an awareness by the electorate that an election would be close increased turnout. Controlling for canton and vote 852:

The chance of any one vote determining the outcome is low. Some studies show that a single vote in a voting scheme such as the

335:", so voters, aware that their vote can make a difference, are more likely to make the effort to vote, and less likely to vote 2792: 2723: 1218:

found that the introduction of a vote‐by‐mail system in Washington state led to an increase in turnout. Another 2019 study in

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Henrickson, Kevin E.; Johnson, Erica H. (2019). "Increasing Voter Participation by Altering the Costs and Stakes of Voting".

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Holbein, John B.; Hillygus, D. Sunshine (2016-04-01). "Making Young Voters: The Impact of Preregistration on Youth Turnout".

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Wigginton, Michael J.; Stockemer, Daniel; van Schouwen, Jasmine (30 July 2019). "International Migration and Turnout Bias".

813:" initiatives have been introduced to increase turnouts of those between the ages of 18 and 25. A number of governments and 5508:...ElectionGuide is the most comprehensive and timely source of verified election information and results available online. 821:

has launched mass media campaigns to encourage voting prior to elections, as have bodies in Taiwan and the United Kingdom.

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completed. This is the smallest numerator, but captures only those ballots that will impact the outcome of the election.

5569: 2427: 1760: 1694: 307:, with one of the world's highest voter turnouts, has a single legislature that holds most political power. Malta has a 210: 3234: 699:

Indonesia, which before 1998 always had a high percentage of voter (more than 87%) but then dip down to low 70% in the

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Sigelman, L.; Roeder, P. W.; Jewell, M. E.; Baer, M. A. (1985). "Voting and nonvoting: A multi-election perspective".

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distinguishes between "valid vote turnout", which excludes spoilt ballots, and "ballot box turnout", which does not.

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data is available for a subset of general and European Parliament elections, taken from Swedish election registers.

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have strong evidence to increase voter turnout and vote choice and moderate evidence to increase voting knowledge.

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is thus the most important element in motivating people to vote. For a person to vote, these factors must outweigh

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Grahn, Michal (September 2023). "Still proud at the polls? LGBT+ rights don't dilute the sexuality turnout gap".

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Grahn, Michal (September 2023). "Still proud at the polls? LGBT+ rights don't dilute the sexuality turnout gap".

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A New Nation Votes is a searchable collection of election returns from the earliest years of American democracy.

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systems have developed also tend to have higher turnouts. Nations with a party specifically geared towards the

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found that online voter registration increased voter turnout, in particular for young voters. A 2020 study in

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Steven J. Rosenstone and John Mark Hansen. "Solving the Puzzle of Participation in Electoral Politics." p. 73

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and character attacks are more common than elsewhere, potentially suppressing turnouts. The focus placed on

722: 693: 684: 2666: 86:, there is a consensus among political scientists that "democracies perform better when more people vote." 5082:"Trickle-Up Political Socialization: The Causal Effect on Turnout of Parenting a Newly Enfranchised Voter" 4381: 3684: 2579: 1090: 312: 3417:"A political scientist has discovered a surprising way to increase voter turnout. It starts in childhood" 1886:

Robert W. Jackman and Ross A. Miller. "Voter Turnout in the Industrial Democracies During the 1980s." in

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Holbein, John B.; Bradshaw, Catherine P.; Munis, B. Kal; Rabinowitz, Jill; Ialongo, Nicholas S. (2021).

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Research results are mixed as to whether bad weather affects turnout. There is research that shows that

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A country with a highly efficient registration process is France. At the age of eighteen, all youth are

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Gerber, Alan S.; Huber, Gregory A.; Meredith, Marc; Biggers, Daniel R.; Hendry, David J. (2017-07-19).

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Regan, Michael D. "Why Is Voter Turnout so Low in the U.S.?" PBS. PBS, 6 Nov. 2016. Web. 13 Dec. 2016.

1656: 5109: 3923:"The elasticity of voter turnout: Investing 85 cents per voter to increase voter turnout by 4 percent" 2263: 5538: 5194: 4993: 4835: 4666: 4568: 4557:"Weather conditions and political party vote share in Dutch national parliament elections, 1971–2010" 4511: 4318: 3146: 2809: 2509:

Robert D. Putnam "Tuning In, Tuning Out: The Strange Disappearance of Social Capital in America." in

1472: 796:

has become ubiquitous in the United States and elsewhere and has been shown to impact voter turnout.

793: 752: 618: 511: 458: 440: 4930:

Artés, Joaquín (2014-06-01). "The rain in Spain: Turnout and partisan voting in Spanish elections".

4471:

Artés, Joaquín (2014-06-01). "The rain in Spain: Turnout and partisan voting in Spanish elections".

4386: 3039: 2584: 5414: 3689: 3672: 3380:

Plutzer, E (2002). "Becoming a Habitual Voter: Inertia, Resources, and Growth in Young Adulthood".

1288: 1172: 672: 647: 519: 181: 135: 2616: 1459:

Hopkins, Daniel J.; Meredith, Marc; Chainani, Anjali; Olin, Nathaniel; Tse, Tiffany (2021-01-26).

1105:

attract far lower turnouts than Congressional elections held concurrently with Presidential ones.

710:

Wealth and literacy have some effect on turnout, but are not reliable measures. Countries such as

5391: 5274: 5122: 4912: 4804: 4698: 4632: 4450: 4407: 4287: 4162: 4119: 4076: 4033: 3945: 3903: 3821: 3774: 3766: 3571: 3533: 3478: 3453:

Holbein, John B. (August 2017). "Childhood Skill Development and Adult Political Participation".

3397: 3285: 2962: 2644: 2597: 2480: 2406: 2325: 2104: 2096: 2050: 1962: 1942: 1805: 1588: 1102: 1094: 830:

vote. These laws add to the "cost" of voting, or reason that make it more difficult and to vote.

740: 582: 444: 244:, voter registration and attendance at a polling booth have been mandatory since the 1920s, with 199: 193: 123: 103: 71: 2015: 1315:

found that increasing the size of households increases a household member's propensity to vote.

869: 5266: 5230: 5212: 5163: 5114: 5062: 5027: 5009: 4947: 4904: 4887:

Ben Lakhdar, Christian; Dubois, Eric (2006-08-01). "Climate and Electoral Turnout in France".

4869: 4851: 4796: 4761: 4690: 4682: 4594: 4537: 4442: 4399: 4354: 4336: 4248: 4207: 4154: 4111: 4068: 4025: 3990: 3895: 3844:"Identifying the Effect of Election Closeness on Voter Turnout: Evidence from Swiss Referenda" 3813: 3758: 3653: 3612: 3525: 3517: 3498:"Promoting Voter Turnout: an Unanticipated Impact of Early-Childhood Preventive Interventions" 3470: 3424: 3224:"Pivotality and Turnout: Evidence from a Field Experiment in the Aftermath of a Tied Election" 2867: 2636: 2617:"Does Democratic Consolidation Lead to a Decline in Voter Turnout? Global Evidence Since 1939" 2472: 2394: 2384: 2317: 1954: 1549: 1508: 1490: 1438: 1022:

Studies have found that improving children's social skills and enrolling them in high-quality

476: 311:

in which a small swing in votes can significantly alter the executive. Voters' perceptions of

253: 235: 203: 147: 131: 119: 59: 2208:

Overview of Voting Equipment Usage in United States, Direct Recording Electronic (DRE) Voting

1970: 414:

elections, but in Gadsden County Florida, the overvote rate was 11 percent in November 2000.

