Warring States period - Knowledge (XXG)

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this day. One of this pair can now be seen at the exhibition in Bern (Fig. 4). A small, ca. 23 cm tall, figurine represents a man sitting on a settled horse. He stretches out his left hand, whereas his right hand points downwards. Holes pierced through both his fists suggest that he originally held the reins of his horse in one hand and a weapon in the other. The rider wears a short jacket, trousers and boots – elements of the typical outfit of the inhabitants of the Central Asian steppes. Trousers were first introduced in the early Chinese state of Zhao during the late 4th century BCE, as the Chinese started to learn horse riding from their nomadic neighbours. The state of Qin should have adopted the nomadic clothes about the same time. But the figurine from Taerpo also has some other features that may point to its foreign identity: a hood-like headgear with a flat wide crown framing his face and a high, pointed nose.

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resembles that of the steppe leaders known to the Achaemenids and Parthians (Curtis 2000: front cover), but he proclaimed his conquest in the language of the Central Plains: Chinese. The First Emperor must have had advisors who knew something of the seals, weights and measures of Central Asia and Iran (Khayutina 2013: cat. nos 115–17), and also retained craftsmen who had mastered Western technologies and cast bronze birds for his tomb in hitherto unknown life-like forms (Mei et al. 2014). He also exploited mounted horsemen and iron weaponry originally from the steppe, and agriculture and settlements of the Central Plains, turning to the extraordinary organisation of people and manufacturing from this area to create a unified state. This could only be achieved by moving towards the centre, as the Emperor indeed did.

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reforms, and established a society based on solid ranks. Peasants were encouraged to practice agriculture as occupation, and military performance was rewarded. Laws were also applied to all ranks with no exception; even the king was not above punishment. The philosophy was adapted by the Qin state and it created it into an organized, centralized state with a bureaucracy chosen on the basis of merit. This period is most famous for the establishment of complex bureaucracies and centralized governments, as well as a clear legal system. The developments in political and military organization were the basis of the power of the Qin state, which conquered the other states and unified them under the

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During a 2007 exhibition on the Scythians in Berlin, there was a bronze hood on display labeled a "Kazakh military cap." This bronze hood and the clothing of the nomads in kneeling posture are very similar in form to those of the terracotta figurines from the late Warring States Qin-period tomb at the Taerpo site (see Figure 1). The style of the Scythian bronze horse figures and the saddle, bridle, and other accessories on their bodies are nearly identical to those seen on the Warring States-period Qin figurines and a similar type of artifact from the Ordos region, and they all date to the fifth to third centuries BCE.

524: 2335: 3231: 1889: 1734: 3129: 2350: 2897: 2063: 1928: 1838: 3106: 157: 3552: 3114: 47: 2905: 3417: 3161:. This had two major effects. First it led the dukes to weaken their chariot-riding nobility so they could get direct access to the peasantry who could be drafted as infantry. This change was associated with the shift from aristocratic to bureaucratic government. Second, it led to a massive increase in the scale of warfare. When the Zhou overthrew the Shang at the 1968:. Wey appealed to Wei which attacked Zhao on the western side. Being in danger, Zhao called in Chu. As usual, Chu used this as a pretext to annex territory to its north, but the diversion allowed Zhao to occupy a part of Wei. This conflict marked the end of the power of the united Jins and the beginning a period of shifting alliances and wars on several fronts. 2022: 2554:, though mutual suspicions between allied states led to the breakdown of such alliances. Qin repeatedly exploited the horizontal alliance strategy to defeat the states one by one. During this period, many philosophers and tacticians travelled around the states, recommending that the rulers put their respective ideas into use. These "lobbyists", such as 2616: 1758:. No one single incident or starting point inaugurated the Warring States era. The political situation of the period represented a culmination of historical trends of conquest and annexation which also characterised the Spring and Autumn period. As a result, there is some controversy as to the beginning of the era. Proposed starting points include: 2209: 3311:

The Qiang battle spear was named as the king 'wang' of all ancient weapons. It had the biggest impact on the battlefield and was quite difficult to master. The second important weapon of that era was the double-edged battle sword Jian. The fighting methods of using the Qiang spear and Jian sword were

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Other noteworthy terracotta figurines were found in 1995 in a 4th–3rd century BCE tomb in the Taerpo cemetery near Xianyang in Shaanxi Province, where the last Qin capital of the same name was located from 350 to 207 BCE. These are the earliest representations of cavalrymen in China discovered up to

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The various states fielded massive armies of infantry, cavalry, and chariots. Complex logistical systems maintained by efficient government bureaucracies were needed to supply, train, and control such large forces. The size of the armies ranged from tens of thousands to several hundred thousand men.

