Reinforcement (speciation) - Knowledge (XXG)

1544: 1659:(1) mating traits are identified in the focal species; (2) mating traits are affected by a species interaction, such that selection on mating traits is likely; (3) species interactions differ among populations (present vs. absent, or different species interactions affecting mating traits in each population); (4) mating traits (signal and/or preference) differ among populations due to differences in species interactions; (5) speciation requires showing that mating trait divergence results in complete or near complete sexual isolation among populations. Results will be most informative in a well-resolved biogeographic setting where the relationship and history among populations is known. 1683: 915: 1377: 40: 1496: 1562:, and strength of both prezygotic and postzygotic isolation; finding that prezygotic isolation was significantly stronger in sympatric pairs, correlating with the ages of the species. Additionally, the strength of post-zygotic isolation was not different between sympatric and allopatric pairs. This finding supports the predictions of speciation by reinforcement and correlates well with a later study that found 33 studies expressing patterns of strong prezygotic isolation in 814: 80: 6042: 4719: 635: 6052: 4743: 1716:), selection against the low-fitness hybrids favors assortive mating, increasing mate discrimination rapidly. Additionally, when there is a low cost to female mate preferences, changes in male phenotypes can result, expressing a pattern identical to that of reproductive character displacement. Post-zygotic isolation is not needed, initiated simply by the fact that unfit hybrids cannot get mates. 622: 4755: 4731: 1445:(a hybrid unable to mature into a fit adult) and sterility (the inability to produce offspring entirely) prohibit gene flow between populations. Selection against the hybrids can even be driven by any failure to obtain a mate, as it is effectively indistinguishable from sterility—each circumstance results in no offspring. 1929:

In addition, specific alleles that have the selective advantage within the overlapped populations are only useful within that population. However, if they are selectively advantageous, gene flow should allow the alleles to spread throughout both populations. To prevent this, the alleles would have to

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Phylogenetic signature to distinguish sympatric speciation from reinforcement. Stronger prezygotic isolation (indicated by the red boxes and associated arrows) should be detected between Z and Y and between Z and X if species Z sympatrically speciated (green) from the common ancestor of species Y and

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Assortive mating is expected to increase among sympatric populations experiencing reinforcement. This fact allows for the direct comparison of the strength of prezygotic isolation in sympatry and allopatry between different experiments and studies. Coyne and Orr surveyed 171 species pairs, collecting

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A parameter space representing the conditions in which speciation by reinforcement can occur. Here, three outcomes can arise: 1) extinction of one of the initial populations; 2) the initial populations can hybridize; 3) the initial populations can speciate. The outcomes are determined by both initial

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The structure and migration patterns of a population can affect the process of speciation by reinforcement. It has been shown to occur under an island model, harboring conditions with infrequent migrations occurring in one direction, and in symmetric migration models where species migrate evenly back

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in nature is sexual isolation: traits in organisms involving mating. This pattern has led to the idea that, because selection acts so strongly on mating traits, it may be involved in the process of speciation. This process of speciation influenced by natural selection is reinforcement, and can happen

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causes the loss of the unfit allele. This effect would result in the extinction of one of the populations. This objection is overcome by when both populations are not subject to the same ecological conditions. Though, it is still possible for extinction of one population to occur, and has been shown

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A number of objections were put forth, mainly during the 1980s, arguing that reinforcement is implausible. Most rely on theoretical work which suggested that the antagonism between the forces of natural selection and gene flow were the largest barriers to its feasibility. These objections have since

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Various alternative explanations for the patterns observed in nature have been proposed. There is no single, overarching signature of reinforcement; however, there are two proposed possibilities: that of sex asymmetry (where females in sympatric populations are forced to become choosy in the face of

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Speciation by reinforcement relies directly on selection to favor an increase in prezygotic isolation, and the nature of selection's role in reinforcement has been widely discussed, with models applying varying approaches. Selection acting on hybrids can occur in several different ways. All hybrids

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of traits for mate recognition (specifically between sympatric populations). Reinforcement, under his definition, included prezygotic divergence and complete post-zygotic isolation. Servedio and Noor include any detected increase in prezygotic isolation as reinforcement, as long as it is a response

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the two populations mate, producing hybrids with lower fitness. Natural selection results from the hybrid's inability to produce viable offspring; thus members of one species who do not mate with members of the other have greater reproductive success. This favors the evolution of greater prezygotic

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itself may result in the observed patterns of reinforcement. One method of distinguishing between the two is to construct a phylogenetic history of the species, as the strength of prezygotic isolation between a group of related species should differ according to how they speciated in the past. Two

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It is possible that the pattern of enhanced isolation could simply be a temporary outcome of secondary contact where two allopatric species already have a varying range of prezygotic isolation: with some exhibiting more than others. Those that have weaker prezygotic isolation will eventually fuse,

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to select for a trait (regardless of its function in sexual reproduction). Many experiments using the destroy-the-hybrids technique are generally cited as supportive of reinforcement; however, some researchers such as Coyne and Orr and William R. Rice and Ellen E. Hostert contend that they do not

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can result in the same patterns. Further, gene flow can diminish the isolation found in sympatric populations. Two important factors in the outcome of the process rely on: 1) the specific mechanisms that causes prezygotic isolation, and 2) the number of alleles altered by mutations affecting mate

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frogs within a secondary contact hybrid zone. The term secondary contact has also been used to describe reinforcement in the context of an allopatrically separated population experiencing contact after the loss of a geographic barrier. The Wallace effect is similar to reinforcement, but is rarely

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Reinforcement can be shown to be occurring (or to have occurred in the past) by measuring the strength of prezygotic isolation in a sympatric population in comparison to an allopatric population of the same species. Comparative studies of this allow for determining large-scale patterns in nature

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Concerns about hybrid fitness playing a role in reinforcement has led to objections based on the relationship between selection and recombination. That is, if gene flow is not zero (if hybrids aren't completely unfit), selection cannot drive the fixation of alleles for prezygotic isolation. For

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find high levels of prezygotic isolation in sympatry but not in allopatry. The fusion hypothesis predicts that strong isolation should be found in both allopatry and sympatry. This fusion process is thought to occur in nature, but does not fully explain the patterns found with reinforcement.

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is seen as a result of reinforcement, so many of the cases in nature express this pattern in sympatry. Reinforcement's ubiquity is unknown, but the patterns of reproductive character displacement are found across numerous taxa and is considered to be a common occurrence in nature. Studies of

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Dobzhansky's idea gained significant support; he suggested that it illustrated the final step in speciation, for example after an allopatric population comes into secondary contact. In the 1980s, many evolutionary biologists began to doubt the plausibility of the idea, based not on empirical

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occasionally hybridize with one another, resulting in fertile female offspring and sterile male offspring. This natural setting was reproduced in the laboratory, directly modeling reinforcement: the removal of some hybrids and the allowance of varying levels of gene flow. The results of the

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By the early 1990s, reinforcement saw a revival in popularity among evolutionary biologists; due primarily from a sudden increase in data—empirical evidence from studies in labs and largely by examples found in nature. Further, computer simulations of the genetics and migration patterns of

1031:, selection against hybrids is required; therefore reinforcement can play a role, given the evolution of some form of fitness trade-offs. In sympatry, patterns of strong mating discrimination are often observed—being attributed to reinforcement. Reinforcement is thought to be the agent of 854:, and in 1965 and 1970 the first computer simulations were run to test for its plausibility. Later population genetic and quantitative genetic studies were conducted showing that completely unfit hybrids lead unequivocally to an increase in prezygotic isolation. 1535:

reinforcement in nature often prove difficult, as alternative explanations for the detected patterns can be asserted. Nevertheless, empirical evidence exists for reinforcement occurring across various taxa and its role in precipitating speciation is conclusive.

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losing their distinctiveness. This hypothesis does not explain the fact that individual species in allopatry, experiencing consistent gene flow, would not differ in levels of gene flow upon secondary contact. Furthermore, patterns detected in

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be deleterious or neutral. This is not without problems, as gene flow from the presumably large allopatric regions could overwhelm the area when two populations overlap. For reinforcement to work, gene flow must be present, but very limited.

1503:, divergence is exhibited by changes in mating traits. These patterns of reproductive character displacement detected in species populations that exist in zones of overlap indicate that the process of speciation by reinforcement has occurred. 1623:

can also play a role in the observed patterns—called ecological character displacement. Natural selection may drive the reduction of an overlap of niches between species instead of acting to reduce hybridization Though one experiment in

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evidence, but largely on the growth of theory that deemed it an unlikely mechanism of reproductive isolation. A number of theoretical objections arose at the time and are addressed in the Arguments against reinforcement section below.

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as to the plausibility of its occurrence. Since the 1990s, data from theory, experiments, and nature have overcome many of the past objections, rendering reinforcement widely accepted, though its prevalence in nature remains unknown.

735:). Reinforcement is one of the few cases in which selection can favor an increase in prezygotic isolation, influencing the process of speciation directly. This aspect has been particularly appealing among evolutionary biologists. 1433:

or indirectly. In direct selection, the frequency of the selected allele is favored to the extreme. In cases where an allele is indirectly selected, its frequency increases due to a different linked allele experiencing selection

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The support for reinforcement has fluctuated since its inception, and terminological confusion and differences in usage over history have led to multiple meanings and complications. Various objections have been raised by

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to selection against mating between two different species. Coyne and Orr contend that, "true reinforcement is restricted to cases in which isolation is enhanced between taxa that can still exchange genes".