5596: 5435: 5383: 5258: 5220: 5202: 5153: 5104: 5096: 5054: 5017: 5001: 4939: 4896: 4859: 4843: 4788: 4753: 4726: 4674: 4624: 4584: 4576: 4527: 4519: 4480: 4434: 4391: 4344: 4326: 4279: 4238: 4197: 4146: 4103: 4060: 4017: 3980: 3972: 3937: 3887: 3851: 3805: 3750: 3694: 3643: 3602: 3563: 3509: 3462: 3389: 3277: 3204: 3186: 3105:"Understanding America's "Interested Bystander:" A Complicated Relationship with Civic Duty" 3012: 2954: 2628: 2589: 2464: 2307: 2299: 2244:, presentation to the Council on Governmental Ethics Laws September 29, 2002, Ottawa Canada. 2230: 2189: 2160: 2131: 2088: 2040: 2032: 1946: 1869: 1580: 1539: 1498: 1480: 1122: 1101:, which is separate from the executive branch of the EU's government. In the United States, 835: 818: 789: 768:

will tend to have higher turnouts among that class than in countries where voters have only

756: 688:

Page from a 1952 United States voters' pamphlet comparing voter turnout in various countries

308: 291: 214: 177: 4227:"Mobilizing the young vote: Direct mail voter guides in the 2015 Chicago mayoral election*" 2570:

Charles, Kerwin Kofi; Stephens, Melvin Jr. (2013). "Employment, Wages, and Voter Turnout".

5627: 5420:...the desire to vote or abstain from politics might largely be hardwired into our biology 3363: 3334: 3318: 3190: 3153: 3090: 3066:"Understanding America's Interested Bystander: A Complicated Relationship with Civic Duty" 2796: 2542:"Upwards Leisure Mobility: Americans Work Less and Have More LeisureTime than Ever Before" 2241: 2214: 2016:"The Contraction Effect: How Proportional Representation Affects Mobilization and Turnout" 1815: 1622: 1106: 1093:

is not at stake generally have much lower turnouts—often half that for general elections.

925: 847: 336: 316: 157: 107: 30: 5198: 4997: 4982:"Weather conditions and voter turnout in Dutch national parliament elections, 1971–2010" 4839: 4824:"Weather conditions and voter turnout in Dutch national parliament elections, 1971–2010" 4779:

Fraga, Bernard (2011-06-30). "Voting Costs and Voter Turnout in Competitive Elections".

4670: 4572: 4515: 4500:"Weather conditions and voter turnout in Dutch national parliament elections, 1971–2010" 4322: 2860:"Indonesia: 193m people, 17,000 islands, one big election. Here's what you need to know" 1476: 5225: 5182: 5022: 4981: 4864: 4823: 4589: 4556: 4532: 4499: 4349: 4306: 3922: 2894: 2135: 2077:

Lijphart, Arend (March 1997). "Unequal Participation: Democracy's Unresolved Dilemma".

1783: 1695:"GE2020: 4,794 votes cast overseas, taking total voter turnout this election to 95.81%" 1503: 1460: 1136: 1098: 719: 400: 83: 2342:

McDonald "2004 Voting-Age and Voting-Eligible Population Estimates and Voter Turnout"

1132:. With an intensely polarized electorate and all polls showing a close finish between 198:

In the United States and most Latin American nations, voters must go through separate

122:

has a direct and dramatic effect on turnout while adding barriers, such as a separate

5621: 5439: 5395: 5278: 4454: 4395: 4291: 4166: 4123: 4080: 4037: 3949: 3825: 3778: 3537: 3482: 3401: 3306: 3289: 3195:

Riker, William H.; Ordeshook, Peter C. (1968). "A Theory of the Calculus of Voting".

3178: 3016: 2648: 2484: 2329: 2108: 1592: 1269: 1144: 993: 806: 765: 170: 127: 5058: 4916: 4757: 4730: 4702: 4051:

Yu, Jinhai (2019). "Does State Online Voter Registration Increase Voter Turnout?*".

3941: 3907: 3337:, Kam CD "Beyond the Self: Altruism, Social Identity, and Political Participation," 2966: 2601: 2054: 5126: 4943: 4808: 4636: 4484: 4411: 4186:"Reducing the Cost of Voting: An Evaluation of Internet Voting's Effect on Turnout" 2789: 2453:"The Generational and Institutional Sources of the Global Decline in Voter Turnout" 1966: 1176: 1043: 826: 153: 17: 5311:

Franklin, Mark N. "Electoral Engineering and Cross National Turnout Differences."

4307:"Walking the walk? Experiments on the effect of pledging to vote on youth turnout" 4283: 2348: 1992: 1848:

Richard S. Katz. Democracy and Elections. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

1615: 375:

Total number of ballots cast, regardless of how many were filled-out or accepted.

5496: 5207: 4331: 3842:

Bursztyn, Leonardo; Cantoni, Davide; Funk, Patricia; Yuchtman, Noam (June 2017).

3065: 1714:"GE2015: Voter turnout at 93.56 per cent, improves slightly from 2011 record low" 1432: 161:

while turnout among younger voters improves the longer polling places stay open.

4900: 4267: 4181: 3302: 3281: 1280: 915: 857: 810: 496: 382: 332: 295: 206:. US states with no, or easier, registration requirements have larger turnouts. 202:

procedures before they are allowed to vote. This two-step process quite clearly

118:

Institutional factors have the most significant impact on voter turnout. Making

4107: 3513: 2234: 2122:

Blais, Andre (1990). "Does proportional representation foster voter turnout?".

1950: 1156:(which featured the lowest voter turnout in the United States since 1924), the 801:

attacks on a party's record can increase it. To counter this, programs such as

264:

where it was 95.91%. This was an increase from the record low of 93.06% at the

5387: 5158: 5141: 5100: 5005: 4847: 4678: 4580: 4523: 4202: 4185: 3648: 3631: 3607: 3590: 3466: 3393: 3208: 2632: 2468: 2303: 1584: 1337: 935: 761: 531: 527: 518:, often under-reporting turnout by as much as 10 percentage points. Professor 507: 492: 454: 436: 300: 82:

people. According to Stanford University political scientists Adam Bonica and

79: 5577: 5270: 5216: 5167: 5118: 5066: 5013: 4951: 4908: 4855: 4800: 4765: 4686: 4628: 4446: 4403: 4340: 4252: 4243: 4226: 4211: 4158: 4115: 4072: 4029: 3994: 3899: 3817: 3809: 3762: 3657: 3616: 3521: 3497: 3474: 3428: 2958: 2871: 2640: 2476: 2398: 2321: 1958: 1553: 1544: 1527: 1494: 50:

Voter turnout in Western countries elections (in %, starting 1900/1945;

5183:"Mixed partisan households and electoral participation in the United States" 2164: 1873: 1568: 1528:"Youthful hours: Shifting poll-opening times manipulates voter demographics" 1485: 1074: 1047: 1035: 797: 642: 241: 42:. Voter turnout was considered high despite widespread concerns of violence. 27:

Percentage of a country's eligible voters who actually vote within elections

5234: 5031: 4873: 4694: 4598: 4541: 4358: 3793: 3529: 1567:

Kostelka, Filip; Krejcova, Eva; Sauger, Nicolas; Wuttke, Alexander (2023).

1512: 751:

The nature of elections also varies between nations. In the United States,

718:

have long had high turnouts, but so have the wealthy states of Europe. The

5326:

Lijphart, Arend. "Unequal Participation: Democracy's Unresolved Dilemma."

5320:

Kanazawa, Satoshi. "A Possible Solution to the Paradox of Voter Turnout."

4438: 3698: 2778: 2378: 1928:"Choosing Electoral Systems: Proportional, Majoritarian and Mixed Systems" 52:

more details by clicking and seeing Wiki Commons description for the image

5519: 5262: 4792: 4655:"Fair weather voters: do Canadians stay at home when the weather is bad?" 3794:"Estimating the Effect of Competitiveness on Turnout across Regime Types" 3132:

Satoshi Kanazawa. "A Possible Solution to the Paradox of Voter Turnout."