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In the rule of the Qin state, the union was based solely on military power. The feudal holdings were abolished, and noble families were forced to live in the capital city Xianyang, in order to be supervised. A national road as well as greater use of canals was used in order for deployment and supply

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tended to be their satellites and tributaries. Other major states also existed, such as Wu and Yue in the southeast. The last decades of the Spring and Autumn era were marked by increased stability, as the result of peace negotiations between Jin and Chu which established their respective spheres of

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Legalism created by Shang Yang in 338 BC, rejected all notions of religion and practices, and believed a nation should be governed by strict law. Not only were severe punishments applied, but they would be grouped with the families and made mutually responsible for criminal act. It proposed radical

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The Warring States period was an era of warfare in ancient China, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation; the major states, ruling over large territories, quickly sought to consolidate their powers, leading to the final erosion of the Zhou court's prestige. As a sign of this

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Shang introduced land reforms, privatized land, rewarded farmers who exceeded harvest quotas, enslaved farmers who failed to meet quotas, and used enslaved subjects as rewards for those who met government policies. As manpower was short in Qin relative to the other states at the time, Shang enacted

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saw the allied Han, Zhao and Wei destroy the Zhi family (453 BC) and their lands were distributed among them. With this, they became the "de facto" rulers of most of Jin's territory, though this situation would not be officially recognised until half a century later. The Jin division created a

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The phenomenon of intensive warfare, based on mass formations of infantry rather than the traditional chariots, was one major trend which led to the creation of strong central bureaucracies in each of the major states. At the same time, the process of secondary feudalism which permeated the Spring

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Mencius attempted to instate Confucianism as a state philosophy, proposing that through the governing of moral principles like benevolence and righteousness, the state would win popular support from one state and those neighboring, eliminating the need of a war altogether. Mencius had attempted to

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became less widespread. The use of massed infantry made warfare bloodier and reduced the importance of the aristocracy, which in turn made the kings more despotic. From this period onward, as the various states competed with each other by mobilizing their armies to war, nobles in China belonged to

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of Chu. However, Wang Jian decided to weaken Chu's resolve and tricked the Chu army by appearing to be idle in his fortifications whilst secretly training his troops to fight in Chu territory. After a year, the Chu defenders decided to disband due to apparent lack of action from the Qin. Wang Jian

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The Eastern Zhou dynasty began its fall around 5th century BC. As their influence waned, they had to rely on other armies in other allied states rather than their own military force. Hundreds of smaller polities coalesced into seven major states which included: Chu, Han, Qin, Wei, Yan, Qi and

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and Qin sent out general Wang He. Lian Po was too wise to risk a decisive battle with the Qin army and remained inside his fortifications. Qin could not break through and the armies were locked in stalemate for three years. The Zhao king decided that Lian Po was not aggressive enough and sent out

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to its east on the Pacific coast. The series of events leading up to this began when Yue prepared to attack Qi to its north. The King of Qi sent an emissary who persuaded the King of Yue to attack Chu instead. Yue initiated a large-scale attack at Chu but was defeated by Chu's counter-attack. Chu

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Under the demands of warfare, the states adopted bureaucratic reforms in the Warring States period. Wei adopted these in 445 BC, Zhao in 403 BC, Chu in 390 BC, Han in 355 BC, Qi in 357 BC and Qin in 350 BC. Power was centralised by curbing the landed aristocrats and

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Qin was too exhausted to follow up its victory. Some time later it sent an army to besiege the Zhao capital but the army was destroyed when it was attacked from the rear. Zhao survived, but there was no longer a state that could resist Qin on its own. The other states could have survived if they

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In terms of formal characteristics and style of dress and adornment, the closest parallels to the Warring States-period Qin figurines are found in the Scythian culture. Wang Hui 王輝 has examined the exchanges between the cultures of the Yellow River valley and the Scythian culture of the steppe.

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Taoism was advocated by Laozi, and believed that human nature was good and can achieve perfection by returning to original state. It believed that like a baby, humans are simple and innocent although with development of civilizations it lost its innocence only to be replaced by fraud and greed.