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fruit flies. In general, two types of experiments have been conducted: using artificial selection to mimic natural selection that eliminates the hybrids (often called "destroy-the-hybrids"), and using

1356:, as it can reduce the association between the alleles that involve fitness and the assortive mating alleles that do not. Genetic models often differ in terms of the number of traits associated with 874:) using highly complex computer simulations; all of which came to similar conclusions: that reinforcement is plausible under several conditions, and in many cases, is easier than previously thought. 1933:

Recent studies suggest reinforcement can occur under a wider range of conditions than previously thought and that the effect of gene flow can be overcome by selection. For example, the two species

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if two recently speciated taxa do not show signs of post-zygotic isolation of both sympatric and allopatric populations (in sympatric speciation, post-zygotic isolation is not a prerequisite);

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barrier separates a species population into two but they come into contact before reproductive isolation is sufficient to result in speciation. The two populations fuse back into one species

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Daniel Ortíz-Barrientos, Alicia Grealy, and Patrik Nosil (2009), "The Genetics and Ecology of Reinforcement: Implications for the Evolution of Prezygotic Isolation in Sympatry and Beyond",

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In conjunction with the fusion hypothesis, reinforcement can be thought of as a race against both fusion and extinction. The production of unfit hybrids is effectively the same as a

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X. If Z, Y, and X speciated allopatrically (blue), with Z and Y experiencing secondary contact, strong prezygotic isolation should be found between Z and Y, but not between Z and X.

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Some initial divergence in mate preference must be present for reinforcement to occur. Any traits that promote isolation may be subjected to reinforcement such as mating signals (

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Species interactions can also result in reproductive character displacement (in both mate preference or mating signal). Examples include predation and competition pressures,

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demarcated incomplete post-zygotic isolation from complete isolation, referring to incomplete isolation as reinforcement and completely isolated populations as experiencing

1349:. A restriction of migration between populations can further increase the chance of reinforcement, as it decreases the probability of the differing genotypes to exchange. 1612:. Coyne and Orr extend the sex asymmetry signature and contend that, regardless of the change seen in females and males in sympatry, isolation is driven more by females. 3547:

Maria R. Servedio (2001), "Beyond reinforcement: The evolution of premating isolation by direct selection on preferences and postmating, prezygotic incompatibilities",

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Michael L. Cain, Viggo Andreasen, and Daniel J. Howard (1999), "Reinforcing selection is effective under a relatively broad set of conditions in a mosaic hybrid zone",

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experiment strongly suggested that reinforcement works under a variety of conditions, with the evolution of sexual isolation arising in 5–10 fruit fly generations.

1027:, reinforcement is unlikely to complete speciation in the case that the peripherally isolated population comes into secondary contact with the main population. In 1924: 1898: 666: 1143: 1120: 1094: 1071: 1872: 1852: 1832: 1812: 1792: 1772: 1752: 1566:. A survey of the rates of speciation in fish and their associated hybrid zones found similar patterns in sympatry, supporting the occurrence of reinforcement. 1243: 1223: 1203: 1183: 1163: 4759: 4823: 274: 585: 1007:

After speciation by reinforcement occurs, changes after complete reproductive isolation (and further isolation thereafter) are a form of reproductive

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J. A. Sved (1981), "A Two-Sex Polygenic Model for the Evolution of Premating Isolation. I. Deterministic Theory for Natural Populations",

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like reinforcement". The most recent theoretical work on speciation has come from several studies (notably from Liou and Price, Kelly and

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and N. R. Lovejoy. (1998). The relative rate of sympatric and allopatric speciation in fishes. In D. J. Howard and S. H. Berlocher (eds)

5873: 4793: 1245:, assortive mating is promoted, resulting in reinforcement. Both selection and assortive mating are necessary, that is, that matings of 1012: 894: 5535: 5195: 2800: 2659: 659: 388: 219: 882:

Confusion exists around the meaning of the term reinforcement. It was first used to describe the observed mating call differences in

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The underlying genetics of reinforcement can be understood by an ideal model of two haploid populations experiencing an increase in

1400:. It is possible that, when two species come into secondary contact, one population can become extinct—primarily due to low hybrid 5607: 5205: 2847:

Conrad J. Hoskin and Megan Higgie (2010), "Speciation via species interactions: the divergence of mating traits within species",

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Hamish G. Spencer, Brian H. McArdle, and David M. Lambert (1986), "A Theoretical Investigation of Speciation by Reinforcement",

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Conrad J. Hoskin, Megan Higgie, Keith R. McDonald, and Craig Moritz (2005), "Reinforcement drives rapid allopatric speciation",

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produced may be equality low-fitness, conferring a broad disadvantage. In other cases, selection may favor multiple and varying

5852: 5842: 5766: 5041: 4276: 1604:: any of the alleles experiencing selection for isolation should be dominate. Though this signature does not fully account for 378: 346: 5169: 2758:

Howard, Daniel J. (1993). "Reinforcement: origin, dynamics and fate of an evolutionary hypothesis". In Harrison, R. G. (ed.).

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if a cline exists between two species over a range of traits (sympatric speciation does not require a cline to exist at all).

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Laboratory studies that explicitly test for reinforcement are limited, with many of the experiments having been conducted on

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was the first to provide a thorough description of the process in 1937, though the term itself was not coined until 1955 by

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William R. Rice and Ellen E. Hostert (1993), "Laboratory Experiments on Speciation: What Have We Learned in 40 Years?",

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J. K. Kelly and Mohamed A. F. Noor (1996), "Speciation by reinforcement: a model derived from studies of Drosophila",

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Stanley Sawyer and Daniel Hartl (1981), "On the evolution of behavioral reproductive isolation: The Wallace effect",

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Mark Kirkpatrick and Virginie Ravigné (2002), "Speciation by Natural and Sexual Selection: Models and Experiments",

1682: 4925: 1185:(the assortive mating alleles) have an effect on mating pattern but is not under direct selection. If selection at 914: 126: 1479:), or even egg receptivity. Individuals may also discriminate against mates that differ in various traits such as 5545: 5342: 5152: 4920: 4813: 492: 467: 447: 427: 104: 4630: 4430: 4174: 5968: 5832: 5804: 5779: 5736: 5639: 5632: 5572: 5320: 5288: 5261: 5251: 4590: 4403: 1926:

genotypes will experience recombination in the face of gene flow. Somehow, the populations must be maintained.

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exists, both in the laboratory and in nature. Documented examples are found in a wide range of organisms: both

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M. J. Littlejohn (1981). Reproductive isolation: A critical review. In W. R. Atchley and D. S. Woodruff (eds)

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L. Partridge and G. A. Parker. (1999). Sexual conflict and speciation. In A. E. Magurran and R. M. May (eds)

1015:; characteristics of a population diverge in sympatry but not allopatry. One difficulty in detection is that 990:

Butlin laid out four primary criteria for reinforcement to be detected in natural or laboratory populations:

5973: 5903: 5812: 5540: 5422: 5190: 4786: 702:) between two populations of species. This occurs as a result of selection acting against the production of 595: 502: 497: 442: 403: 204: 4677: 1987: 1376: 747:

Numerous models have been developed to understand its operation in nature, most relying on several facets:

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Joseph Felsenstein (1981), "Skepticism Towards Santa Rosalia, or Why are There so Few Kinds of Animals?",

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Claudia Bank, Joachim Hermission, and Mark Kirkpatrick (2012), "Can reinforcement complete speciation?",

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Jeremy L. Marshall, Michael L. Arnold, and Daniel J. Howard (2002), "Reinforcement: the road not taken",

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Mark Kirkpatrick and Maria R. Servedio (1999), "The reinforcement of mating preferences on an island",

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Troy Day (2000), "Sexual Selection and the Evolution of Costly Female Preferences: Spatial Effects",

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Reinforcement has had a complex history in that its popularity among scholars has changed over time.

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Hannes Schuler, Glen R. Hood, Scott P. Egan, and Jeffrey L. Feder (2016), Meyers, Robert A (ed.),

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in population simulations. For reinforcement to occur, prezygotic isolation must happen quickly.

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Other selection pressures leading to divergence of the mate-recognition system have not occurred.

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such as in the case of a mosaic hybrid zone. Natural selection can act on specific alleles both

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Lily W. Liou and Trevor D. Price (1994), "Speciation by reinforcement of premating isolation",

1553:. Gradients indicate the predictions of reinforcement for allopatric and sympatric populations. 1326: 1300: 1274: 1248: 6005: 5731: 5679: 5273: 5174: 5137: 5132: 5088: 5083: 5036: 5002: 4646: 4618: 4600: 4566: 4373: 4253: 4178: 4136: 4086: 4041: 3992: 3934: 3851: 3780: 3722: 3679: 3660: 3618: 3566: 3530: 3488: 3441: 3422: 3371: 3332: 3285: 3240: 3182: 3136: 3117: 3081: 3032: 2979: 2924: 2872: 2796: 2763: 2729: 2655: 2604: 2494: 2436: 2387: 2323: 2269: 2250: 2174: 2063: 2020: 2007: 1939: 1713: 1461: 1457: 1401: 1048: 984: 980: 968: 813: 799:

contend that the theory of reinforcement went through three phases of historical development:

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Maria R. Servedio and Mark Kirkpatrick (1997), "The effects of gene flow on reinforcement",

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A. A. Harper and D. M. Lambert (1983), "The population genetics of reinforcing selection",

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The condition of the hybrids under selection can play a role in post-zygotic isolation, as

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in 1889. His hypothesis differed markedly from the modern conception in that it focused on

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other ways to determine if reinforcement occurs (as opposed to sympatric speciation) are:

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truly model reinforcement, as gene flow is completely restricted between two populations.

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Population densities are an important factor in reinforcement, often in conjunction with

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J. A. Moore. (1957). An embryologist's view of the species concept. In Ernst Mayr (eds)

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Alan R. Templeton (1981), "Mechanisms of Speciation – A Population Genetic Approach",

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Gene flow between two taxa exists or can be established to have existed at some point.