2907:

Powell, G. Bingham. "American Voter Turnout in Comparative Perspective".

2497:

Michael McDonald and Samuel Popkin. "The Myth of the Vanishing Voter" in

2045: 1179:

newspaper coverage of close polls significantly increases voter turnout"

989: 924:

is the perceived benefit that would be received if that person's favored

769: 715: 523: 75: 5334:

McDonald, Michael and Samuel Popkin. "The Myth of the Vanishing Voter."

2593: 385:

but in some places includes blank ballots that were otherwise accepted.

5611:

Since the 1980s, voter turnout in federal elections has fallen sharply.

5333: 4150: 4064: 4021: 3985: 3976: 3770: 3738: 3575: 2312: 2100: 1389: 1284: 1148: 939: 634: 630: 369:

includes people who signed-in at the polls, but did not cast a ballot.

280: 218: 35: 1343:

the voting system that fail to efficiently capture voter preferences.

1735:"Of 31 countries with compulsory voting, a dozen actually enforce it" 1164:; all of these elections produced decisive results on a low turnout. 1070: 1066: 1055: 1039: 711: 272: 67: 5514: 3567: 2092: 5140:

Bhatti, Yosef; Fieldhouse, Edward; Hansen, Kasper M. (2018-07-27).

3891: 3856: 3843: 3754: 2193: 2036: 1434:

Timing and Turnout: How Off-Cycle Elections Favor Organized Groups

1292: 683: 667:

Another proposed measure to increase voter turnout is a move to a

545: 510:

population turnout data can still be impacted by large numbers of

304: 222: 152:

Other methods of making voting easier to increase turnout include

70:) of a given election. This is typically either the percentage of 29: 5351:

Elections and Voting Behaviour: New Challenges, New Perspectives.

3040:

https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/voter-turnout-united-states

1888:

Elections and Voting Behaviour: New Challenges, New Perspectives.

1461:"Results from a 2020 field experiment encouraging voting by mail" 1287:

have also found weather-related turnout decreases to benefit the

918:

that an individual's vote will affect the outcome of an election,

4980:

Eisinga, Rob; Te Grotenhuis, Manfred; Pelzer, Ben (2012-07-01).

4822:

Eisinga, Rob; Te Grotenhuis, Manfred; Pelzer, Ben (2012-07-01).

4225:

Miller, Peter; Reynolds, Rebecca; Singer, Matthew (2017-10-01).

2697:"Automatic voter reregistration can substantially boost turnout" 1761:"European Election Database - Parliamentary elections in Greece" 106:

tends to afflict low-turnout democracies more, blocking popular

4305:

Costa, Mia; Schaffner, Brian F.; Prevost, Alicia (2018-05-29).

3589:

Persson, Mikael; Oskarsson, Sven; Lindgren, Karl-Oskar (2018).

3350:

Loewen, PJ "Antipathy, Affinity, and Political Participation,"

546: 5547:

International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance

1905:

International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance

1901:"Electoral System Design: the New International IDEA Handbook" 1662:

International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance

802: 553: 5412:

Charles Q. Choi (November 2007). "The Genetics of Politics".

2891:

The mind-boggling challenge of Indonesia's election logistics

2724:"Automatic Voter Registration Boosts Political Participation" 569:

deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a

66:

is the participation rate (often defined as those who cast a

4967:

G. Bingham Powell "Voter Turnout in Thirty Democracies." in

4268:"Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Voting Advice Applications" 2428:"Voter turnout is dropping dramatically in the "free world"" 1779:"Voter Turnout in Greek Elections Drops to New Historic Low" 1392:

in American Political Science Review. December 2001. p. 970.

1384: 1382: 1380: 506:

Even in countries with fewer restrictions on the franchise,

5374:

Highton, B. (1997). "Easy registration and voter turnout".

948:

is the time, effort, and financial cost involved in voting.

817:

have also launched efforts to boost turnout. For instance,

5428:"A New Nation Votes: American Elections Returns 1787–1825" 3064:

Krontiris, Kate; Webb, John; Chapman, Chris (2015-01-01).

3050: 3048: 2754:"Does proportional representation lead to higher turnout?" 980:

Riker and Ordeshook developed the modern understanding of

968:. Experimental political science has found that even when 403:

their votes, either accidentally or as an act of protest.

315:

also have an important effect on salience, where fears of

5550: 5142:"It's a Group Thing: How Voters go to the Polls Together" 1361:"Opinion | Want Americans to vote? Give them the day off" 1230:

The availability of ballot drop boxes increases turnout.

1026:

educational programs increases their turnout as adults.

4654: 3739:"An Economic Theory of Political Action in a Democracy" 3185:

published in 1957. The formula itself was developed by

578: 5363:

Wolfinger, Raymond E. and Steven J. Rosenstone. 1980.

977:

term) has little mobilizing effect on voter turnout.

522:

constructed an estimation of the turnout against the '

2014:

Cox, Gary W.; Fiva, Jon H.; Smith, Daniel M. (2016).

1616:

Unequal Participation: Democracy's Unresolved Dilemma

872: 783:

Voter turnout in United States presidential elections

5418:(Print). Scientific American, Inc. pp. 18, 21. 4653:

Stockemer, Daniel; Wigginton, Michael (2018-06-01).

3177:

The basic idea behind this formula was developed by

664:

registration leads to greater turnout at elections.

