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631:(also known as substantial arguments). In contrast to absolutists' theoretical arguments, Toulmin's practical argument is intended to focus on the justificatory function of argumentation, as opposed to the inferential function of theoretical arguments. Whereas theoretical arguments make inferences based on a set of principles to arrive at a claim, practical arguments first find a claim of interest, and then provide justification for it. Toulmin believed that reasoning is less an activity of inference, involving the discovering of new ideas, and more a process of testing and sifting already existing ideasâan act achievable through the
2226:. Toulmin states that conceptual change involves the process of innovation and selection. Innovation accounts for the appearance of conceptual variations, while selection accounts for the survival and perpetuation of the soundest conceptions. Innovation occurs when the professionals of a particular discipline come to view things differently from their predecessors; selection subjects the innovative concepts to a process of debate and inquiry in what Toulmin considers as a "forum of competitions". The soundest concepts will survive the forum of competition as replacements or revisions of the traditional conceptions.
534:(1972), Toulmin suggests that anthropologists have been tempted to side with relativists because they have noticed the influence of cultural variations on rational arguments. In other words, the anthropologist or relativist overemphasizes the importance of the "field-dependent" aspect of arguments, and neglects or is unaware of the "field-invariant" elements. In order to provide solutions to the problems of absolutism and relativism, Toulmin attempts throughout his work to develop standards that are neither absolutist nor relativist for assessing the worth of ideas.
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2163:) as referential markers in moral arguments. An individual case is then compared and contrasted with the type case. Given an individual case that is completely identical to the type case, moral judgments can be made immediately using the standard moral principles advocated in the type case. If the individual case differs from the type case, the differences will be critically assessed in order to arrive at a rational claim.
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527:(1958), Toulmin claims that some aspects of arguments vary from field to field, and are hence called "field-dependent", while other aspects of argument are the same throughout all fields, and are hence called "field-invariant". The flaw of absolutism, Toulmin believes, lies in its unawareness of the field-dependent aspect of argument; absolutism assumes that all aspects of argument are field invariant.
2233:' point of view, concepts are either valid or invalid regardless of contexts. From the relativists' perspective, one concept is neither better nor worse than a rival concept from a different cultural context. From Toulmin's perspective, the evaluation depends on a process of comparison, which determines whether or not one concept will improve explanatory power more than its rival concepts.
470:, the "contrast of the reasonable and the rational", and warned of the "abstractions that may still tempt us back into the dogmatism, chauvinism and sectarianism our needs have outgrown". The NEH report of the speech further quoted Toulmin on the need to "make the technical and the humanistic strands in modern thought work together more effectively than they have in the past".
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520:, which advocates universal truth; accordingly, absolutists believe that moral issues can be resolved by adhering to a standard set of moral principles, regardless of context. By contrast, Toulmin contends that many of these so-called standard principles are irrelevant to real situations encountered by human beings in daily life.
2813:: "The most lasting legacy of the work is its break with formal, deductive logic and its introduction of Stephen Toulmin's model of argument to undergraduate student debaters, which, since then, has become a mainstay of what many have called the Renaissance of argumentation studies. Without the work presented in
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theoretical principles that have limited practicality); a return to the local, or to concrete cultural and historical contexts; and, finally, a return to the timely, from timeless problems to things whose rational significance depends on the time lines of our solutions. He follows up on this critique in
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When
Toulmin first proposed it, this layout of argumentation was based on legal arguments and intended to be used to analyze the rationality of arguments typically found in the courtroom. Toulmin did not realize that this layout could be applicable to the field of rhetoric and communication until his
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in argumentation. The
Toulmin model assumes that an argument starts with a fact or claim and ends with a conclusion, but ignores an argument's underlying questions. In the example "Harry was born in Bermuda, so Harry must be a British subject", the question "Is Harry a British subject?" is ignored,
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Credentials designed to certify the statement expressed in the warrant; backing must be introduced when the warrant itself is not convincing enough to the readers or the listeners. For example, if the listener does not deem the warrant in 3 as credible, the speaker will supply the legal provisions:
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consisting of four returns: a return to oral communication and discourse, a plea which has been rejected by modern philosophers, whose scholarly focus is on the printed page; a return to the particular or individual cases that deal with practical moral issues occurring in daily life (as opposed to