897:. Daniel J. Howard considered reproductive character displacement to represent either 6070: 6000: 5878: 5837: 5683: 5577: 5452: 5437: 5105: 5100: 4703: 3112: 2868: 2564: 2413: 2246: 1643:. Because these and other factors can result in reproductive character displacement, 845: 809:

plausibility based on empirical studies and biologically complex and realistic models

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Daniel R. Matute (2010), "Reinforcement Can Overcome Gene Flow during Speciation in

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comes from observations in nature, comparative studies, and laboratory experiments.

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N. H. Barton and G. M. Hewitt (1989), "Adaptation, speciation and hybrid zones",

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Mark Kirkpatrick (2000), "Reinforcement and divergence under assortive mating",

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Maria R. Servedio (2000), "Reinforcement and the genetics of nonrandom mating",

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give five criteria for reinforcement to be distinguished between ecological and

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Patterns of mating are modified, limiting the production of low fitness hybrids.

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H. E. H. Paterson (1978), "More evidence against speciation by reinforcement",

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Mohamed A. F. Noor (1997), "How often does sympatry affect sexual isolation in

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Prezygotic isolation in allopatric (red) and sympatric (blue) species pairs of

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isolation (differences in behavior or biology that inhibit formation of hybrid

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accompanied by high population growth rates. Extinction is less likely if the

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Sometimes called the Wallace effect, reinforcement was originally proposed by

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proposed in 1889 that isolation could be strengthened by a form of selection.

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Maria R. Servedio (2004), "The What and Why of Research on Reinforcement",

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laid out the first genetic description of the process of reinforcement in

621: 5920: 5268: 5122: 3820:"Reinforcement of stickleback mate preferences: Sympatry breeds contempt" 1652: 1632: 1361: 976: 748: 565: 164: 3656: 1011:. A common signature of reinforcement's occurrence in nature is that of 5562: 5462: 5310: 5305: 5019: 4771: 4626: 4461: 4305: 3526: 3281: 2897:

Mark Kirkpatrick (2001), "Reinforcement during ecological speciation",

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has the prezygotic allele a and the high fitness, post-zygotic alleles

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Mohamed A. F. Noor (1995), "Speciation driven by natural-selection in

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Jerry A. Coyne and H. Allen Orr (1997), ""Patterns of Speciation in

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Blair, W. Frank (1955), "Mating call and stage of speciation in the

2202:(2003), "The Role of Reinforcement in Speciation: Theory and Data", 1981: 1979: 1977: 1389:(patchy distributions of parental forms and subpopulations), and in 4358: 4209:, American Association for the Advancement of Science, pp. 325–338. 4082: 4037: 2783:

John A. Hvala and Troy E. Wood (2012). "Speciation: Introduction".

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There is divergence of mating-associated traits between two taxa.

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results in speciation of the two populations, with an additional

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Daniel R. Matute (2010), "Reinforcement of Gametic Isolation in

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Neil Sanderson (1989), "Can gene flow prevent reinforcement?",

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fish that explicitly tested this hypotheses found no evidence.

4388: 928:

3. Two separated populations stay genetically distinct while

2368:(1999), "Reinforcement and other consequences of sympatry", 4175:

10.1554/0014-3820(2000)054[0715:SSATEO]2.3.CO;2

1499:

Two allopatric populations come into secondary contact. In

1385:

Reinforcement can also occur in single populations, mosaic

1360:; with some relying on one locus per trait and others on 1352:

An alternative model exists to address the antagonism of

1416:

individuals can still survive long enough to reproduce.

1145:

alleles (in the second subpopulation). The third locus

963:). It necessitates two forces of evolution that act on 751:, population structures, influences of selection, and 718:. The modern concept of reinforcement originates from 1906: 1880: 1860: 1840: 1820: 1800: 1780: 1760: 1740: 1329: 1303: 1277: 1251: 1231: 1211: 1191: 1171: 1151: 1128: 1105: 1079: 1056: 3959: 3957: 3955: 3881:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

3306: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3298: 2204:

Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

5936: 5861: 5765: 5692: 5648: 5503: 5407: 5224: 5183: 5052: 4842: 4660: 4609: 4552: 4500: 4454: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2193: 2191: 2189: 1725:been largely contradicted by evidence from nature. 806:

implausibility based on hybrids having some fitness

4270: 4268: 4266: 3255: 3253: 2038: 2036: 1918: 1892: 1866: 1846: 1826: 1806: 1786: 1766: 1746: 1341: 1315: 1289: 1263: 1237: 1217: 1197: 1177: 1157: 1137: 1114: 1088: 1065: 3008: 3006: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2998: 2996: 2994: 2992: 4064: 4062: 4015: 4013: 3874: 3872: 2228: 2226: 2224: 3347: 3345: 1381:divergence and level of fitness of the hybrids. 3160: 3158: 3156: 3154: 3152: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2289: 2287: 2285: 1992:Reviews in Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine 1487:. Many of these examples are described below. 4787: 4404: 4217: 4215: 2753: 2751: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2711: 2709: 2412:Roger K. Butlin and Carole M. Smadja (2018), 2157: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2147: 2145: 2143: 2141: 2139: 2137: 2135: 2133: 2131: 2129: 2127: 2125: 2123: 2121: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2109: 2107: 2105: 2103: 2101: 2099: 660: 8: 4378:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4201: 4199: 3684:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3446:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3141:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2274:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2097: 2095: 2093: 2091: 2089: 2087: 2085: 2083: 2081: 2079: 2068:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 2025:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 1099:combinations while favoring combinations of 783:and may become more relevant in the future. 27:Process of increasing reproductive isolation 3398: 3396: 3394: 3392: 3062:"What do we need to know about speciation?" 3060:The Marie Curie SPECIATION Network (2012), 3055: 3053: 2762:. Oxford University Press. pp. 46–69. 2642:Glenn-Peter Sætre (2012). "Reinforcement". 2637: 2491:Natural Selection: Methods and Applications 2360: 2358: 2356: 1774:and the high fitness, post-zygotic alleles 4794: 4780: 4772: 4411: 4397: 4389: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2623: 2621: 2619: 2617: 2479:, Cambridge University Press, Pp. 298–334. 2354: 2352: 2350: 2348: 2346: 2344: 2342: 2340: 2338: 2336: 2235:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1530:can also be used to detect reinforcement. 667: 653: 62: 59:of two separated populations of a species. 4278:"Reinforcement" and the origin of species 4247: 3845: 3835: 3716: 3612: 3560: 3482: 3416: 3365: 3234: 3224: 3111: 3026: 2973: 2918: 2760:Hybrid Zones and the Evolutionary Process 2598: 2414:"Coupling, Reinforcement, and Speciation" 2381: 2317: 2307: 1905: 1879: 1859: 1839: 1819: 1799: 1779: 1759: 1739: 1328: 1302: 1276: 1250: 1230: 1225:cause changes in the frequency of allele 1210: 1190: 1170: 1150: 1127: 1122:alleles (in the first subpopulation) and 1104: 1078: 1055: 851:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 6028:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 2216:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132412 1526:across various taxa. Mating patterns in 1509:Evidence for speciation by reinforcement 779:. This has implications for measures of 3753:, Oxford University Press, pp. 172–185. 2720:. In Otte, D.; Endler, John A. (eds.). 2465:. Macmillan & Co. pp. 174–179. 1973: 1393:populations with narrow contact zones. 918:The four outcomes of secondary contact: 710:. The idea was originally developed by 70: 4371: 3677: 3439: 3134: 2818: 2808: 2718:"Reinforcement of premating isolation" 2677: 2667: 2267: 2173:, Sinauer Associates, pp. 1–545, 2061: 2018: 5791:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 3808:. Oxford University Press, pp.130–159 3751:Endless Forms: Species and Speciation 3311:Michael Turelli; Nicholas H. Barton; 942:. All three species are separated by 7: 4730: 1988:"Modes and Mechanisms of Speciation" 1754:has the prezygotic isolating allele 1616:Ecological or ethological influences 1576:Laboratory experiments of speciation 722:. He envisioned a species separated 714:and is sometimes referred to as the 4754: 3971:(1989), "Patterns of speciation in 3893:10.1146/annurev.es.12.110181.000323 2793:10.1002/9780470015902.a0001709.pub3 2652:10.1002/9780470015902.a0001754.pub3 1691:It is possible that the process of 1532:Reproductive character displacement 1013:reproductive character displacement 895:reproductive character displacement 803:plausibility based on unfit hybrids 5196:Evolutionary developmental biology 3989:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1989.tb04233.x 3837:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1998.tb05153.x 3777:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1993.tb01257.x 3718:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1997.tb02412.x 3562:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2001.tb01309.x 3463:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 3418:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1999.tb05399.x 3367:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb00003.x 3179:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1997.tb05100.x 3028:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1994.tb02187.x 2899:Proceedings of the Royal Society B 2700:Genetics and the Origin of Species 2531:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1955.tb01556.x 2515:Microhyla olivacea-M. carolinensis 959:geographic modes of speciation or 25: 3806:Evolution of Biological Diversity 3317:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 3315:(2001), "Theory and speciation", 3066:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2045:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 1712:In a runaway process (not unlike 1610:ecological character displacement 1600:two differing males) and that of 1017:ecological character displacement 6050: 6041: 6040: 4753: 4741: 4729: 4718: 4717: 4328:South African Journal of Science 3113:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2011.01423.x 2869:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01448.x 2247:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04919.x 1297:are more common than matings of 634: 633: 620: 78: 5853:Extended evolutionary synthesis 5042:Gene-centered view of evolution 2724:. Sinauer Associates. pp. 2722:Speciation and its Consequences 2461:Wallace, Alfred Russel (1889). 1720:Arguments against reinforcement 1558:data on their geographic mode, 1373:and forth between populations. 775:or the modification of natural 627:Evolutionary biology portal 5981:Hologenome theory of evolution 5848:History of molecular evolution 5074:Evolutionarily stable strategy 4963:Last universal common ancestor 2553:Theoretical Population Biology 1047:. Here, selection rejects low 955:under any mode of speciation ( 950:One of the strongest forms of 926:2. Speciation by reinforcement 862:populations found, "something 586:Creation–evolution controversy 340:History of evolutionary theory 1: 6082:Evolutionary biology concepts 5775:Renaissance and Enlightenment 3329:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02177-2 2785:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences 2644:Encyclopedia of Life Sciences 2057:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02636-8 5986:Missing heritability problem 5613:Gamete differentiation/sexes 3226:10.1371/journal.pbio.1000341 2702:. Columbia University Press. 2565:10.1016/0040-5809(81)90021-6 2309:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020420 1466:location of breeding grounds 571:Evolution as fact and theory 4748:Evolutionary biology Portal 3605:10.1093/genetics/143.3.1485 1960:; whereby a deviation from 1714:Fisherian runaway selection 932:form in the zone of contact 6103: 5618:Life cycles/nuclear phases 5170:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 3078:10.1016/j.tree.2011.09.002 2966:10.1093/genetics/151.2.865 1573: 1515:evidence for reinforcement 1506: 1449:Mating and mate preference 606:Nature-nurture controversy 31: 6036: 5116:Parent–offspring conflict 4921:Earliest known life forms 4809: 4713: 4426: 4240:10.1016/j.cub.2010.11.036 3818:Howard D. Rundle (1998), 2716:Butlin, Roger K. (1989). 2591:10.1093/genetics/97.1.197 1958:heterozygote disadvantage 1342:{\displaystyle A\times a} 1316:{\displaystyle a\times A} 1290:{\displaystyle a\times a} 1264:{\displaystyle A\times A} 757:support for reinforcement 493:Evolutionary neuroscience 468:Evolutionary epistemology 448:Evolutionary anthropology 428:Applications of evolution 5969:Cultural group selection 5833:The eclipse of Darwinism 5805:On the Origin of Species 5780:Transmutation of species 4591:Nonecological speciation 2493:, CRC Press, p. 3, 2477:Evolution and Speciation 1468:, the timing of mating ( 483:Evolutionary linguistics 478:Evolutionary game theory 453:Evolutionary computation 32:Not to be confused with 5974:Dual inheritance theory 5813:History of paleontology 4347:The American Naturalist 4275:Jerry A. Coyne (2010), 4071:The American Naturalist 4026:The American Naturalist 2489:Mario A. Fares (2015), 2421:The American Naturalist 1734:example: If population 985:genotypes to homogenize 741:evolutionary biologists 596:Objections to evolution 503:Evolutionary psychology 498:Evolutionary physiology 443:Evolutionary aesthetics 422:Fields and applications 404:History of paleontology 5662:Punctuated equilibrium 4983:Non-adaptive radiation 4931:Evolutionary arms race 4696:Punctuated equilibrium 4652:Character displacement 4472:Reproductive isolation 4441:Laboratory experiments 3475:10.1098/rspb.2000.1191 2911:10.1098/rspb.2000.1427 2696:Dobzhansky, Theodosius 