4555:Eisinga, R.; Te Grotenhuis, M.; Pelzer, B. (2012). 4498:Eisinga, R.; Te Grotenhuis, M.; Pelzer, B. (2012). 2690: 2688: 221:(but without the membership in the health system). 1684:2016 House of Representatives and Senate elections 896: 3921:Schelker, Mark; Schneiter, Marco (October 2017). 3147:"The Mathematics and Statistics of Voting Power." 5358:Electoral Participation: A Comparative Analysis. 5342:Niemi, Richard G. and Herbert F. Weisberg. eds. 4266:Munzert, Simon; Ramirez-Ruiz, Sebastian (2021). 3222:Enos, Ryan D.; Fowler, Anthony (11 March 2014). 1835:Mark N. Franklin. "Electoral Participation." in 1238:not fully account for recent turnout declines." 660:does not make elections days national holidays. 651:turnout. A 2017 study challenges this, however. 391:This metric looks at ballots that were accepted 5464:. The Power Inquiry. 2007-01-19. Archived from 3792:Eichhorn, Kristin; Linhart, Eric (2021-08-01). 1465:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 1162:Spanish referendum on the European Constitution 5493:International Foundation for Electoral Systems 938:, but today represents any social or personal 2665:Gale, William; West, Darrell (23 June 2021). 567:The examples and perspective in this section 435:everyone who lives in a place, regardless of 134:. In addition, the closer democracies are to 8: 3837: 3835: 3632:"Public Sector Employment and Voter Turnout" 2660: 2658: 2572:American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 1426: 1424: 733:degree of partisanship among the population; 3549: 3547: 3164: 3162: 1167:A 2020 NBER paper, examining evidence from 1095:Off-year municipal and provincial elections 5110:10398/dcb47ff3-fffd-4aa5-8459-8f348e212bd9 3366:"Habitual Voting and Behavioral Turnout," 2981:"Social Media and Political Participation" 2730:. Stanford Social Innovation Review (SSIR) 1729: 1727: 1637:Richard G. Niemi and Herbert F. Weisberg. 585:, or create a new section, as appropriate. 5224: 5206: 5181:Hersh, Eitan; Ghitza, Yair (2018-10-10). 5157: 5108: 5021: 4863: 4588: 4531: 4385: 4348: 4330: 4242: 4201: 3984: 3855: 3688: 3647: 3606: 2695:Silvia Kim, Seo-young (4 November 2022). 2583: 2311: 2044: 1605:Franklin "Electoral Participation." p. 98 1543: 1502: 1484: 871: 601:Learn how and when to remove this message 491:properly account for the large number of 277:September 2015 Greek legislative election 3156:'Statistical Science' 2002, vol 17, no 4 1651: 1649: 1647: 1242:Knowledge and Voting advice applications 671:system for countries that currently use 637:, and to donate to political campaigns. 45: 5360:Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1980. 4986:International Journal of Biometeorology 4828:International Journal of Biometeorology 4659:International Journal of Biometeorology 4561:International Journal of Biometeorology 4504:International Journal of Biometeorology 3630:Geys, Benny; Sørensen, Rune J. (2021). 2810:"Will Indonesians even bother to vote?" 1352: 1158:United Kingdom general election of 2001 5523:. Voting and Democracy Research Center 5330:vol. 91 (March 1997): 1–14. p. 12 5251:Political Science Research and Methods 4963: 4961: 4781:Quarterly Journal of Political Science 4648: 4646: 4610: 4608: 4466: 4464: 3231:Political Science Research and Methods 3086: 3075: 2747: 2745: 2667:"Make Election Day a national holiday" 2451:Kostelka, Filip; Blais, André (2021). 2404: 2152:European Journal of Political Research 2124:European Journal of Political Research 1935:International Political Science Review 1861:European Journal of Political Research 1569:"Election Frequency and Voter Turnout" 703:, saw a record breaking voters in the 248:having turnout figures of 91% for the 5367:New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. 5313:British Journal of Political Science. 4932:European Journal of Political Economy 4473:European Journal of Political Economy 3965:American Journal of Political Science 3556:American Journal of Political Science 3352:Canadian Journal of Political Science 3005:American Journal of Political Science 2909:The American Political Science Review 2380:Voter turnout trends around the World 1212:American Journal of Political Science 1175:, the study determined "that greater 1109:also tend to attract lower turnouts. 956:is virtually zero in most elections, 7: 5353:Aldershot: Ashgate, Dartmouth, 1998. 4190:British Journal of Political Science 2760:. The Electoral Reform Society (ERS) 2292:PS: Political Science & Politics 1388:Michael McDonald and Samuel Popkin. 1295:study found a reverse relationship. 1235:British Journal of Political Science 1152:resulted in lower turnouts, such as 126:process or unnecessarily scheduling 3415:Hui, Mary; Hui, Mary (2017-08-17). 2752:Difford, Dylan (10 February 2022). 2276:Niemi and Weisberg "Introduction." 942:an individual gets from voting, and 329:proportional representation systems 176:average (e.g. local government and 5336:American Political Science Review. 5328:American Political Science Review. 2925:Powell "Thirty Democracies." p. 14 2835:"Indonesia's Incredible Elections" 2499:American Political Science Review. 2235:Human Factors in Voting Technology 2136:10.1111/j.1475-6765.1990.tb00227.x 1826:Powell "Thirty Democracies." p. 12 1808:Compulsory voting around the world 1712:Lee, Min Kok (12 September 2015). 1627:American Political Science Review. 934:originally stood for democracy or 25: 5346:Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2001. 5344:Controversies in Voting Behavior. 5089:American Political Science Review 3636:American Political Science Review 3595:American Political Science Review 3455:American Political Science Review 3382:American Political Science Review 3197:American Political Science Review 2947:European Journal of Communication 2808:Khidhir, Sheith (30 March 2019). 2722:Weiser, Wendy (28 January 2016). 2621:American Political Science Review 2345:"United States Elections Project" 2278:Controversies in Voting Behavior. 2080:American Political Science Review 1401:Franklin. "Electoral Engineering" 1390:"The Myth of the Vanishing Voter" 1309:American Political Science Review 615:American Political Science Review 5432:Digital Collections and Archives 4396:10.1111/j.1468-2508.2007.00565.x 3183:An Economic Theory of Democracy. 3072:from the original on 2016-12-21. 3017:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2011.00522.x 2511:Controversies in Voting Behavior 1837:Controversies in Voting Behavior 1639:Controversies in Voting Behavior 705:2019 Indonesian general election 558: 5595:Rhonda Parkinson (2007-03-01). 5574:United States Elections Project 5568:Michael McDonald (2008-04-01). 5059:10.1016/j.electstud.2015.11.005 4758:10.1016/j.electstud.2013.07.021 4731:10.1016/j.electstud.2016.11.004 3942:10.1016/j.electstud.2017.07.005 3435:from the original on 2017-08-17 3115:from the original on 2016-12-20 2552:from the original on 2016-11-05 1437:. University of Chicago Press. 1154:Bill Clinton's 1996 re-election 1130:2004 U.S. presidential election 1103:midterm congressional elections 256:. In Singapore, turnout at the 4944:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2014.01.005 4485:10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2014.01.005 3145:Gelman, Katz, and Teurlinckx. 2219:Election Assistance Commission 1123:majoritarian electoral systems 676:greater voter representation. 