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Words or phrases expressing the speaker's degree of force or certainty concerning the claim. Such words or phrases include "probably", "possible", "impossible", "certainly", "presumably", "as far as the evidence goes", and "necessarily". The claim "I am definitely a
British citizen" has a greater
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A statement authorizing movement from the ground to the claim. In order to move from the ground established in 2, "I was born in
Bermuda", to the claim in 1, "I am a British citizen", the person must supply a warrant to bridge the gap between 1 and 2 with the statement "A man born in Bermuda will
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and theoretical arguments lacking practicality, for example, is, in his view, one of the main defects of modern philosophy. Similarly, Toulmin sensed a thinning of morality in the field of sciences, which has diverted its attention from practical issues concerning ecology to the production of the
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in 1959. While in the States, Wayne
Brockriede and Douglas Ehninger introduced Toulmin's work to communication scholars, as they recognized that his work provided a good structural model useful for the analysis and criticism of rhetorical arguments. In 1960, Toulmin returned to London to hold the
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Through the procedure of casuistry, Toulmin and Jonsen identified three problematic situations in moral reasoning: first, the type case fits the individual case only ambiguously; second, two type cases apply to the same individual case in conflicting ways; third, an unprecedented individual case
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elements in Kuhn's thesis, arguing that mutually exclusive paradigms provide no ground for comparison, and that Kuhn made the relativists' error of overemphasizing the "field variant" while ignoring the "field invariant" or commonality shared by all argumentation or scientific
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occurs, which cannot be compared or contrasted to any type case. Through the use of casuistry, Toulmin demonstrated and reinforced his previous emphasis on the significance of comparison to moral arguments, a significance not addressed in theories of absolutism or relativism.
312:. Although it was poorly received in England and satirized as "Toulmin's anti-logic book" by Toulmin's fellow philosophers at Leeds, the book was applauded by the rhetoricians in the United States, where Toulmin served as a visiting professor at
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to analyse the process of conceptual change as an evolutionary process. The book confronts major philosophical questions as well. In 1973, while a professor in the
Committee on Social Thought at the University of Chicago, he collaborated with
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Statements recognizing the restrictions which may legitimately be applied to the claim. It is exemplified as follows: "A man born in
Bermuda will legally be a British citizen, unless he has betrayed Britain and has become a spy for another
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in April 2011, Toulmin was selected for inclusion in CSI's
Pantheon of Skeptics. The Pantheon of Skeptics was created by CSI to remember the legacy of deceased fellows of CSI and their contributions to the cause of scientific skepticism.
596:(2001), where he seeks to illuminate the ills that, in his view, universalism has caused in the social sphere, discussing, among other things, the discrepancy between mainstream ethical theory and real-life ethical quandaries.
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Toulmin seeks the origins of the modern emphasis on universality (philosophers' "quest for certainty"), and criticizes both modern science and philosophers for having ignored practical issues in preference for abstract and
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A conclusion whose merit must be established. In argumentative essays, it may be called the thesis. For example, if a person tries to convince a listener that he is a
British citizen, the claim would be "I am a British
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Toulmin believed that for a good argument to succeed, it needs to provide good justification for a claim. This, he believed, will ensure it stands up to criticism and earns a favourable verdict. In
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as a junior scientific officer, first at the
Malvern Radar Research and Development Station and later at the Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Germany. At the end of
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to demonstrate the effectiveness of casuistry in practical argumentation during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, effectively reviving it as a permissible method of argument.
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A fact one appeals to as a foundation for the claim. For example, the person introduced in 1 can support his claim with the supporting data "I was born in Bermuda" (2).
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Toulmin argumentation can be diagrammed as a conclusion established, more or less, on the basis of a fact supported by a warrant (with backing), and a possible rebuttal.
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2817:, contemporary interdisciplinary views of argumentation that now dominate many disciplines might have never have taken place or at least have been severely delayed."
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373:, which advanced a thesis that underscores the significance of history to human reasoning: Contrary to philosophers who believe the absolute truth advocated in
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In 1965, Toulmin returned to the United States, where he held positions at various universities. In 1967, Toulmin served as literary executor for close friend
381:, Toulmin argues that truth can be a relative quality, dependent on historical and cultural contexts (what other authors have termed "conceptual schemata").