2383:10.1038/sj.hdy.6886320 1943:on the African island 1920: 1894: 1868: 1848: 1828: 1808: 1788: 1768: 1748: 1688: 1661: 1606:fixation probabilities 1595:Alternative hypotheses 1570:Laboratory experiments 1554: 1504: 1477:allochronic speciation 1436:linkage disequilibrium 1382: 1343: 1317: 1291: 1265: 1239: 1219: 1199: 1179: 1159: 1139: 1116: 1090: 1067: 1045:linkage disequilibrium 1009:character displacement 952:reproductive isolation 947: 870:, and Kirkpatrick and 830:post-zygotic isolation 821: 700:post-zygotic isolation 692:reproductive isolation 528:Speciation experiments 508:Experimental evolution 463:Evolutionary economics 285:Recent human evolution 143:Processes and outcomes 60: 43:Reinforcement assists 5954:Evolutionary medicine 5828:Mendelian inheritance 5536:Biological complexity 5524:Programmed cell death 5216:Phenotypic plasticity 4936:Evolutionary pressure 4926:Evidence of evolution 4824:Timeline of evolution 4577:Ecological speciation 4492:Evidence of evolution 1921: 1895: 1869: 1849: 1829: 1809: 1789: 1769: 1749: 1685: 1657: 1546: 1498: 1379: 1368:Population structures 1344: 1318: 1292: 1266: 1240: 1220: 1200: 1180: 1160: 1140: 1117: 1091: 1068: 1025:peripatric speciation 961:ecological speciation 946:reproductive barriers 917: 838:Theodosius Dobzhansky 826:Alfred Russel Wallace 818:Alfred Russel Wallace 816: 755:behaviors. Empirical 720:Theodosius Dobzhansky 712:Alfred Russel Wallace 696:pre-zygotic isolation 488:Evolutionary medicine 433:Biosocial criminology 399:History of speciation 312:Evolutionary taxonomy 275:Timeline of evolution 42: 5928:Teleology in biology 5823:Blending inheritance 5201:Genetic assimilation 5064:Artificial selection 4803:Evolutionary biology 1904: 1878: 1858: 1838: 1818: 1798: 1778: 1758: 1738: 1693:sympatric speciation 1588:disruptive selection 1406:hybrids are inviable 1327: 1301: 1275: 1249: 1229: 1209: 1189: 1169: 1149: 1126: 1103: 1077: 1054: 1029:sympatric speciation 936:Genome recombination 694:(further divided to 458:Evolutionary ecology 72:Evolutionary biology 5991:Molecular evolution 5949:Ecological genetics 5818:Transitional fossil 5608:Sexual reproduction 5448:endomembrane system 5377:pollinator-mediated 5333:dolphins and whales 5111:Parental investment 4581:Parallel speciation 4207:The Species Problem 4125:1989Natur.341..497B 3923:1995Natur.375..674N 3657:10.1038/nature04004 3649:2005Natur.437.1353H 3643:(7063): 1353–1356, 3469:(1453): 1649–1655, 2905:(1473): 1259–1263, 2861:2010EcolL..13..409H 2198:Maria R. Servedio; 1962:genetic equilibrium 1935:Drosophila santomea 1919:{\displaystyle abc} 1893:{\displaystyle ABC} 1539:Comparative studies 706:individuals of low 560:Social implications 548:Universal Darwinism 538:Island biogeography 473:Evolutionary ethics 438:Ecological genetics 384:Molecular evolution 322:Transitional fossil 150:Population genetics 66:Part of a series on 5964:Cultural evolution 5079:Fisher's principle 5008:Handicap principle 4998:Parallel evolution 4862:Adaptive radiation 4661:Speciation in taxa 4596:Assortative mating 4306:10.1007/BF00123305 2366:Mohamed A. F. Noor 2200:Mohamed A. F. Noor 2004:10.1002/3527600906 1952:Rapid requirements 1916: 1890: 1864: 1844: 1824: 1804: 1784: 1764: 1744: 1689: 1555: 1505: 1443:hybrid inviability 1383: 1339: 1313: 1287: 1261: 1235: 1215: 1195: 1175: 1155: 1138:{\displaystyle bc} 1135: 1115:{\displaystyle BC} 1112: 1089:{\displaystyle bC} 1086: 1066:{\displaystyle Bc} 1063: 948: 832:, strengthened by 822: 591:Theistic evolution 523:Selective breeding 235:Parallel evolution 200:Adaptive radiation 61: 6064: 6063: 5680:Uniformitarianism 5633:Sex-determination 5138:Sexual dimorphism 5133:Natural selection 5037:Unit of selection 5003:Signalling theory 4769: 4768: 4647:Secondary contact 4619:Hybrid speciation 4567:Natural selection 4554:Isolating factors 4234:(24): 2229–2233, 4119:(6242): 497–503, 3917:(6533): 674–675, 3555:(10): 1909–1920, 2769:978-0-19-506917-4 2735:978-0-87893-657-1 2302:(12): 2032–2035, 2180:978-0-87893-091-3 1867:{\displaystyle c} 1847:{\displaystyle b} 1827:{\displaystyle Y} 1814:; and population 1807:{\displaystyle C} 1787:{\displaystyle B} 1767:{\displaystyle A} 1747:{\displaystyle X} 1602:allelic dominance 1473:seasonal breeding 1458:courtship display 1238:{\displaystyle A} 1218:{\displaystyle C} 1198:{\displaystyle B} 1178:{\displaystyle a} 1158:{\displaystyle A} 969:natural selection 728:secondary contact 688:natural selection 677: 676: 368:Origin of Species 170:Natural selection 57:secondary contact 34:Secondary contact 16:(Redirected from 6094: 6054: 6044: 6043: 5843:Modern synthesis 5603:Multicellularity 5598:Mosaic evolution 5483:auditory ossicle 5165:Social selection 5148:Flowering plants 5143:Sexual selection 4796: 4789: 4782: 4773: 4757: 4756: 4745: 4733: 4732: 4721: 4720: 4572:Sexual selection 4501:Geographic modes 4413: 4406: 4399: 4390: 4384: 4383: 4377: 4369: 4342: 4336: 4335: 4323: 4317: 4316: 4289: 4283: 4282: 4272: 4261: 4260: 4251: 4219: 4210: 4203: 4194: 4193: 4158: 4152: 4151: 4133:10.1038/341497a0 4108: 4102: 4101: 4066: 4057: 4056: 4032:(6): 1156–1163, 4017: 4008: 4007: 3961: 3950: 3949: 3931:10.1038/375674a0 3902: 3896: 3895: 3876: 3867: 3866: 3849: 3839: 3815: 3809: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3771:(6): 1637–1653, 3760: 3754: 3744: 3738: 3737: 3720: 3696: 3690: 3689: 3683: 3675: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3616: 3599:(3): 1485–1497, 3588: 3582: 3581: 3564: 3544: 3538: 3537: 3513:(6): 1223–1235, 3502: 3496: 3495: 3486: 3458: 3452: 3451: 3445: 3437: 3420: 3411:(5): 1343–1353, 3400: 3387: 3386: 3369: 3349: 3340: 3339: 3308: 3293: 3292: 3257: 3248: 3247: 3238: 3228: 3204: 3198: 3197: 3173:(6): 1764–1772, 3162: 3147: 3146: 3140: 3132: 3115: 3095: 3089: 3088: 3057: 3048: 3047: 3030: 3021:(5): 1451–1459, 3010: 2987: 2986: 2977: 2949: 2932: 2931: 2922: 2894: 2888: 2887: 2844: 2827: 2826: 2820: 2816: 2814: 2806: 2780: 2774: 2773: 2755: 2740: 2739: 2713: 2704: 2703: 2692: 2686: 2685: 2679: 2675: 2673: 2665: 2639: 2612: 2611: 2602: 2574: 2568: 2567: 2548: 2542: 2541: 2510: 2504: 2503: 2486: 2480: 2473: 2467: 2466: 2458: 2452: 2451: 2418: 2409: 2403: 2402: 2385: 2362: 2331: 2330: 2321: 2311: 2291: 2280: 2279: 2273: 2265: 2230: 2219: 2218: 2195: 2184: 2183: 2159: 2074: 2073: 2067: 2059: 2040: 2031: 2030: 2024: 2016: 1983: 1925: 1923: 1922: 1917: 1899: 1897: 1896: 1891: 1873: 1871: 1870: 1865: 1853: 1851: 1850: 1845: 1833: 1831: 1830: 1825: 1813: 1811: 1810: 1805: 1793: 1791: 1790: 1785: 1773: 1771: 1770: 1765: 1753: 1751: 1750: 1745: 1708:Sexual selection 1645:Conrad J. Hoskin 1560:genetic distance 1348: 1346: 1345: 1340: 1322: 1320: 1319: 1314: 1296: 1294: 1293: 1288: 1270: 1268: 1267: 1262: 1244: 1242: 1241: 1236: 1224: 1222: 1221: 1216: 1204: 1202: 1201: 1196: 1184: 1182: 1181: 1176: 1164: 1162: 1161: 1156: 1144: 1142: 1141: 1136: 1121: 1119: 1118: 1113: 1095: 1093: 1092: 1087: 1072: 1070: 1069: 1064: 1023:In instances of 979:that are of low- 899:assortive mating 773:invasive species 726:, where during 682:is a process of 669: 662: 655: 642: 637: 636: 629: 625: 624: 601:Level of support 394:Current research 379:Modern synthesis 374:Before synthesis 327:Extinction event 85:Darwin's finches 82: 63: 21: 6102: 6101: 6097: 6096: 6095: 6093: 6092: 6091: 6067: 6066: 6065: 6060: 6032: 5959:Group selection 5932: 5857: 5761: 5688: 5650:Tempo and modes 5644: 5499: 5403: 5220: 5179: 5055: 5048: 5025:Species complex 4838: 4829:History of life 4805: 4800: 4770: 4765: 4709: 4692:Paleopolyploidy 4656: 4611:Hybrid concepts 4605: 4548: 4496: 4466:Species complex 4450: 4422: 4417: 4387: 4370: 4344: 4343: 4339: 4325: 4324: 4320: 4291: 4290: 4286: 4274: 4273: 4264: 4228:Current Biology 4221: 4220: 4213: 4204: 4197: 4160: 4159: 4155: 4110: 4109: 4105: 4068: 4067: 4060: 4019: 4018: 4011: 3963: 3962: 3953: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3878: 3877: 3870: 3817: 3816: 3812: 3803: 3799: 3762: 3761: 3757: 3745: 3741: 3698: 3697: 3693: 3676: 3634: 3633: 3629: 3590: 3589: 3585: 3546: 3545: 3541: 3519:10.2307/2409358 3504: 3503: 3499: 3460: 3459: 3455: 3438: 3402: 3401: 3390: 3351: 3350: 3343: 3310: 3309: 3296: 3274:10.2307/2407946 3259: 3258: 3251: 3219:(6): e1000341, 3206: 3205: 3201: 3164: 3163: 3150: 3133: 3097: 3096: 3092: 3059: 3058: 3051: 3012: 3011: 2990: 2951: 2950: 2935: 2896: 2895: 2891: 2849:Ecology Letters 2846: 2845: 2830: 2817: 2807: 2803: 2782: 2781: 2777: 2770: 2757: 2756: 2743: 2736: 2715: 2714: 2707: 2694: 2693: 2689: 2676: 2666: 2662: 2641: 2640: 2615: 2576: 2575: 2571: 2550: 2549: 2545: 2512: 2511: 2507: 2501: 2488: 2487: 2483: 2474: 2470: 2460: 2459: 2455: 2416: 2411: 2410: 2406: 2364: 2363: 2334: 2293: 2292: 2283: 2266: 2232: 2231: 2222: 2197: 2196: 2187: 2181: 2161: 2160: 2077: 2060: 2051:(12): 558–563, 2042: 2041: 2034: 2017: 2014: 1985: 1984: 1975: 1971: 1954: 1902: 1901: 1876: 1875: 1856: 1855: 1836: 1835: 1816: 1815: 1796: 1795: 1776: 1775: 1756: 1755: 1736: 1735: 1731: 1722: 1710: 1680: 1666: 1618: 1597: 1578: 1572: 1541: 1523: 1511: 1493: 1464:responses, the 1451: 1422: 1370: 1325: 1324: 1299: 1298: 1273: 1272: 1247: 1246: 1227: 1226: 1207: 1206: 1187: 1186: 1167: 1166: 1147: 1146: 1124: 1123: 1101: 1100: 1075: 1074: 1052: 1051: 1041: 933: 927: 925: 919: 912: 880: 834:group selection 789: 673: 632: 619: 618: 611: 610: 561: 553: 552: 423: 415: 414: 413: 341: 333: 332: 331: 280:Human evolution 270:History of life 254: 253:Natural history 246: 245: 244: 144: 136: 91: 37: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6100: 6098: 6090: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6069: 6068: 6062: 6061: 6059: 6058: 6048: 6037: 6034: 6033: 6031: 