260:was 95.81%, the highest since 1: 5080:Dahlgaard, Jens Olav (2018). 4284:10.1080/10584609.2020.1843572 3341:69 (3): 811–825 (August 2007) 3325:68 (3): 674–683 (August 2006) 3109:Politics & Elections Blog 2615:Kostelka, Filip (July 2017). 1573:Comparative Political Studies 1085:Differences between elections 418:Denominator (out of _ people) 352:Numerator (e.g. ballots cast) 110:like streamlining elections. 5549:. 2008-06-16. Archived from 5208:10.1371/journal.pone.0203997 4332:10.1371/journal.pone.0197066 3848:NBER Working Paper No. 23490 3743:Journal of Political Economy 1418:, 29 October 2018, P. 12-13. 1005:of voting in and of itself. 516:non-resident citizens voting 5426:Philip Lampi (2008-05-29). 4901:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200100 3717:Cambridge University Press. 3282:10.1177/1043463102014001003 2790:IDEA – Regional differences 2673:. The Brookings Institution 2426:Kopf, Dan (February 2017). 1526:Urbatsch, R. (2017-07-01). 1001:of the election, not their 960:may be also near zero, and 669:proportional representation 581:, discuss the issue on the 550:Methods of raising turnout. 457:in a country regardless of 406:In the United Kingdom, the 38:polling station during the 34:Voters lining up outside a 5649: 5543:International IDEA website 4617:American Politics Research 4108:10.1007/s11109-020-09625-2 3514:10.1007/s11121-021-01275-y 3370:68 (2): 335–344 (May 2006) 2264:"LPR Population Estimates" 1951:10.1177/019251297018003005 1701:. Singapore. 15 July 2020. 1335: 1276:American Politics Research 1249:Voting advice applications 928:or candidate were elected, 897:{\displaystyle PB+D>C,} 845: 780: 524:voting eligible population 327:Since most votes count in 233: 191: 168: 145: 5597:"Voter Turnout in Canada" 5388:10.1017/s0022381600053585 5159:10.1007/s11109-018-9484-2 5101:10.1017/S0003055418000059 5006:10.1007/s00484-011-0477-7 4848:10.1007/s00484-011-0477-7 4679:10.1007/s00484-018-1506-6 4581:10.1007/s00484-011-0504-8 4524:10.1007/s00484-011-0477-7 4203:10.1017/S0007123417000849 3649:10.1017/S000305542100099X 3608:10.1017/S0003055418000746 3467:10.1017/S0003055417000119 3394:10.1017/s0003055402004227 3258:Riker and Ordeshook, 1968 3209:10.1017/s000305540011562x 3029:Niemi and Weisberg p. 30. 2858:Lamb, Kate (2019-04-15). 2633:10.1017/S0003055417000259 2469:10.1017/S0043887121000149 2304:10.1017/S104909651900101X 1585:10.1177/00104140231169020 736:interest in politics, and 641:shown that the amount of 526:' (VEP), instead of the ' 493:legal permanent residents 453:everyone above the legal 246:the 2016 federal election 5322:The Journal of Politics. 4969:Electoral Participation. 4629:10.1177/1532673x17745631 4244:10.1177/2053168017738410 4139:Social Science Quarterly 4053:Social Science Quarterly 4010:Social Science Quarterly 3810:10.1177/0032321720914645 3321:"Altruism and Turnout," 3134:The Journal of Politics. 2959:10.1177/0267323112465369 1993:"A look at the evidence" 1545:10.1177/2053168017720590 1431:Anzia, Sarah F. (2013). 1220:Social Science Quarterly 1216:Social Science Quarterly 1113:Competitiveness of races 1069:, the United States and 680:Voter turnout by country 655:Increasing voter turnout 428:From largest to smallest 362:From largest to smallest 250:House of Representatives 211:automatically registered 90:Japan, and Switzerland. 5376:The Journal of Politics 4427:Southeastern Geographer 4272:Political Communication 4237:(4): 2053168017738410. 4231:Research & Politics 3880:The Journal of Politics 3737:Downs, Anthony (1957). 3270:Rationality and Society 2758:electoral-reform.org.uk 2546:The Heritage Foundation 2181:The Journal of Politics 2165:10.1111/1475-6765.12624 2024:The Journal of Politics 1874:10.1111/1475-6765.12624 1538:(3): 2053168017720590. 1532:Research & Politics 1486:10.1073/pnas.2021022118 1412:What If Everyone Voted? 1303:Household socialization 1247:turnout by 0.9 points. 1079:Supreme Court of Canada 842:Other discussed factors 723:Human Development Index 694:V-Dem Democracy indices 497:undocumented immigrants 3233:: 1–11. Archived from 3085:Cite journal requires 2411:: CS1 maint: others ( 1926:Norris, Pippa (1997). 1739:The News International 1332:Reasons for not voting 1201:Costs of participation 1187:One 2017 study in the 1183:Previous incarceration 898: 788:local campaigning and 689: 551: 501:disenfranchised felons 495:(green card holders), 451:Voting-age population: 136:'one person, one vote' 55: 43: 4439:10.1353/sgo.2002.0007 992:was measured using a 899: 815:electoral commissions 781:Further information: 687: 549: 512:non-citizen residents 266:2011 general election 258:2020 general election 114:Institutional factors 49: 33: 5462:makeitanissue.org.uk 5263:10.1017/psrm.2017.16 4793:10.1561/100.00010093 1307:A 2018 study in the 1233:A 2018 study in the 1018:Childhood influences 870: 794:negative campaigning 753:negative campaigning 730:trust in government; 579:improve this section 408:Electoral Commission 317:fraud and corruption 5415:Scientific American 5356:Rose, Richard, ed. 5199:2018PLoSO..1303997H 4998:2012IJBm...56..783E 4840:2012IJBm...56..783E 4671:2018IJBm...62.1027S 4573:2012IJBm...56.1161E 4516:2012IJBm...56..783E 4374:Journal of Politics 4323:2018PLoSO..1397066C 3699:10.1093/pan/7.1.117 3421:The Washington Post 3368:Journal of Politics 3339:Journal of Politics 3323:Journal of Politics 2701:theconversation.com 2594:10.1257/app.5.4.111 2217:, statement to the 1787:. 21 September 2015 1657:"Compulsory Voting" 1477:2021PNAS..11820210H 1189:Journal of Politics 1119:instrumental voting 673:first-past-the-post 648:Geographic mobility 520:Michael P. McDonald 470:non-resident voters 331:, there are fewer " 182:off-cycle elections 40:2005 Iraqi election 18:Voter participation 5458:"The Power Report" 5146:Political Behavior 4151:10.1111/ssqu.12853 4096:Political Behavior 4065:10.1111/ssqu.12598 4022:10.1111/ssqu.12583 3977:10.1111/ajps.12177 3677:Political Analysis 3502:Prevention Science 3354:(Forthcoming 2010) 3152:2012-04-15 at the 2795:2006-03-14 at the 2703:. The Conversation 2240:2009-09-19 at the 2213:2009-01-08 at the 2206:Kimball W. Brace, 1995:. Fair Vote Canada 1943:Harvard University 1814:2006-12-10 at the 1621:2006-03-26 at the 1471:(4): e2021022118. 1416:The New York Times 1313:Political Behavior 1264:Weather and timing 1224:Political Behavior 1128:An example is the 894: 741:political efficacy 690: 552: 542:Looking for trends 445:universal suffrage 389:Completed Ballots: 252:and 91.9% for the 200:voter registration 194:Voter registration 188:Voter registration 132:suppresses turnout 108:democratic reforms 104:regulatory capture 56: 44: 5633:Political science 5047:Electoral Studies 4746:Electoral Studies 4719:Electoral Studies 4180:Goodman, Nicole; 3930:Electoral Studies 3798:Political Studies 3193:and published in 2390:978-91-7671-083-8 1741:. 4 February 2013 1718:The Straits Times 1614:Arend Lijphart. " 1579:(14): 2231–2268. 1444:978-0-226-08695-8 1207:Electoral Studies 1169:Swiss referendums 854:Electoral College 623:ineligible felons 611: 610: 603: 477:Registered voters 433:Total population: 379:Ballots Accepted: 343:Measuring turnout 236:Compulsory voting 230:Compulsory voting 204:decreases turnout 148:Voter suppression 120:voting compulsory 72:registered voters 60:political science 16:(Redirected from 5640: 5613: 5608: 5607: 5591: 5586: 5585: 5576:. Archived from 5564: 5559: 5558: 5534: 5529: 5528: 5510: 5505: 5504: 5495:. Archived from 5480: 5474: 5473: 5453: 5448: 5447: 5438:. Archived from 5436:Tufts University 5422: 5399: 5297: 5296: 5289: 5283: 5282: 5245: 5239: 5238: 5228: 5210: 5193:(10): e0203997. 