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Stephen Toulmin was born in London, UK, on 25 March 1922 to Geoffrey Edelson Toulmin and Doris Holman Toulmin. He earned his Bachelor of Arts degree from
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From 1975 to 1978, he worked with the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, established by the
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2198:(1962). Kuhn believed that conceptual change is a revolutionary process (as opposed to an evolutionary process), during which mutually exclusive
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in Australia from 1954 to 1955, after which he returned to England, and served as Professor and Head of the Department of Philosophy at the
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for analyzing rhetorical arguments. The Toulmin model of argumentation, a diagram containing six interrelated components used for analyzing
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2056:(1963) streamlined Toulmin's terminology and broadly introduced his model to the field of debate. Only after Toulmin published
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296:(1953). Soon after, he was appointed to the position of Visiting Professor of History and Philosophy of Science at
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in London, specialising in citizenship, so I know that a man born in Bermuda will legally be a British citizen".
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from 1955 to 1959. While at Leeds, he published one of his most influential books in the field of rhetoric,
233:, was considered his most influential work, particularly in the field of rhetoric and communication, and in
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512:(represented by theoretical or analytic arguments) has limited practical value. Absolutism is derived from
458:. His lecture, "A Dissenter's Story" (alternatively entitled "A Dissenter's Life"), discussed the roots of
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of ethics, and criticizes what he considers to be the subjectivism and emotivism of philosophers such as
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642:(1958), Toulmin proposed a layout containing six interrelated components for analyzing arguments:
205:; 25 March 1922 â 4 December 2009) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Influenced by
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On 4 December 2009 Toulmin died of a heart failure at the age of 87 in Los Angeles, California.
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which also neglects to analyze why particular questions are asked and others are not. (See
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400:(1990), written while Toulmin held the position of the Avalon Foundation Professor of the
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cases", without resorting to absolutism. It uses the standard principles (for example,
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works were introduced to rhetoricians by Wayne Brockriede and Douglas Ehninger. Their
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lacks practical value, Toulmin aimed to develop a different type of argument, called
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change. In this book, Toulmin uses a novel comparison between conceptual change and
269:(1950). While at Cambridge, Toulmin came into contact with the Austrian philosopher
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One criticism of the Toulmin model is that it does not fully consider the use of
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To develop his contention, Toulmin introduced the concept of argument fields. In
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GSNâThe Goal Structuring Notation: A Structured Approach to Presenting Arguments
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degree of force than the claim "I am a British citizen, presumably". (See also:
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2060:(1979) were the rhetorical applications of this layout mentioned in his works.
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Argumentation in Science Education: Perspectives from Classroom-Based Research
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with Allan Janik and Richard D. Rieke (1979), 2nd ed. 1984; 3rd edition 1997:
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Toulmin held distinguished professorships at numerous universities, including
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Arguing on the Toulmin Model: New Essays in Argument Analysis and Evaluation
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Arguing on the Toulmin Model: New Essays in Argument Analysis and Evaluation
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to resolve moral issues. Although casuistry largely fell silent during the
488:. His children are Greg, of McLean, Va., Polly Macinnes of Skye, Scotland,
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for an example of an argument-mapping method that emphasizes questions.)
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After graduating from Cambridge, he was appointed University Lecturer in
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2831:. Science & Technology Education Library. Vol. 35. New York:
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The Return to Cosmology: Postmodern Science and the Theology of Nature
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454:, the U.S. federal government's highest honor for achievement in the
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because, in his view, they fail to do justice to ethical reasoning.
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University of Southern California School of International Relations
388:. During this time, he collaborated with Albert R. Jonsen to write
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Human Understanding: The Collective Use and Evolution of Concepts
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Casuistry employs absolutist principles, called "type cases" or "
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Human Understanding: The Collective Use and Evolution of Concepts
273:, whose examination of the relationship between the uses and the
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2923:"Argument diagramming in logic, law and artificial intelligence"
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Foresight and Understanding: An Enquiry into the Aims of Science
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Toulmin's argument model has inspired research on, for example,
1920:
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2548:
Contemporary Perspectives on Rhetoric: 30th Anniversary Edition
292:
from 1949 to 1954, during which period he wrote a second book,
2607:
Westfall, Richard. "Review: Toulmin and Human Understanding".
2595:
Toulmin's 1958 work is essential in the field of argumentation
2325:
The Architecture of Matter (The Ancestry of Science, volume 2)
541:(1990), he traces philosophers' "quest for certainty" back to
217:
which can be used effectively in evaluating the ethics behind
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The Fabric of the Heavens (The Ancestry of Science, volume 1)
408:, specifically criticizes the practical use and the thinning
185:
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Beyond theory â changing organizations through participation
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The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 1976, vol. 1, no. 1
2222:
model of conceptual change comparable to Darwin's model of
4053:
Recipients of the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art
2759:"Stephen Toulmin, a Philosopher and Educator, Dies at 87"
2347:
The Discovery of Time (The Ancestry of Science, volume 3)
194:
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compete to replace one another. Toulmin criticized the
587:. To solve this problem, Toulmin advocated a return to
508:
Throughout many of his works, Toulmin pointed out that
492:
in the UK and Matthew Toulmin of Melbourne, Australia.