6030: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6009: 6008: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5977: 5976: 5971: 5966: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5940: 5938: 5934: 5933: 5931: 5930: 5925: 5924: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5912: 5911: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5871: 5865: 5863: 5859: 5858: 5856: 5855: 5850: 5845: 5840: 5835: 5830: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5809: 5808: 5799:Charles Darwin 5796: 5795: 5794: 5782: 5777: 5771: 5769: 5763: 5762: 5760: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5737:Non-ecological 5734: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5698: 5696: 5690: 5689: 5687: 5686: 5677: 5668: 5654: 5652: 5646: 5645: 5643: 5642: 5637: 5636: 5635: 5630: 5625: 5620: 5615: 5605: 5600: 5595: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5570: 5565: 5560: 5555: 5554: 5553: 5543: 5538: 5533: 5528: 5527: 5526: 5521: 5510: 5508: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5497: 5496: 5495: 5490: 5488:nervous system 5485: 5480: 5475: 5467: 5466: 5465: 5460: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5440: 5430: 5425: 5420: 5414: 5412: 5405: 5404: 5402: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5380: 5379: 5369: 5368: 5367: 5362: 5361: 5360: 5355: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5325: 5324: 5323: 5318: 5308: 5298: 5293: 5292: 5291: 5281: 5276: 5271: 5266: 5265: 5264: 5254: 5249: 5248: 5247: 5237: 5231: 5229: 5222: 5221: 5219: 5218: 5213: 5208: 5203: 5198: 5193: 5187: 5185: 5181: 5180: 5178: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5162: 5161: 5160: 5155: 5150: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5125: 5120: 5119: 5118: 5113: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5092: 5091: 5081: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5060: 5058: 5050: 5049: 5047: 5046: 5045: 5044: 5034: 5029: 5028: 5027: 5022: 5012: 5011: 5010: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4988:Origin of life 4985: 4980: 4975: 4973:Microevolution 4970: 4968:Macroevolution 4965: 4960: 4955: 4954: 4953: 4943: 4938: 4933: 4928: 4923: 4918: 4913: 4908: 4906:Common descent 4903: 4902: 4901: 4891: 4886: 4884:Baldwin effect 4881: 4880: 4879: 4874: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4848: 4846: 4840: 4839: 4837: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4816: 4810: 4807: 4806: 4801: 4799: 4798: 4791: 4784: 4776: 4767: 4766: 4764: 4763: 4751: 4739: 4727: 4714: 4711: 4710: 4708: 4707: 4700:Macroevolution 4685: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4664: 4662: 4658: 4657: 4655: 4654: 4649: 4644: 4634: 4615: 4613: 4607: 4606: 4604: 4603: 4601:Haldane's rule 4598: 4593: 4588: 4574: 4569: 4564: 4558: 4556: 4550: 4549: 4547: 4546: 4541: 4527: 4524:Founder effect 4504: 4502: 4498: 4497: 4495: 4494: 4489: 4484: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4458: 4456: 4455:Basic concepts 4452: 4451: 4449: 4448: 4443: 4438: 4433: 4427: 4424: 4423: 4418: 4416: 4415: 4408: 4401: 4393: 4386: 4385: 4359:10.1086/284557 4353:(2): 241–262, 4337: 4318: 4284: 4262: 4211: 4195: 4169:(3): 715–730, 4153: 4103: 4083:10.1086/338370 4058: 4038:10.1086/286044 4009: 3983:(2): 362–381, 3965:Jerry A. Coyne 3951: 3897: 3868: 3830:(1): 200–208, 3824:Dolph Schluter 3810: 3797: 3755: 3739: 3711:(1): 295–303, 3703:" Revisited", 3691: 3627: 3583: 3539: 3497: 3453: 3388: 3341: 3323:(7): 330–343, 3313:Jerry A. Coyne 3294: 3268:(1): 124–138, 3249: 3199: 3148: 3106:(1): 229–239, 3090: 3049: 2988: 2960:(2): 865–884, 2933: 2889: 2855:(4): 409–420, 2828: 2819:|journal= 2802:978-0470016176 2801: 2775: 2768: 2741: 2734: 2705: 2687: 2678:|journal= 2661:978-0470016176 2660: 2613: 2585:(1): 197–215, 2569: 2559:(1): 261–273, 2543: 2525:(4): 469–480, 2505: 2499: 2481: 2468: 2453: 2433:10.1086/695136 2427:(2): 155–172, 2404: 2376:(5): 503–508, 2332: 2281: 2220: 2185: 2179: 2163:Jerry A. Coyne 2075: 2032: 2012: 1972: 1970: 1967: 1953: 1950: 1915: 1912: 1909: 1889: 1886: 1883: 1863: 1843: 1823: 1803: 1783: 1763: 1743: 1730: 1727: 1721: 1718: 1709: 1706: 1705: 1704: 1701: 1679: 1676: 1665: 1662: 1617: 1614: 1596: 1593: 1571: 1568: 1540: 1537: 1522: 1519: 1507:Main article: 1492: 1489: 1450: 1447: 1421: 1418: 1369: 1366: 1338: 1335: 1332: 1312: 1309: 1306: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1260: 1257: 1254: 1234: 1214: 1194: 1174: 1154: 1134: 1131: 1111: 1108: 1085: 1082: 1062: 1059: 1040: 1037: 1005: 1004: 1001: 998: 995: 940:hybrid species 911: 908: 879: 876: 842:W. Frank Blair 811: 810: 807: 804: 788: 785: 724:allopatrically 716:Wallace effect 690:increases the 675: 674: 672: 671: 664: 657: 649: 646: 645: 644: 643: 630: 613: 612: 609: 608: 603: 598: 593: 588: 583: 581:Social effects 578: 573: 568: 562: 559: 558: 555: 554: 551: 550: 545: 540: 535: 530: 525: 520: 515: 510: 505: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 430: 424: 421: 420: 417: 416: 412: 411: 401: 396: 391: 386: 381: 376: 371: 364: 359: 354: 349: 343: 342: 339: 338: 335: 334: 330: 329: 324: 319: 314: 309: 307:Classification 304: 299: 294: 289: 288: 287: 277: 272: 267: 265:Common descent 262: 260:Origin of life 256: 255: 252: 251: 248: 247: 243: 242: 237: 232: 227: 222: 217: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 157: 152: 146: 145: 142: 141: 138: 137: 135: 134: 129: 124: 118: 117: 112: 107: 102: 96: 93: 92: 83: 75: 74: 68: 67: 26: 24: 18:Wallace effect 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6099: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6074: 6072: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6047: 6039: 6038: 6035: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6007: 6004: 6003: 6002: 6001:Phylogenetics 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5961: 5960: 5957: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5941: 5939: 5935: 5929: 5926: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5910: 5907: 5906: 5905: 5904:Structuralism 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5879:Catastrophism 5877: 5876: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5866: 5864: 5860: 5854: 5851: 5849: 5846: 5844: 5841: 5839: 5838:Neo-Darwinism 5836: 5834: 5831: 5829: 5826: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5807: 5806: 5802: 5801: 5800: 5797: 5793: 5792: 5788: 5787: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5778: 5776: 5773: 5772: 5770: 5768: 5764: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5752:Reinforcement 5750: 5748: 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5699: 5697: 5695: 5691: 5685: 5684:Catastrophism 5681: 5678: 5676: 5675:Macromutation 5672: 5671:Micromutation 5669: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5656: 5655: 5653: 5651: 5647: 5641: 5638: 5634: 5631: 5629: 5626: 5624: 5621: 5619: 5616: 5614: 5611: 5610: 5609: 5606: 5604: 5601: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5591: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5581: 5579: 5578:Immune system 5576: 5574: 5571: 5569: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5559: 5556: 5552: 5549: 5548: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5537: 5534: 5532: 5529: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5516: 5515: 5512: 5511: 5509: 5507: 5502: 5494: 5491: 5489: 5486: 5484: 5481: 5479: 5476: 5474: 5471: 5470: 5468: 5464: 5461: 5459: 5456: 5454: 5451: 5449: 5446: 5444: 5441: 5439: 5438:symbiogenesis 5436: 5435: 5434: 5431: 5429: 5426: 5424: 5421: 5419: 5416: 5415: 5413: 5411: 5406: 5400: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5378: 5375: 5374: 5373: 5370: 5366: 5363: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5350: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5313: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5303: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5290: 5287: 5286: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5263: 5260: 5259: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5246: 5243: 5242: 5241: 5238: 5236: 5233: 5232: 5230: 5228: 5223: 5217: 5214: 5212: 5209: 5207: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5194: 5192: 5189: 5188: 5186: 5182: 5176: 5173: 5171: 5168: 5166: 5163: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5145: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5108: 5107: 5106:Kin selection 5104: 5102: 5101:Genetic drift 5099: 5097: 5094: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5057: 5051: 5043: 5040: 5039: 5038: 5035: 5033: 5030: 5026: 5023: 5021: 5018: 5017: 5016: 5013: 5009: 5006: 5005: 5004: 5001: 4999: 4996: 4994: 4991: 4989: 4986: 4984: 4981: 4979: 4976: 4974: 4971: 4969: 4966: 4964: 4961: 4959: 4956: 4952: 4949: 4948: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4927: 4924: 4922: 4919: 4917: 4914: 4912: 4909: 4907: 4904: 4900: 4897: 4896: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4869: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4849: 4847: 4845: 4841: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4815: 4812: 4811: 4808: 4804: 4797: 4792: 4790: 4785: 4783: 4778: 4777: 4774: 4762: 4761: 4752: 4750: 4749: 4744: 4740: 4738: 4737: 4728: 4726: 4725: 4716: 4715: 4712: 4705: 4704:Chronospecies 4701: 4697: 4693: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4674: 4671: 4669: 4666: 4665: 4663: 4659: 4653: 4650: 4648: 4645: 4642: 4638: 4637:Reinforcement 4635: 4632: 4631:Recombination 4628: 4624: 4620: 4617: 4616: 4614: 4612: 4608: 4602: 4599: 4597: 4594: 4592: 4589: 4586: 4582: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4570: 4568: 4565: 4563: 4560: 4559: 4557: 4555: 4551: 4545: 