5178: 5172: 5171: 5161: 5137: 5131: 5130: 5112: 5086: 5077: 5071: 5070: 5042: 5036: 5035: 5025: 4977: 4971: 4965: 4956: 4955: 4927: 4921: 4920: 4884: 4878: 4877: 4867: 4819: 4813: 4812: 4776: 4770: 4769: 4741: 4735: 4734: 4713: 4707: 4706: 4665:(6): 1027–1037. 4650: 4641: 4640: 4612: 4603: 4602: 4592: 4567:(6): 1161–1165. 4552: 4546: 4545: 4535: 4495: 4489: 4488: 4468: 4459: 4458: 4422: 4416: 4415: 4389: 4369: 4363: 4362: 4352: 4334: 4302: 4296: 4295: 4263: 4257: 4256: 4246: 4222: 4216: 4215: 4205: 4196:(3): 1155–1167. 4177: 4171: 4170: 4145:(5): 1789–1809. 4134: 4128: 4127: 4091: 4085: 4084: 4048: 4042: 4041: 4005: 3999: 3998: 3988: 3960: 3954: 3953: 3927: 3918: 3912: 3911: 3886:(4): 1130–1146. 3877: 3868: 3862: 3861: 3859: 3839: 3830: 3829: 3789: 3783: 3782: 3734: 3728: 3725: 3719: 3709: 3703: 3702: 3692: 3668: 3662: 3661: 3651: 3627: 3621: 3620: 3610: 3586: 3580: 3579: 3551: 3542: 3541: 3493: 3487: 3486: 3450: 3444: 3443: 3441: 3440: 3412: 3406: 3405: 3377: 3371: 3364:Fowler, James H. 3361: 3355: 3348: 3342: 3335:Fowler, James H. 3332: 3326: 3319:Fowler, James H. 3316: 3310: 3300: 3294: 3293: 3265: 3259: 3256: 3250: 3249: 3247: 3245: 3239: 3228: 3219: 3213: 3212: 3187:William H. Riker 3175: 3169: 3166: 3157: 3143: 3137: 3130: 3124: 3123: 3121: 3120: 3101: 3095: 3094: 3088: 3083: 3081: 3073: 3061: 3055: 3052: 3043: 3036: 3030: 3027: 3021: 3020: 3000: 2994: 2991: 2985: 2984: 2977: 2971: 2970: 2941: 2935: 2932: 2926: 2923: 2917: 2916: 2904: 2898: 2888: 2882: 2881: 2879: 2878: 2855: 2849: 2848: 2846: 2845: 2830: 2824: 2823: 2821: 2820: 2805: 2799: 2787: 2781: 2776: 2770: 2769: 2767: 2765: 2749: 2740: 2739: 2737: 2735: 2719: 2713: 2712: 2710: 2708: 2692: 2683: 2682: 2680: 2678: 2662: 2653: 2652: 2612: 2606: 2605: 2587: 2567: 2561: 2560: 2558: 2557: 2538: 2532: 2529: 2523: 2520: 2514: 2507: 2501: 2495: 2489: 2488: 2448: 2442: 2441: 2439: 2438: 2423: 2417: 2416: 2410: 2402: 2375: 2369: 2366: 2360: 2359: 2357: 2356: 2347:. Archived from 2340: 2334: 2333: 2315: 2287: 2281: 2274: 2268: 2267: 2266:. 14 April 2016. 2260: 2254: 2251: 2245: 2231:Douglas W. Jones 2228: 2222: 2204: 2198: 2197: 2175: 2169: 2168: 2146: 2140: 2139: 2119: 2113: 2112: 2074: 2068: 2065: 2059: 2058: 2048: 2031:(4): 1249–1263. 2020: 2011: 2005: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1989: 1983: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1969:. Archived from 1932: 1923: 1917: 1916: 1914: 1912: 1897: 1891: 1884: 1878: 1877: 1855: 1849: 1846: 1840: 1833: 1827: 1824: 1818: 1803: 1797: 1796: 1794: 1792: 1775: 1769: 1768: 1757: 1751: 1750: 1748: 1746: 1731: 1722: 1721: 1709: 1703: 1702: 1691: 1685: 1680: 1674: 1673: 1671: 1669: 1653: 1642: 1635: 1629: 1612: 1606: 1603: 1597: 1596: 1564: 1558: 1557: 1547: 1523: 1517: 1516: 1506: 1488: 1456: 1450: 1448: 1428: 1419: 1410:Badger, Emily. " 1408: 1402: 1399: 1393: 1386: 1375: 1374: 1372: 1371: 1357: 1205:A 2017 study in 1107:Runoff elections 903: 901: 900: 895: 836:political apathy 819:Elections Canada 790:get out the vote 760:Countries where 757:get out the vote 606: 599: 595: 592: 586: 562: 561: 554: 465:Eligible voters: 423:Possible Metrics 357:Possible Metrics 309:two-party system 292:Mark N. Franklin 215:Nordic countries 158:absentee polling 21: 5648: 5647: 5643: 5642: 5641: 5639: 5638: 5637: 5618: 5617: 5616: 5605: 5603: 5594: 5583: 5581: 5570:"Voter Turnout" 5567: 5556: 5554: 5539:"Voter Turnout" 5537: 5526: 5524: 5515:"Voter Turnout" 5513: 5502: 5500: 5485:"Voter Turnout" 5483: 5471: 5469: 5456: 5445: 5443: 5425: 5411: 5407: 5405:Further reading 5402: 5373: 5349:Norris, Pippa. 5306: 5301: 5300: 5291: 5290: 5286: 5247: 5246: 5242: 5180: 5179: 5175: 5139: 5138: 5134: 5084: 5079: 5078: 5074: 5044: 5043: 5039: 4979: 4978: 4974: 4966: 4959: 4929: 4928: 4924: 4889:French Politics 4886: 4885: 4881: 4821: 4820: 4816: 4778: 4777: 4773: 4743: 4742: 4738: 4715: 4714: 4710: 4652: 4651: 4644: 4614: 4613: 4606: 4554: 4553: 4549: 4497: 4496: 4492: 4470: 4469: 4462: 4424: 4423: 4419: 4387:10.1.1.550.7559 4371: 4370: 4366: 4317:(5): e0197066. 4304: 4303: 4299: 4265: 4264: 4260: 4224: 4223: 4219: 4182:Stokes, Leah C. 4179: 4178: 4174: 4136: 4135: 4131: 4093: 4092: 4088: 4050: 4049: 4045: 4007: 4006: 4002: 3962: 3961: 3957: 3925: 3920: 3919: 3915: 3875: 3870: 3869: 3865: 3841: 3840: 3833: 3791: 3790: 3786: 3736: 3735: 3731: 3727:Lijphart. p. 12 3726: 3722: 3710: 3706: 3673:Franses, Ph.-H. 3670: 3669: 3665: 3629: 3628: 3624: 3588: 3587: 3583: 3568:10.2307/2111179 3553: 3552: 3545: 3495: 3494: 3490: 3452: 3451: 3447: 3438: 3436: 3414: 3413: 3409: 3379: 3378: 3374: 3362: 3358: 3349: 3345: 3333: 3329: 3317: 3313: 3301: 3297: 3267: 3266: 3262: 3257: 3253: 3243: 3241: 3240:on 29 July 2014 3237: 3226: 3221: 3220: 3216: 3194: 3191:Peter Ordeshook 3176: 3172: 3168:Kanazawa p. 975 3167: 3160: 3154:Wayback Machine 3144: 3140: 3131: 3127: 3118: 3116: 3103: 3102: 3098: 3084: 3074: 3063: 3062: 3058: 3053: 3046: 3037: 3033: 3028: 3024: 3002: 3001: 2997: 2992: 2988: 2979: 2978: 2974: 2943: 2942: 2938: 2933: 2929: 2924: 2920: 2906: 2905: 2901: 2889: 2885: 2876: 2874: 2857: 2856: 2852: 2843: 2841: 2832: 2831: 2827: 2818: 2816: 2807: 2806: 2802: 2797:Wayback Machine 2788: 2784: 2777: 2773: 2763: 2761: 2751: 2750: 2743: 2733: 2731: 2721: 2720: 2716: 2706: 2704: 2694: 2693: 2686: 2676: 2674: 2664: 2663: 2656: 2614: 2613: 2609: 2585:10.1.1.595.1201 2569: 2568: 2564: 2555: 2553: 2540: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2526: 2521: 2517: 2508: 2504: 2496: 2492: 2450: 2449: 2445: 2436: 2434: 2425: 2424: 2420: 2403: 2391: 2377: 2376: 2372: 2367: 2363: 2354: 2352: 2343: 2341: 2337: 2289: 2288: 2284: 2275: 2271: 2262: 2261: 2257: 2252: 2248: 2242:Wayback Machine 2229: 2225: 2215:Wayback Machine 2205: 2201: 2177: 2176: 2172: 2148: 2147: 2143: 2121: 2120: 2116: 2093:10.2307/2952255 2076: 2075: 2071: 2066: 2062: 2018: 2013: 2012: 2008: 1998: 1996: 1991: 1990: 1986: 1976: 1974: 1930: 1925: 1924: 1920: 1910: 1908: 1899: 1898: 1894: 1885: 1881: 1857: 1856: 1852: 1847: 1843: 1834: 1830: 1825: 1821: 1816:Wayback Machine 1804: 1800: 1790: 1788: 1777: 1776: 1772: 1759: 1758: 1754: 1744: 1742: 1733: 1732: 1725: 1711: 1710: 1706: 1693: 1692: 1688: 1681: 1677: 1667: 1665: 1655: 1654: 1645: 1636: 1632: 1623:Wayback Machine 1613: 1609: 1604: 1600: 1566: 1565: 1561: 1525: 1524: 1520: 1458: 1457: 1453: 1445: 1430: 1429: 1422: 1409: 1405: 1400: 1396: 1387: 1378: 1369: 1367: 1365:Washington Post 1359: 1358: 1354: 1349: 1340: 1334: 1325: 1305: 1266: 1257: 1244: 1203: 1185: 1160:, and the 2005 1115: 1087: 1032: 1024:early-childhood 1020: 1011: 926:political party 868: 867: 850: 848:Decision theory 844: 785: 779: 682: 657: 607: 596: 590: 587: 576: 563: 559: 544: 488: 425: 420: 381:this subtracts 359: 354: 345: 325: 323:Proportionality 289: 238: 232: 196: 190: 180:). Eliminating 173: 167: 150: 144: 116: 96: 76:eligible voters 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5646: 5644: 5636: 5635: 5630: 5620: 5619: 5615: 5614: 5601:Maple Leaf Web 5592: 5565: 5535: 5511: 5481: 5454: 5423: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5400: 5382:(2): 565–575. 