348:(1972), which examines the causes and the processes of
2104:(1950), his doctoral dissertation, Toulmin sets out a
484:
and collaborated with her on a series of books on the
2689:(text of Toulmin's Jefferson Lecture) at USC website.
2562:"A Citation-Based Reflection on Toulmin and Argument"
197:
2433:
The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning
2192:'s account of conceptual change in his seminal work
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The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning
308:(1958), which investigated the flaws of traditional
221:. His works were later found useful in the field of
188:
182:
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2827:Eruduran, Sibel; Aleixandre, Marilar, eds. (2007).
2184:, in which he asserts that conceptual change is an
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114:
104:
94:
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50:
34:
213:. Throughout his writings, he sought to develop
2394:Knowing and Acting: An Invitation to Philosophy
2243:An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics
267:An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics
209:, Toulmin devoted his works to the analysis of
3007:Hitchcock, David; Verheij, Bart, eds. (2006).
2388:On the Nature of the Physician's Understanding
265:, subsequently publishing his dissertation as
4023:University of Massachusetts Dartmouth faculty
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2564:. In Hitchcock, David; Verheij, Bart (eds.).
2495:At a meeting of the executive council of the
2032:
8:
2546:Sonja K. Foss, Karen A. Foss, Robert Trapp,
2132:. Casuistry was practiced widely during the
2651:at NEH Website (retrieved 22 January 2009).
1673:A Dialogue Concerning Oratorical Partitions
3753:
3100:
3086:
3078:
2661:"California Scholar Wins Government Honor"
2462:Social Impact of AIDS in the United States
2449:Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity
2256:The Philosophy of Science: An Introduction
2039:
2025:
732:
398:Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity
294:The Philosophy of Science: an Introduction
42:
31:
4043:University of Southern California faculty
3719:Relationship between religion and science
2708:, report on 1997 lecture, at NEH website.
4058:British expatriates in the United States
4003:Cambridge University Moral Sciences Club
3053:Stephen Toulmin: An Intellectual Odyssey
2568:. Springer Netherlands. pp. 31â38.
2523:Cambridge University Moral Sciences Club
2290:Seventeenth century science and the arts
1763:Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style
2539:
2195:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions
2188:process. In this book, Toulmin attacks
744:
730:, may not be needed in some arguments.
667:legally be a British citizen" (3).
475:Austrian Decoration for Science and Art
253:. Soon after, Toulmin was hired by the
504:Objection to absolutism and relativism
3068:Interview with Stephen Toulmin in JAC
2497:Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI)
2473:(1996) with Björn Gustavsen (editors)
1966:Rhetoric of social intervention model
473:On 2 March 2006 Toulmin received the
448:National Endowment for the Humanities
325:position of director of the Unit for
7:
3993:Academics of the University of Leeds
2984:from the original on 31 January 2017
2757:Grimes, William (11 December 2009).
342:University of California, Santa Cruz
3998:Alumni of King's College, Cambridge
2719:"Reply to a parliamentary question"
480:He was married four times, once to
281:shaped much of Toulmin's own work.
2921:; Macagno, Fabrizio (March 2007).
2277:(1957) with Ronald W. Hepburn and
2275:Metaphysical Beliefs, Three Essays
2148:(1988), Toulmin collaborated with
2079:(GSN), widely used for developing
25:
4028:Michigan State University faculty
3973:20th-century English philosophers
3739:Sociology of scientific knowledge
3734:Sociology of scientific ignorance
3687:History and philosophy of science
229:, and published in his 1958 book
3936:
3924:
3059: (archived 15 February 2006)
2927:The Knowledge Engineering Review
2778:Wheeler, Kip (19 October 2010).
752:
175:
4038:Northwestern University faculty
3983:British philosophers of science
2978:Committee for Skeptical Inquiry
2550:, Waveland Press, 2014, p. 116.
561:for abandoning that tradition.