4542: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4528: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4506: 4505: 4503: 4499: 4493: 4490: 4488: 4485: 4483: 4480: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4467: 4463: 4460: 4459: 4457: 4453: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4429: 4428: 4425: 4421: 4414: 4409: 4407: 4402: 4400: 4395: 4394: 4391: 4381: 4375: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4341: 4338: 4333: 4329: 4322: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4288: 4285: 4280: 4279: 4271: 4269: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4218: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4202: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4157: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4107: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4065: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4047: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4016: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3960: 3958: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3901: 3898: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3875: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3838: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3814: 3811: 3807: 3801: 3798: 3794: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3759: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3743: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3719: 3714: 3710: 3706: 3702: 3695: 3692: 3687: 3681: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3631: 3628: 3624: 3620: 3615: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3587: 3584: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3543: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3508: 3501: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3485: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3457: 3454: 3449: 3443: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3399: 3397: 3395: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3373: 3368: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3348: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3256: 3254: 3250: 3246: 3242: 3237: 3232: 3227: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3203: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3161: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3153: 3149: 3144: 3138: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3114: 3109: 3105: 3101: 3094: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3056: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3029: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3009: 3007: 3005: 3003: 3001: 2999: 2997: 2995: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2976: 2971: 2967: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2921: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2893: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2843: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2812: 2804: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2779: 2776: 2771: 2765: 2761: 2754: 2752: 2750: 2748: 2746: 2742: 2737: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2712: 2710: 2706: 2701: 2697: 2691: 2688: 2683: 2671: 2663: 2657: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2638: 2636: 2634: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2622: 2620: 2618: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2580: 2573: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2554: 2547: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2509: 2506: 2502: 2500:9781482263725 2496: 2492: 2485: 2482: 2478: 2472: 2469: 2464: 2457: 2454: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2415: 2408: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2384: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2353: 2351: 2349: 2347: 2345: 2343: 2341: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2320: 2315: 2310: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2290: 2288: 2286: 2282: 2277: 2271: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2229: 2227: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2194: 2192: 2190: 2186: 2182: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2164: 2158: 2156: 2154: 2152: 2150: 2148: 2146: 2144: 2142: 2140: 2138: 2136: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2128: 2126: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2110: 2108: 2106: 2104: 2102: 2100: 2098: 2096: 2094: 2092: 2090: 2088: 2086: 2084: 2082: 2080: 2076: 2071: 2065: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2039: 2037: 2033: 2028: 2022: 2015: 2013:9783527600908 2009: 2005: 2001: 1997: 1993: 1989: 1982: 1980: 1978: 1974: 1968: 1966: 1963: 1959: 1951: 1949: 1946: 1942: 1941: 1936: 1931: 1927: 1913: 1910: 1907: 1887: 1884: 1881: 1861: 1841: 1821: 1801: 1781: 1761: 1741: 1728: 1726: 1719: 1717: 1715: 1707: 1702: 1699: 1698: 1697: 1694: 1684: 1677: 1675: 1672: 1663: 1660: 1656: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1629: 1627: 1622: 1615: 1613: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1594: 1592: 1589: 1585: 1584: 1577: 1569: 1567: 1565: 1561: 1552: 1551: 1545: 1538: 1536: 1533: 1529: 1520: 1518: 1516: 1510: 1502: 1497: 1490: 1488: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1456: 1448: 1446: 1444: 1439: 1437: 1432: 1428: 1419: 1417: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1403: 1399: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1378: 1374: 1367: 1365: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1354:recombination 1350: 1336: 1333: 1330: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1284: 1281: 1278: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1232: 1212: 1192: 1172: 1152: 1132: 1129: 1109: 1106: 1098: 1083: 1080: 1060: 1057: 1050: 1046: 1038: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1021: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1002: 999: 996: 993: 992: 991: 988: 986: 982: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 953: 945: 941: 937: 931: 930:hybrid swarms 923: 916: 909: 907: 904: 900: 896: 892: 887: 886: 877: 875: 873: 869: 865: 859: 855: 853: 852: 847: 846:Ronald Fisher 843: 839: 835: 831: 827: 819: 815: 808: 805: 802: 801: 800: 798: 794: 786: 784: 782: 778: 774: 770: 766: 765:invertebrates 762: 758: 754: 750: 745: 742: 736: 734: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 680:Reinforcement 670: 665: 663: 658: 656: 651: 650: 648: 647: 641: 631: 628: 623: 617: 616: 615: 614: 607: 604: 602: 599: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 582: 579: 577: 574: 572: 569: 567: 564: 563: 557: 556: 549: 546: 544: 541: 539: 536: 534: 531: 529: 526: 524: 521: 519: 516: 514: 513:Phylogenetics 511: 509: 506: 504: 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 429: 426: 425: 419: 418: 409: 405: 402: 400: 397: 395: 392: 390: 387: 385: 382: 380: 377: 375: 372: 370: 369: 365: 363: 360: 358: 357:Before Darwin 355: 353: 350: 348: 345: 344: 337: 336: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 286: 283: 282: 281: 278: 276: 273: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 257: 250: 249: 241: 238: 236: 233: 231: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 216: 213: 211: 208: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 186: 185:Genetic drift 183: 181: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 161: 158: 156: 153: 151: 148: 147: 140: 139: 133: 130: 128: 125: 123: 120: 119: 116: 113: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 97: 95: 94: 90: 86: 81: 77: 76: 73: 69: 65: 64: 58: 54: 50: 46: 41: 35: 30: 19: 6013:Polymorphism 5996:Astrobiology 5944:Biogeography 5899:Saltationism 5889:Orthogenesis 5874:Alternatives 5803: 5789: 5751: 5722:Cospeciation 5717:Cladogenesis 5666:Saltationism 5623:Mating types 5546:Color vision 5531:Avian flight 5453:mitochondria 5191:Canalisation 5069:Biodiversity 4814:Introduction 4758: 4746: 4734: 4722: 4636: 4538:Ring species 4487:Cospeciation 4482:Cladogenesis 4431:Introduction 4350: 4346: 4340: 4331: 4327: 4321: 4300:(1): 15–23, 4297: 4293: 4287: 4277: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4206: 4166: 4162: 4156: 4116: 4112: 4106: 4074: 4070: 4029: 4025: 4021: 3980: 3976: 3972: 3969:H. Allen Orr 3914: 3910: 3906: 3900: 3884: 3880: 3827: 3823: 3813: 3805: 3800: 3768: 3764: 3758: 3750: 3747:A. R. McCune 3742: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3694: 3640: 3636: 3630: 3596: 3592: 3586: 3552: 3548: 3542: 3510: 3506: 3500: 3466: 3462: 3456: 3408: 3404: 3360:(1): 21–29, 3357: 3353: 3320: 3316: 3265: 3261: 3216: 3213:PLOS Biology 3212: 3208: 3202: 3170: 3166: 3103: 3099: 3093: 3072:(1): 27–39, 3069: 3065: 3018: 3014: 2957: 2953: 2902: 2898: 2892: 2852: 2848: 2784: 2778: 2759: 2721: 2699: 2690: 2643: 2582: 2578: 2572: 2556: 2552: 2546: 2522: 2518: 2514: 2508: 2490: 2484: 2476: 2471: 2462: 2456: 2424: 2420: 2407: 2373: 2369: 2299: 2296:PLOS Biology 2295: 2238: 2234: 2207: 2203: 2170: 2167:H. Allen Orr 2048: 2044: 1998:(3): 60–93, 1995: 1991: 1955: 1938: 1934: 1932: 1928: 1732: 1723: 1711: 1690: 1670: 1667: 1658: 1655:influences: 1649:Megan Higgie 1635:, deceptive 1630: 1619: 1598: 1581: 1579: 1556: 1548: 1528:hybrid zones 1524: 1512: 1469: 1454: 1452: 1440: 1423: 1395: 1387:hybrid zones 1384: 1371: 1351: 1042: 1022: 1006: 989: 956: 949: 943: 921: 891:Roger Butlin 885:Gastrophryne 883: 881: 863: 860: 856: 849: 823: 797:H. Allen Orr 790: 781:biodiversity 746: 737: 715: 679: 678: 533:Sociobiology 518:Paleontology 366: 302:Biogeography 297:Biodiversity 215:Coextinction 205:Co-operation 180:Polymorphism 105:Introduction 29: 6023:Systematics 5894:Mutationism 5712:Catagenesis 5640:Snake venom 5573:Eusociality 5551:in primates 5541:Cooperation 5469:In animals 5289:butterflies 5262:Cephalopods 5252:Brachiopods 5184:Development 5158:Mate choice 4911:Convergence 4894:Coevolution 4852:Abiogenesis 4760:WikiProject 4520:Centrifugal 4281:, Wordpress 2241:: 156–182, 2210:: 339–364, 1653:ethological 1637:pollination 1626:stickleback 1481:mating call 1475:such as in 1408:instead of 1035:isolation. 