5371: 5368: 5361: 5354: 5347: 5340: 5331: 5324: 5318: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5299: 5298: 5284: 5257:(3): 613–624. 5240: 5173: 5132: 5095:(3): 698–705. 5072: 5037: 4992:(4): 783–786. 4972: 4957: 4922: 4895:(2): 137–157. 4879: 4834:(4): 783–786. 4814: 4787:(4): 339–356. 4771: 4736: 4708: 4642: 4623:(5): 869–889. 4604: 4547: 4510:(4): 783–786. 4490: 4460: 4433:(1): 114–134. 4417: 4380:(3): 649–663. 4364: 4297: 4278:(6): 691–706. 4258: 4217: 4172: 4129: 4102:(2): 535–549. 4086: 4059:(3): 620–634. 4043: 4016:(3): 869–884. 4000: 3971:(2): 364–382. 3955: 3913: 3892:10.1086/692670 3863: 3857:10.3386/w23490 3831: 3804:(3): 602–622. 3784: 3755:10.1086/257897 3749:(2): 135–150. 3729: 3720: 3704: 3690:10.1.1.31.1705 3683:(1): 117–142. 3663: 3622: 3581: 3562:(4): 749–765. 3543: 3508:(2): 192–203. 3488: 3461:(3): 572–583. 3445: 3407: 3372: 3356: 3343: 3327: 3311: 3295: 3260: 3251: 3214: 3170: 3158: 3138: 3125: 3096: 3087:|journal= 3056: 3044: 3031: 3022: 3011:(4): 797–813. 2995: 2986: 2972: 2936: 2927: 2918: 2899: 2897:, 3 April 2019 2895:Lowy Institute 2883: 2850: 2839:Lowy Institute 2825: 2814:The ASEAN Post 2800: 2782: 2771: 2741: 2714: 2684: 2654: 2627:(4): 653–667. 2607: 2562: 2533: 2524: 2515: 2502: 2490: 2463:(4): 629–667. 2457:World Politics 2443: 2418: 2389: 2370: 2361: 2335: 2282: 2269: 2255: 2246: 2223: 2221:, May 5, 2004. 2199: 2194:10.1086/715160 2188:(1): 578–584. 2170: 2159:(3): 973–996. 2141: 2130:(2): 167–181. 2114: 2069: 2060: 2037:10.1086/686804 2006: 1984: 1918: 1892: 1879: 1868:(3): 973–996. 1850: 1841: 1828: 1819: 1798: 1784:Greek Reporter 1770: 1752: 1723: 1704: 1686: 1675: 1643: 1630: 1607: 1598: 1559: 1518: 1451: 1443: 1420: 1403: 1394: 1376: 1351: 1350: 1348: 1345: 1336:Main article: 1333: 1330: 1324: 1323:Ballot secrecy 1321: 1304: 1301: 1265: 1262: 1256: 1253: 1243: 1240: 1202: 1199: 1184: 1181: 1137:George W. Bush 1114: 1111: 1099:European Union 1086: 1083: 1031: 1028: 1019: 1016: 1010: 1007: 950: 949: 943: 929: 919: 905: 904: 893: 890: 887: 884: 881: 878: 875: 846:Main article: 843: 840: 778: 775: 745: 744: 739:belief in the 737: 734: 731: 720:United Nations 681: 678: 656: 653: 635:demonstrations 609: 608: 573:of the subject 571:worldwide view 566: 564: 557: 543: 540: 487: 484: 424: 421: 419: 416: 358: 355: 353: 350: 344: 341: 324: 321: 288: 285: 234:Main article: 231: 228: 192:Main article: 189: 186: 169:Main article: 166: 163: 146:Main article: 143: 142:Ease of voting 140: 128:many elections 115: 112: 95: 92: 84:Michael McFaul 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5645: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5625: 5623: 5612: 5602: 5598: 5593: 5590: 5580:on 2008-05-14 5579: 5575: 5571: 5566: 5563: 5553:on 2008-12-10 5552: 5548: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5533: 5522: 5521: 5516: 5512: 5509: 5499:on 2008-06-07 5498: 5494: 5490: 5489:ElectionGuide 5486: 5482: 5479: 5468:on 2007-12-08 5467: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5452: 5442:on 2011-02-02 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5424: 5421: 5417: 5416: 5410: 5409: 5404: 5397: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5381: 5377: 5372: 5369: 5366: 5362: 5359: 5355: 5352: 5348: 5345: 5341: 5339: 5337: 5332: 5329: 5325: 5323: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5309: 5308: 5303: 5294: 5288: 5285: 5280: 5276: 5272: 5268: 5264: 5260: 5256: 5252: 5244: 5241: 5236: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5209: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5192: 5188: 5184: 5177: 5174: 5169: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5151: 5147: 5143: 5136: 5133: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5111: 5106: 5102: 5098: 5094: 5090: 5083: 5076: 5073: 5068: 5064: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5048: 5041: 5038: 5033: 5029: 5024: 5019: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4999: 4995: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4976: 4973: 4970: 4964: 4962: 4958: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4926: 4923: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4883: 4880: 4875: 4871: 4866: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4829: 4825: 4818: 4815: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4775: 4772: 4767: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4740: 4737: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4712: 4709: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4649: 4647: 4643: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4611: 4609: 4605: 4600: 4596: 4591: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4551: 4548: 4543: 4539: 4534: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4494: 4491: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4467: 4465: 4461: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4421: 4418: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4379: 4375: 4368: 4365: 4360: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4342: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4301: 4298: 4293: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4262: 4259: 4254: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4221: 4218: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4176: 4173: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4133: 4130: 4125: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4090: 4087: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4062: 4058: 4054: 4047: 4044: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4004: 4001: 3996: 3992: 3987: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3959: 3956: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3924: 3917: 3914: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3874: 3867: 3864: 3858: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3838: 3836: 3832: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3795: 3788: 3785: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3733: 3730: 3724: 3721: 3718: 3714: 3708: 3705: 3700: 3696: 3691: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3671:Eisinga, R.; 3667: 3664: 3659: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3626: 3623: 3618: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3585: 3582: 3577: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3550: 3548: 3544: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3492: 3489: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3449: 3446: 3434: 3430: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3411: 3408: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3376: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3360: 3357: 3353: 3347: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3331: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3312: 3308: 3307:Andrew Gelman 3304: 3299: 3296: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3264: 3261: 3255: 3252: 3236: 3232: 3225: 3218: 3215: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3179:Anthony Downs 3174: 3171: 3165: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3148: 3142: 3139: 3135: 3129: 3126: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3100: 3097: 3092: 3079: 3071: 3067: 3060: 3057: 3051: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3035: 3032: 3026: 3023: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 2999: 2996: 2990: 2987: 2982: 2976: 2973: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2940: 2937: 2934:Powell. p. 13 2931: 2928: 2922: 2919: 2914: 2910: 2903: 2900: 2896: 2893:, Ben Bland, 2892: 2887: 2884: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2854: 2851: 2840: 2836: 2829: 2826: 2815: 2811: 2804: 2801: 2798: 2794: 2791: 2786: 2783: 2780: 2775: 2772: 2759: 2755: 2748: 2746: 2742: 2729: 2725: 2718: 2715: 2702: 2698: 2691: 2689: 2685: 2672: 2671:brookings.edu 2668: 2661: 2659: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2611: 2608: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2578:(4): 111–43. 