450:(NEH) selected Toulmin for the
255:Ministry of Aircraft Production
149:
27:English philosopher (1922â2009)
3128:Analyticâsynthetic distinction
394:: A History of Moral Reasoning
156:Toulmin model (Toulmin method)
1:
4033:University of Chicago faculty
2609:The Journal of Modern History
1936:List of feminist rhetoricians
655:Ground (Fact, Evidence, Data)
3988:Wittgensteinian philosophers
2407:An Introduction to Reasoning
1926:Glossary of rhetorical terms
365:, a philosophy professor at
4018:Columbia University faculty
4013:Stanford University faculty
4008:New York University faculty
3461:Hypothetico-deductive model
3436:Deductive-nomological model
3421:Constructivist epistemology
3021:10.1007/978-1-4020-4938-5_3
2780:"Toulmin Model of Argument"
2574:10.1007/978-1-4020-4938-5_3
2218:model, Toulmin proposed an
2180:In 1972, Toulmin published
1773:Language as Symbolic Action
412:underlying modern science.
4074:
2970:"The Pantheon of Skeptics"
706:The first three elements,
616:
249:, in 1943, where he was a
3915:
3522:Semantic view of theories
3441:Epistemological anarchism
3378:dependent and independent
2939:10.1017/S0269888907001051
2886:10.1007/978-1-4471-2312-5
2841:10.1007/978-1-4020-6670-2
2724:(in German). p. 1761
2264:(1958) 2nd edition 2003:
2087:and associated software.
2077:goal structuring notation
2058:Introduction to Reasoning
1683:De Optimo Genere Oratorum
605:Toulmin model of argument
247:King's College, Cambridge
164:
90:
85:King's College, Cambridge
69:4 December 2009 (aged 87)
41:
3264:Intertheoretic reduction
3253:Ignoramus et ignorabimus
3230:Functional contextualism
3073:Obituary in The Guardian
2685:27 February 2009 at the
2560:Loui, Ronald P. (2006).
633:process of justification
171:Stephen Edelston Toulmin
36:Stephen Edelston Toulmin
3749:Philosophers of science
3527:Scientific essentialism
3476:Model-dependent realism
3411:Constructive empiricism
3304:Evidence-based practice
2699:"The Jefferson Lecture"
2647:20 October 2011 at the
2384:(1973) with Allan Janik
1623:De Sophisticis Elenchis
578:issues. The pursuit of
406:Northwestern University
99:20th-century philosophy
3832:Alfred North Whitehead
3822:Charles Sanders Peirce
2872:Spriggs, John (2012).
2214:In contrast to Kuhn's
1743:De doctrina Christiana
1733:Dialogus de oratoribus
1653:Rhetorica ad Herennium
879:Captatio benevolentiae
685:Rebuttal (Reservation)
614:
386:United States Congress
3931:Philosophy portal
3682:Hard and soft science
3677:Faith and rationality
3546:Scientific skepticism
3326:Scientific Revolution
3109:Philosophy of science
2744:The Discovery of Time
2382:Wittgenstein's Vienna
2171:Philosophy of science
2106:Good Reasons approach
2096:Good reasons approach
1911:Communication studies
1753:De vulgari eloquentia
1613:Rhetoric to Alexander
617:Further information:
612:
437:University of Chicago
371:Wittgenstein's Vienna
322:Columbia Universities
286:Philosophy of Science
159:Good reasons approach
3978:English rhetoricians
3657:Criticism of science
3532:Scientific formalism
3416:Constructive realism
3321:Scientific pluralism
3294:Problem of induction
2876:. London; New York:
2807:Book description of
2704:3 March 2016 at the
2680:"A Dissenter's Life"
2518:Argumentation theory
2491:Pantheon of skeptics
2262:The Uses of Argument
2224:biological evolution
2116:Revival of casuistry
700:Defeasible reasoning
640:The Uses of Argument
565:Humanizing modernity
525:The Uses of Argument
358:biological evolution
344:, Toulmin published
306:The Uses of Argument
298:Melbourne University
263:Cambridge University
231:The Uses of Argument
3724:Rhetoric of science
3662:Descriptive science
3406:Confirmation holism
3299:Scientific evidence
3259:Inductive reasoning
3188:Demarcation problem
2669:, 12 February 1997.
2642:Jefferson Lecturers
2341:Night Sky at Rhodes
2182:Human Understanding
1916:Composition studies
1847:Health and medicine
1713:Institutio Oratoria
920:Eloquentia perfecta
629:practical arguments
619:Practical arguments
532:Human Understanding
367:La Salle University
331:Nuffield Foundation
302:University of Leeds
271:Ludwig Wittgenstein
215:practical arguments
207:Ludwig Wittgenstein
3943:Science portal
3872:Carl Gustav Hempel
3827:Wilhelm Windelband
3714:Questionable cause
3537:Scientific realism
3358:Underdetermination
3193:Empirical evidence
3183:Creative synthesis
2919:Walton, Douglas N.