965:mate choice 878:Terminology 844:. In 1930, 793:Jerry Coyne 761:vertebrates 543:Systematics 352:Renaissance 230:Convergence 220:Contingency 210:Coevolution 6087:Speciation 6071:Categories 5884:Lamarckism 5862:Philosophy 5785:David Hume 5747:Peripatric 5742:Parapatric 5727:Ecological 5707:Anagenesis 5702:Allopatric 5694:Speciation 5658:Gradualism 5583:Metabolism 5443:chromosome 5433:Eukaryotes 5211:Modularity 5128:Population 5054:Population 5015:Speciation 4993:Panspermia 4946:Extinction 4941:Exaptation 4916:Divergence 4889:Cladistics 4877:Reciprocal 4857:Adaptation 4623:Polyploidy 4585:Allochrony 4562:Adaptation 4530:Parapatric 4512:Peripatric 4508:Allopatric 4477:Anagenesis 4420:Speciation 4224:Drosophila 4077:: S22–35, 4022:Drosophila 3973:Drosophila 3907:Drosophila 3701:Drosophila 3209:Drosophila 2517:complex", 2171:Speciation 1969:References 1671:Drosophila 1583:Drosophila 1574:See also: 1550:Drosophila 1485:morphology 1427:phenotypes 1398:extinction 1391:parapatric 903:divergence 684:speciation 317:Cladistics 240:Extinction 225:Divergence 195:Speciation 175:Adaptation 89:John Gould 45:speciation 6018:Protocell 5869:Darwinism 5757:Sympatric 5506:processes 5394:Tetrapods 5343:Kangaroos 5269:Dinosaurs 5206:Inversion 5175:Variation 5096:Gene flow 5089:Inclusive 4899:Mutualism 4844:Evolution 4544:Sympatric 4334:: 369–371 4163:Evolution 3977:Evolution 3887:: 23–48, 3847:2429/6366 3765:Evolution 3705:Evolution 3549:Evolution 3507:Evolution 3405:Evolution 3354:Evolution 3262:Evolution 3167:Evolution 3100:Evolution 3015:Evolution 2821:ignored ( 2811:cite book 2680:ignored ( 2670:cite book 2519:Evolution 2463:Darwinism 1940:D. yakuba 1729:Gene flow 1633:parasites 1420:Selection 1410:infertile 1362:polygenic 1334:× 1308:× 1282:× 1256:× 977:genotypes 973:gene flow 944:intrinsic 922:extrinsic 576:Dysgenics 292:Phylogeny 190:Gene flow 160:Diversity 155:Variation 55:upon the 49:selecting 6046:Category 5921:Vitalism 5916:Theistic 5909:Spandrel 5593:Morality 5588:Monogamy 5463:plastids 5428:Flagella 5384:Reptiles 5365:sea cows 5348:primates 5257:Molluscs 5235:Bacteria 5123:Mutation 5056:genetics 5032:Taxonomy 4978:Mismatch 4958:Homology 4872:Cheating 4867:Altruism 4724:Category 4641:evidence 4446:Glossary 4374:citation 4367:83906561 4294:Genetica 4258:21129972 4191:27621958 4183:10937247 4099:16516804 4091:18707367 4046:18811269 3997:28568554 3864:40648544 3856:28568163 3793:42100751 3785:28568007 3735:40390753 3727:28568795 3680:citation 3665:16251964 3593:Genetics 3579:25296147 3571:11761053 3535:28564502 3493:11467428 3442:citation 3435:31107731 3427:28565558 3384:12563023 3376:10937179 3337:11403865 3290:28563447 3245:20351771 3195:12269299 3187:28565111 3137:citation 3130:15602575 3122:22220877 3086:21978464 3045:22630822 3037:28568419 2954:Genetics 2929:11410152 2885:16175451 2877:20455922 2698:(1937). 2609:17249073 2579:Genetics 2539:88238743 2441:29351021 2400:26625194 2392:10620021 2370:Heredity 2328:15597115 2270:citation 2255:19566707 2169:(2004), 2064:citation 2021:citation 1945:São Tomé 1678:Sympatry 1564:sympatry 1501:sympatry 1491:Evidence 1431:directly 1364:traits. 1039:Genetics 1020:choice. 872:Servedio 777:habitats 749:genetics 640:Category 566:Eugenics 408:timeline 389:Evo-devo 347:Overview 165:Mutation 127:Evidence 122:Glossary 51:against 6077:Ecology 5937:Related 5767:History 5628:Meiosis 5563:Empathy 5558:Emotion 5458:nucleus 5399:Viruses 5389:Spiders 5301:Mammals 5284:Insects 5084:Fitness 5020:Species 4819:Outline 4736:Commons 4688:Fossils 4678:Insects 4627:Klepton 4516:Quantum 4462:Species 4436:History 4314:7947934 4249:3019097 4149:4360057 4141:2677747 4121:Bibcode 4054:5406442 4005:1678429 3947:4252448 3939:7791899 3919:Bibcode 3673:4417281 3645:Bibcode 3623:8807317 3614:1207414 3527:2409358 3484:1690725 3282:2407946 3236:2843595 2984:9927476 2975:1460501 2920:1088735 2857:Bibcode 2726:158–179 2600:1214384 2449:3397377 2263:4598270 1874:, both 1641:mimicry 1621:Ecology 1414:fertile 1402:fitness 1049:fitness 1033:gametic 981:fitness 901:or the 864:looking 787:History 733:zygotes 708:fitness 132:History 115:Outline 53:hybrids 6056:Portal 5732:Hybrid 5568:Ethics 5410:organs 5372:Plants 5358:lemurs 5353:humans 5338:horses 5328:hyenas 5316:wolves 5311:canids 5245:origin 4683:Plants 4534:Clines 4365: 4312: 4256: 4246: 4189: 4181: 4147: 4139: 4113:Nature 4097: 4089: 4052: 4044: 4003: 3995: 3945: 3937: 3911:Nature 3862: 3854: 3791: 3783: 3733: 3725: 3671: 3663: 3637:Nature 3621: 3611: 3577: 3569: 3533: 3525: 3491: 3481: 3433: 3425: 3382: 3374: 3335: 3288: 3280: 3243: 3233: 3193: 3185: 3128: 3120: 3084: 3043: 3035: 2982: 2972: 2927: 2917: 2883: 2875: 2799: 2766: 2732: 2658: 2607: 2597: 2537: 2497: 2447: 2439: 2398: 2390: 2326: 2319:535571 2316: 2261: 2253: 2177: 2010: 1664:Fusion 1639:, and 1521:Nature 1462:signal 1097:allele 920:1. An 910:Models 889:used. 753:mating 704:hybrid 686:where 638: 362:Darwin 5519:Death 5514:Aging 5493:brain 5279:Fungi 5240:Birds 5153:Fungi 4951:Event 4834:Index 4668:Birds 4363:S2CID 4310:S2CID 4187:S2CID 4145:S2CID 4095:S2CID 4050:S2CID 4001:S2CID 3943:S2CID 3860:S2CID 3789:S2CID 3731:S2CID 3669:S2CID 3575:S2CID 3523:JSTOR 3431:S2CID 3380:S2CID 3278:JSTOR 3191:S2CID 3126:S2CID 3041:S2CID 2881:S2CID 2535:S2CID 2445:S2CID 2417:(PDF) 2396:S2CID 2259:S2CID 1412:, as 769:fungi 100:Index 6006:Tree 5478:hair 5418:Cell 5321:dogs 5306:cats 5296:Life 5274:Fish 5227:taxa 4673:Fish 4380:link 4254:PMID 4179:PMID 4137:PMID 4087:PMID 4042:PMID 4024:?", 3993:PMID 3935:PMID 3852:PMID 3781:PMID 3723:PMID 3686:link 3661:PMID 3619:PMID 3567:PMID 3531:PMID 3489:PMID 3448:link 3423:PMID 3372:PMID 3333:PMID 3286:PMID 3241:PMID 3183:PMID 3143:link 3118:PMID 3082:PMID 3033:PMID 2980:PMID 2925:PMID 2873:PMID 2823:help 2797:ISBN 2764:ISBN 2730:ISBN 2682:help 2656:ISBN 2605:PMID 2495:ISBN 2437:PMID 2388:PMID 2324:PMID 2276:link 2251:PMID 2239:1168 2175:ISBN 2070:link 2027:link 2008:ISBN 1937:and 1900:and 1854:and 1794:and 1647:and 1513:The 1470:e.g. 1455:e.g. 1358:loci 1323:and 1271:and 1205:and 971:and 957:e.g. 868:Noor 795:and 763:and 698:and 110:Main 5504:Of 5473:eye 5423:DNA 5408:Of 5225:Of 4355:doi 4351:128 4302:doi 4244:PMC 4236:doi 4226:", 4171:doi 4129:doi 4117:341 4079:doi 4075:159 4034:doi 4030:149 3985:doi 3975:", 3927:doi 3915:375 3909:", 3889:doi 3842:hdl 3832:doi 3773:doi 3713:doi 3653:doi 3641:437 3609:PMC 3601:doi 3597:143 3557:doi 3515:doi 3479:PMC 3471:doi 3467:267 3413:doi 3362:doi 3325:doi 3270:doi 3231:PMC 3221:doi 3211:", 3175:doi 3108:doi 3074:doi 3023:doi 2970:PMC 2962:doi 2958:151 2915:PMC 2907:doi 2903:268 2865:doi 2789:doi 2648:doi 2595:PMC 2587:doi 2561:doi 2527:doi 2429:doi 2425:191 2378:doi 2314:PMC 2304:doi 2243:doi 2212:doi 2053:doi 2000:doi 1608:or 1483:or 1460:), 1438:). 1165:or 1073:or 934:4. 87:by 47:by 6073:: 4702:· 4698:· 4694:· 4629:· 4625:· 4583:· 4536:· 4522:· 4518:· 4514:· 4376:}} 4372:{{ 4361:, 4349:, 4332:74 4330:, 4308:, 4298:62 4296:, 4265:^ 4252:, 4242:, 4232:20 4230:, 4214:^ 4198:^ 4185:, 4177:, 4167:54 4165:, 4143:, 4135:, 4127:, 4115:, 4093:, 4085:, 4073:, 4061:^ 4048:, 4040:, 4028:, 4012:^ 3999:, 3991:, 3981:43 3979:, 3967:; 3954:^ 3941:, 3933:, 3925:, 3913:, 3885:12 3883:, 3871:^ 3858:, 3850:, 3840:, 3828:52 3826:, 3822:, 3787:, 3779:, 3769:47 3767:, 3729:, 3721:, 3709:51 3707:, 3682:}} 3678:{{ 3667:, 3659:, 3651:, 3639:, 3617:, 3607:, 3595:, 3573:, 3565:, 3553:55 3551:, 3529:, 3521:, 3511:43 3509:, 3487:, 3477:, 3465:, 3444:}} 3440:{{ 3429:, 3421:, 3409:53 3407:, 3391:^ 3378:, 3370:, 3358:54 3356:, 3344:^ 3331:, 3321:16 3319:, 3297:^ 3284:, 3276:, 3266:35 3264:, 3252:^ 3239:, 3229:, 3215:, 3189:, 3181:, 3171:51 3169:, 3151:^ 3139:}} 3135:{{ 3124:, 3116:, 3104:66 3102:, 3080:, 3070:27 3068:, 3064:, 3052:^ 3039:, 3031:, 3019:48 3017:, 2991:^ 2978:, 2968:, 2956:, 2936:^ 2923:, 2913:, 2901:, 2879:, 2871:, 2863:, 2853:13 2851:, 2831:^ 2815:: 2813:}} 2809:{{ 2795:. 2787:. 2744:^ 2728:. 2708:^ 2674:: 2672:}} 2668:{{ 2654:. 2646:. 2616:^ 2603:, 2593:, 2583:97 2581:, 2557:19 2555:, 2533:, 2521:, 2443:, 2435:, 2423:, 2419:, 2394:, 2386:, 2374:83 2372:, 2335:^ 2322:, 2312:, 2298:, 2284:^ 2272:}} 2268:{{ 2257:, 2249:, 2237:, 2223:^ 2208:34 2206:, 2188:^ 2165:; 2078:^ 2066:}} 2062:{{ 2049:17 2047:, 2035:^ 2023:}} 2019:{{ 2006:, 1994:, 1990:, 1976:^ 987:. 967:: 836:. 767:, 5682:/ 5673:/ 5664:/ 5660:/ 4795:e 4788:t 4781:v 4706:) 4690:( 4643:) 4639:( 4633:) 4621:( 4587:) 4579:( 4540:) 4532:( 4526:) 4510:( 4468:) 4464:( 4412:e 4405:t 4398:v 4382:) 4357:: 4304:: 4238:: 4173:: 4131:: 4123:: 4081:: 4036:: 3987:: 3929:: 3921:: 3891:: 3844:: 3834:: 3775:: 3715:: 3688:) 3655:: 3647:: 3603:: 3559:: 3517:: 3473:: 3450:) 3415:: 3364:: 3327:: 3272:: 3223:: 3217:8 3177:: 3145:) 3110:: 3076:: 3025:: 2964:: 2909:: 2867:: 2859:: 2825:) 2805:. 2791:: 2772:. 2738:. 2684:) 2664:. 2650:: 2589:: 2563:: 2529:: 2523:9 2431:: 2380:: 2306:: 2300:2 2278:) 2245:: 2214:: 2072:) 2055:: 2029:) 2002:: 1996:2 1914:c 1911:b 1908:a 1888:C 1885:B 1882:A 1862:c 1842:b 1822:Y 1802:C 1782:B 1762:A 1742:X 1434:( 1337:a 1331:A 1311:A 1305:a 1285:a 1279:a 1259:A 1253:A 1233:A 1213:C 1193:B 1173:a 1153:A 1133:c 1130:b 1110:C 1107:B 1084:C 1081:b 1061:c 1058:B 668:e 661:t 654:v 410:) 406:( 36:. 20:)

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