2577: 2573: 2566: 2563: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2537: 2534: 2528: 2525: 2522:Sclove p. 241 2519: 2516: 2512: 2506: 2503: 2500: 2494: 2491: 2486: 2482: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2462: 2458: 2454: 2447: 2444: 2433: 2429: 2422: 2419: 2414: 2408: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2386: 2382: 2381: 2374: 2371: 2365: 2362: 2351:on 2008-04-19 2350: 2346: 2339: 2336: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2286: 2283: 2279: 2273: 2270: 2265: 2259: 2256: 2250: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2236: 2232: 2227: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2209: 2203: 2200: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2182: 2174: 2171: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2153: 2145: 2142: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2118: 2115: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2098: 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2081: 2073: 2070: 2064: 2061: 2056: 2052: 2047: 2046:11250/2429132 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2025: 2017: 2010: 2007: 1994: 1988: 1985: 1973:on 2015-07-05 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1929: 1922: 1919: 1906: 1902: 1896: 1893: 1889: 1883: 1880: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1862: 1854: 1851: 1845: 1842: 1838: 1832: 1829: 1823: 1820: 1817: 1813: 1810: 1809: 1806:The Guardian 1802: 1799: 1786: 1785: 1780: 1774: 1771: 1766: 1762: 1756: 1753: 1740: 1736: 1730: 1728: 1724: 1719: 1715: 1708: 1705: 1700: 1696: 1690: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1676: 1664: 1663: 1658: 1652: 1650: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1634: 1631: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1617: 1611: 1608: 1602: 1599: 1594: 1590: 1586: 1582: 1578: 1574: 1570: 1563: 1560: 1555: 1551: 1546: 1541: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1522: 1519: 1514: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1487: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1455: 1452: 1446: 1440: 1436: 1435: 1427: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1407: 1404: 1398: 1395: 1391: 1385: 1383: 1381: 1377: 1366: 1362: 1356: 1353: 1346: 1344: 1339: 1331: 1329: 1322: 1320: 1316: 1314: 1310: 1302: 1300: 1296: 1294: 1290: 1286: 1282: 1278: 1277: 1271: 1270:precipitation 1263: 1261: 1255:Voter pledges 1254: 1252: 1250: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1231: 1228: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1208: 1200: 1198: 1195: 1194:felony record 1190: 1182: 1180: 1178: 1174: 1173:fixed effects 1170: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1150: 1146: 1145:John F. Kerry 1142: 1138: 1135: 1131: 1126: 1124: 1120: 1112: 1110: 1108: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1084: 1082: 1080: 1076: 1073:, is that of 1072: 1068: 1063: 1059: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1029: 1027: 1025: 1017: 1015: 1008: 1006: 1004: 1000: 995: 994:dictator game 991: 985: 983: 978: 976: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 947: 944: 941: 940:gratification 937: 933: 930: 927: 923: 920: 917: 913: 910: 909: 908: 891: 888: 885: 882: 879: 876: 873: 866: 865: 864: 861: 859: 855: 849: 841: 839: 837: 831: 828: 822: 820: 816: 812: 808: 807:Rock the Vote 804: 799: 795: 791: 784: 777:United States 776: 774: 771: 767: 766:working class 763: 758: 754: 749: 742: 738: 735: 732: 729: 728: 727: 724: 721: 717: 713: 708: 706: 702: 697: 695: 686: 679: 677: 674: 670: 665: 661: 654: 652: 649: 644: 638: 636: 632: 626: 624: 620: 616: 605: 602: 594: 591:December 2019 584: 580: 574: 572: 565: 556: 555: 548: 541: 539: 535: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 513: 509: 504: 502: 498: 494: 485: 483: 480: 478: 473: 471: 466: 462: 460: 456: 452: 448: 446: 442: 438: 434: 430: 429: 422: 417: 415: 411: 409: 404: 402: 396: 394: 390: 386: 384: 380: 376: 374: 373:Ballots Cast: 370: 368: 364: 363: 356: 351: 349: 342: 340: 338: 334: 330: 322: 320: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 297: 293: 286: 284: 282: 278: 274: 269: 267: 263: 259: 255: 251: 247: 243: 237: 229: 227: 224: 220: 216: 212: 207: 205: 201: 195: 187: 185: 183: 179: 172: 171:Voter fatigue 165:Voter fatigue 164: 162: 159: 155: 149: 141: 139: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 113: 111: 109: 105: 100: 93: 91: 87: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 64:voter turnout 61: 53: 48: 41: 37: 32: 19: 5610: 5604:. 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Retrieved 3235:the original 3230: 3217: 3200: 3196: 3182: 3173: 3141: 3133: 3128: 3117:. Retrieved 3108: 3099: 3078:cite journal 3059: 3034: 3025: 3008: 3004: 2998: 2989: 2975: 2953:(1): 19–34. 2950: 2946: 2939: 2930: 2921: 2912: 2908: 2902: 2886: 2875:. Retrieved 2864:The Guardian 2863: 2853: 2842:. Retrieved 2838: 2833:Bland, Ben. 2828: 2817:. Retrieved 2813: 2803: 2785: 2774: 2762:. Retrieved 2757: 2732:. Retrieved 2727: 2717: 2705:. Retrieved 2700: 2675:. Retrieved 2670: 2624: 2620: 2610: 2575: 2571: 2565: 2554:. Retrieved 2545: 2536: 2531:Putnam p. 61 2527: 2518: 2510: 2505: 2498: 2493: 2460: 2456: 2446: 2435:. Retrieved 2431: 2421: 2379: 2373: 2364: 2353:. Retrieved 2349:the original 2338: 2295: 2291: 2285: 2277: 2272: 2258: 2249: 2226: 2202: 2185: 2179: 2173: 2156: 2150: 2144: 2127: 2123: 2117: 2084: 2078: 2072: 2063: 2028: 2022: 2009: 1997:. Retrieved 1987: 1975:. Retrieved 1971:the original 1938: 1934: 1921: 1909:. 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1143:challenger 916:probability 858:game theory 811:Vote or Die 809:" and the " 619:noncitizens 459:citizenship 441:citizenship 296:Switzerland 5622:Categories 5606:2008-06-23 5584:2008-06-24 5557:2008-06-23 5527:2008-06-24 5503:2008-06-24 5472:2008-06-24 5446:2008-06-24 5365:Who Votes? 5304:References 3439:2017-08-17 3119:2016-11-05 2877:2023-05-13 2844:2023-05-13 2819:2023-05-13 2556:2016-11-05 2437:2022-05-10 2355:2008-05-23 1370:2018-10-11 1338:Abstention 1291:, while a 1141:Democratic 1075:time zones 936:civic duty 798:Attack ads 762:multiparty 743:of voting. 532:voting age 528:voting age 508:voting age 455:voting age 367:Signed-in: 337:tactically 301:referendum 80:voting-age 5478:reversed. 5396:154699757 5279:157684156 5271:2049-8470 5217:1932-6203 5168:0190-9320 5119:0003-0554 5067:0261-3794 5014:1432-1254 4952:0176-2680 4909:1476-3427 4856:1432-1254 4801:1554-0626 4766:0261-3794 4687:1432-1254 4455:128473916 4447:1549-6929 4404:1468-2508 4382:CiteSeerX 4341:1932-6203 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