2835:. pp. 15â16.
2815:Decision by Debate
2809:Decision by Debate
2764:The New York Times
2666:The New York Times
2279:Alasdair MacIntyre
2176:Evolutionary model
2054:Decision by Debate
2001:Terministic screen
1783:A General Rhetoric
1313:Resignation speech
850:Studia humanitatis
832:Byzantine rhetoric
650:citizen" (1).
646:Claim (Conclusion)
615:
486:history of science
109:Western philosophy
75:, California, U.S.
18:Warrant (rhetoric)
3950:
3949:
3792:
3791:
3704:Normative science
3561:Uniformitarianism
3316:Scientific method
3210:Explanatory power
3030:978-1-4020-4937-8
2678:Stephen Toulmin,
2583:978-1-4020-4937-8
2049:
2048:
1976:Rogerian argument
1723:Panegyrici Latini
815:The age of Cicero
452:Jefferson Lecture
421:Dartmouth College
290:Oxford University
251:Cambridge Apostle
168:
167:
16:(Redirected from
4065:
4048:English sceptics
3941:
3940:
3929:
3928:
3927:
3902:Bas van Fraassen
3857:Hans Reichenbach
3837:Bertrand Russell
3754:
3580:Philosophy of...
3363:Unity of science
3156:Commensurability
3102:
3095:
3088:
3079:
3042:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2989:
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2960:
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2951:
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2798:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2784:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2754:
2748:
2747:
2746:. Penguin. 1967.
2740:
2734:
2733:
2731:
2729:
2723:
2715:
2709:
2696:
2690:
2676:
2670:
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2652:
2639:
2633:
2632:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2592:
2590:
2557:
2551:
2544:
2477:Return to Reason
2466:Albert R. Jonsen
2437:Albert R. Jonsen
2363:Physical Reality
2161:sanctity of life
2150:Albert R. Jonsen
2102:Reason in Ethics
2041:
2034:
2027:
1941:List of speeches
1788:
1778:
1768:
1758:
1748:
1738:
1728:
1718:
1708:
1698:
1688:
1678:
1668:
1658:
1648:
1638:
1628:
1618:
1608:
1598:
1588:
1392:Neo-Aristotelian
959:Figure of speech
820:Second Sophistic
756:
733:
676:"I trained as a
594:Return to Reason
555:Martin Heidegger
553:, Wittgenstein,
327:History of Ideas
235:computer science
204:
203:
200:
199:
196:
193:
190:
187:
184:
181:
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32:
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3925:
3923:
3911:
3892:Paul Feyerabend
3852:Michael Polanyi
3788:
3774:Galileo Galilei
3743:
3729:Science studies
3645:
3575:
3566:Verificationism
3471:Instrumentalism
3456:Foundationalism
3431:Conventionalism
3389:
3225:Feminist method
3111:
3106:
3063:Stephen Toulmin
3057:Wayback Machine
3049:
3031:
3013:Springer-Verlag
3006:
3003:
3001:Further reading
2998:
2997:
2987:
2985:
2968:
2967:
2963:
2958:
2954:
2916:
2915:
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2896:
2878:Springer-Verlag
2871:
2870:
2866:
2851:
2833:Springer-Verlag
2826:
2825:
2821:
2811:at Google Books
2805:
2801:
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2706:Wayback Machine
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2687:Wayback Machine
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2649:Wayback Machine
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2118:
2098:
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2045:
2016:
2015:
1961:Public rhetoric
1899:
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1889:
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1837:Native American
1802:
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1218:Funeral oration
1208:Farewell speech
1165:Socratic method
1121:
1120:
1111:
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873:
872:
863:
862:
768:
767:
621:
607:
602:
567:
506:
501:
499:Meta-philosophy
490:Camilla Toulmin
243:
211:moral reasoning
178:
174:
157:
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133:Meta-philosophy
129:
81:Alma mater
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61:
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3672:Exact sciences
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3650:Related topics
3647:
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3609:Social science
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3602:Space and time
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3311:Scientific law
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3220:Falsifiability
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3149:Mill's Methods
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3047:External links
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425:Michigan State
369:, on the book
354:Charles Darwin
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3697:Pseudoscience
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3556:Structuralism
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2933:(1): 87â109.
2932:
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2924:
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2917:Reed, Chris;
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2895:9781447123118
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2248:
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2216:revolutionary
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2095:
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2085:argument maps
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2070:Issue mapping
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2019:
2012:
2009:
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2006:Toulmin model
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1991:Talking point
1989:
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1986:Speechwriting
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1807:Argumentation
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1643:De Inventione
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1323:War-mongering
1321:
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1289:Progymnasmata
1287:
1283:
1280:
1278:
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1260:
1258:
1257:Maiden speech
1255:
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858:Modern period
856:
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805:Ancient India
803:
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788:Attic orators
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623:Arguing that
620:
611:
604:
600:Argumentation
599:
597:
595:
590:
586:
581:
577:
572:
564:
562:
560:
559:Richard Rorty
556:
552:
548:
547:Thomas Hobbes
544:
540:
535:
533:
528:
526:
521:
519:
516:'s idealized
515:
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390:The Abuse of
387:
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377:'s idealized
376:
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339:
334:
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228:
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220:
216:
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208:
202:
172:
163:
160:
155:
152:Notable ideas
146:
142:
138:
137:argumentation
134:
131:
125:
122:
119:
117:
113:
110:
107:
103:
100:
97:
93:
89:
86:
83:
79:
74:
68:
64:
59:
54:25 March 1922
53:
49:
45:
40:
33:
30:
19:
3907:Larry Laudan
3887:Imre Lakatos
3842:Otto Neurath
3817:Karl Pearson
3807:Pierre Duhem
3779:Isaac Newton
3709:Protoscience
3667:Epistemology
3541:Anti-realism
3539: /
3520: /
3511: /
3497: /
3495:Reductionism
3493: /
3466:Inductionism
3446:Evolutionism
3251:
3138:a posteriori
3137:
3133:
3008:
2986:. Retrieved
2973:
2964:
2955:
2930:
2926:
2912:
2873:
2867:
2828:
2822:
2814:
2808:
2802:
2790:. Retrieved
2786:
2773:
2762:
2752:
2743:
2738:
2726:. Retrieved
2713:
2694:
2674:
2664:
2656:
2637:
2615:(4): 691â8.
2612:
2608:
2602:
2594:
2587:. Retrieved
2565:
2555:
2547:
2542:
2494:
2476:
2470:
2464:(1993) with
2461:
2448:
2435:(1988) with
2432:
2419:
2406:
2393:
2387:
2381:
2368:
2362:
2349:(1965) with
2346:
2340:
2327:(1962) with
2324:
2311:(1961) with
2308:
2295:
2289:
2283:
2274:
2261:
2255:
2242:
2228:
2220:evolutionary
2213:
2193:
2186:evolutionary
2181:
2179:
2165:
2154:
2145:
2120:By reviving
2119:
2101:
2099:
2081:safety cases
2074:
2064:
2062:
2057:
2053:
2050:
1931:Glossophobia
1903:
1822:Constitutive
1781:
1771:
1761:
1751:
1741:
1731:
1721:
1711:
1701:
1691:
1681:
1671:
1661:
1651:
1641:
1631:
1621:
1611:
1601:
1591:
1581:
1551:
1405:Rhetoricians
1318:Stump speech
1235:Invitational
1188:
1173:Dissoi logoi
1171:
1150:Deliberative
1142:Controversia
1140:
1103:
1096:
1070:
1063:
1056:
1029:
1022:
1010:Pronuntiatio
1008:
1001:
994:
987:
980:
939:
927:
918:
901:
894:
877:
848:
810:Ancient Rome
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
705:
639:
637:
622:
593:
570:
568:
549:, and lauds
538:
536:
531:
529:
524:
522:
518:formal logic
507:
494:
479:
472:
446:In 1997 the
445:
429:Northwestern
414:
397:
389:
383:
379:formal logic
370:
356:'s model of
345:
335:
305:
293:
283:
266:
259:World War II
244:
230:
219:moral issues
170:
169:
29:
3968:2009 deaths
3963:1922 births
3897:Ian Hacking
3882:Thomas Kuhn
3867:Karl Popper
3847:C. D. Broad
3764:Roger Bacon
3692:Non-science
3634:Linguistics
3614:Archaeology
3509:Rationalism
3499:Determinism
3486:Physicalism
3451:Fallibilism
3401:Coherentism
3331:Testability
3284:Observation
3279:Objectivity
3240:alternative
3171:Correlation
3161:Consilience
2728:24 November
2284:The Riviera
2231:absolutists
2190:Thomas Kuhn
2144:period, in
2138:Renaissance
2134:Middle Ages
2011:Wooden iron
1971:Rhetrickery
1946:Oral skills
1882:Composition
1817:Contrastive
1637:(c. 350 BC)
1627:(c. 350 BC)
1617:(c. 350 BC)
1607:(c. 350 BC)
1597:(c. 370 BC)
1457:Demosthenes
1437:Brueggemann
1372:Ideological
1223:Homileticsâ
1136:Declamation
1126:Apologetics
976:Five canons
844:Renaissance
827:Middle Ages
585:atomic bomb
576:theoretical
464:rationalism
363:Allan Janik
338:N.R. Hanson
73:Los Angeles
3957:Categories
3784:David Hume
3757:Precursors
3639:Psychology
3619:Economicsâ
3513:Empiricism
3504:Pragmatism
3491:Positivism
3481:Naturalism
3351:scientific
3235:Hypothesis
3198:Experiment
2792:12 October
2534:References
2204:relativist
2130:relativism
2126:absolutism
2110:A. J. Ayer
1867:Technology
1857:Procedural
1677:(c. 50 BC)
1663:De Oratore
1527:Quintilian
1522:Protagoras
1377:Metaphoric
1301:Propaganda
1184:Epideictic
1098:Sotto voce
1052:Persuasion
1047:Operations
989:Dispositio
885:Chironomia
625:absolutism
580:absolutism
571:Cosmopolis
551:John Dewey
539:Cosmopolis
510:absolutism
456:humanities
439:, and the
402:Humanities
350:conceptual
139:, ethics,
3624:Geography
3592:Chemistry
3551:Scientism
3346:ladenness
3166:Construct
3144:Causality
2904:792775478
2859:171556540
2629:147375119
2229:From the
2209:paradigms
2200:paradigms
2122:casuistry
2065:questions
1981:Seduction
1812:Cognitive
1800:Subfields
1727:(100â400)
1482:Isocrates
1422:Augustine
1412:Aristotle
1387:Narrative
1337:Criticism
1282:Philippic
1196:Panegyric
1179:Elocution
1160:Dialectic
1080:Situation
941:Facilitas
935:Enthymeme
914:Eloquence
896:Delectare
720:qualifier
694:Qualifier
689:country".
678:barrister
460:modernity
392:Casuistry
241:Biography
227:arguments
145:modernity
60:, England
3919:Category
3571:Vitalism
3394:Theories
3368:Variable
3289:Paradigm
3176:function
3134:A priori
3123:Analysis
3116:Concepts
3039:82229075
2988:30 April
2982:Archived
2947:26294789
2702:Archived
2683:Archived
2645:Archived
2512:See also
2505:Colorado
2157:paradigm
2136:and the
1852:Pedagogy
1832:Feminist
1603:Rhetoric
1593:Phaedrus
1587:(380 BC)
1537:Richards
1507:Perelman
1355:Pentadic
1350:Dramatic
1294:Suasoria
1272:Diatribe
1213:Forensic
1190:Encomium
1155:Demagogy
1024:Imitatio
996:Elocutio
982:Inventio
952:Informal
871:Concepts
798:Sophists
793:Calliope
783:Atticism
778:Asianism
746:Rhetoric
738:a series
736:Part of
728:rebuttal
589:humanism
468:humanism
433:Stanford
417:Columbia
410:morality
318:Stanford
314:New York
279:language
275:meanings
223:rhetoric
141:rhetoric
121:Analytic
3629:History
3597:Physics
3587:Biology
3385:more...
3373:control
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3055:at the
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2245:(1950)
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1707:(c. 50)
1697:(46 BC)
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1667:(55 BC)
1657:(80 BC)
1647:(84 BC)
1583:Gorgias
1552:Toulmin
1547:Tacitus
1497:McLuhan
1472:Gorgias
1467:Erasmus
1462:Derrida
1427:Bakhtin
1417:Aspasia
1382:Mimesis
1345:Cluster
1277:Eristic
1267:Polemic
1262:Oratory
1240:Lecture
1003:Memoria
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1956:Pistis
1951:Orator
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1787:(1970)
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435:, the
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2943:S2CID
2783:(PDF)
2722:(PDF)
2625:S2CID
2529:Notes
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969:Trope
708:claim
514:Plato
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3215:Fact
3136:and
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3025:ISBN
2990:2017
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