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In 287 BC the strategist Su Dai, younger brother of Su Qin and possibly an agent of Yan, persuaded King Min that the Zhao war would only benefit Qin. King Min agreed and formed a 'vertical' alliance with the other states against Qin. Qin backed off, abandoned the presumptuous title of "Di", and

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King Zheng of Qin (246–221 BC), who was to be the First Emperor (221–210 BC), took material from many regions. As he unified the territory, he employed steppe cavalry men in his army, as we now recognise from the terracotta warriors guarding his tomb (Khayutina 2013: cat. no. 314), whose dress

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is considered one of the most foundational texts of the developing political economy in the Warring States period. It addresses principles of price regulation in the context of effectively dealing with commodities that are "light" (connoting a commodity which is unimportant, non-essential, or

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contradicts himself regarding the ultimate fate of the East Zhou court. Chapter 4 (The Annals of Zhou) concludes with the sentence "thus the sacrifices of Zhou ended", but in the following chapter 5 (The Annals of Qin) we learn that "Qin did not prohibit their sacrifices; the Lord of Zhou was

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After the failure of the first vertical alliance, Su Qin eventually came to live in Qi, where he was favored by King Xuan and drew the envy of the ministers. An assassination attempt in 300 BC left Su mortally wounded but not dead. Sensing death approaching, he advised the newly crowned

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Many scholars think these numbers are exaggerated (records are inadequate, they are much larger than those from similar societies, soldiers were paid by the number of enemies they killed and the Han dynasty had an interest in exaggerating the bloodiness of the age before China was unified).

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Mohism was developed by Mozi (468–376 BC) and it provided a unified moral and political philosophy based on impartiality and benevolence. Mohists had the belief that people change depending on environments around. The same was applied to rulers, which is why one must be cautious of foreign

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In 285 BC, the success of Qi had frightened the other states. Under the leadership of Lord Mengchang, who was exiled in Wei, Qin, Zhao, Wei and Yan formed an alliance. Yan had normally been a relatively weak ally of Qi and Qi feared little from this quarter. Yan's onslaught under general

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became disproportionately powerful compared with the other six states. As a result, the policies of the six states became overwhelmingly oriented towards dealing with the Qin threat, with two opposing schools of thought. One school advocated a 'vertical' or north–south alliance called

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and the diminution of its relevance and power. The Spring and Autumn period led to a few states gaining power at the expense of many others, the latter no longer able to depend on central authority for legitimacy or protection. During the Warring States period, many rulers claimed the

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policies to increase its manpower. As Qin peasants were recruited into the military, he encouraged active immigration of peasants from other states into Qin as a replacement workforce; this policy simultaneously increased the manpower of Qin and weakened the manpower of Qin's rivals.

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came as a devastating surprise. Simultaneously, the other allies attacked from the west. Chu declared itself an ally of Qi but contented itself with annexing some territory to its north. Qi's armies were destroyed while the territory of Qi was reduced to the two cities of Ju and

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At the same time, the increased resources of consolidated, bureaucratic states, coupled with the logistical needs of mass levies and large-scale warfare, led to the proliferation of economic projects such as large-scale waterworks. Major examples of such waterworks include the

3308:. The dagger-axe came in various lengths, from 9 to 18 feet; the weapon consisted of a thrusting spear with a slashing blade appended to it. Dagger-axes were an extremely popular weapon in various kingdoms, especially for the Qin, who produced 18-foot-long pike-like weapons. 2921:

ruled for only three years. He was succeeded by his son Zheng, who unlike the two elderly kings that preceded him was only 13 years old at his coronation. As an adult Zheng would turn out to be a brilliant commander who, in the span of just nine years, unified China.

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maneuver, falling back in the center and surrounding the Zhao army from the sides. After being surrounded for 46 days, the starving Zhao troops surrendered in September 260 BC. It is said that Bai Qi had all the prisoners killed and that Zhao lost 400,000 men.

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The reforms of Shang Yang in Qin, and of Wu Qi in Chu, both centred on increased centralisation, the suppression of the nobility, and a vastly increased scope of government based on Legalist ideals, which were necessary to mobilise the large armies of the period.

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However, in 325 the confidence of Duke Hui grew so great that he proclaimed himself "king" of Qin; adopting the same title as the king of Zhou and thereby effectively proclaiming independence from the Zhou dynasty. King Hui of Qin was guided by his prime minister

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The many states that were competing between each other attempted to display their power not only militarily but in their courts and in state philosophy. Many differing rulers adopted the differing philosophies to their own advantage or that of their kingdom.

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The rise of Qin was recognized by the royal court, and in 343 BC the king conferred the title of Count (伯 Bó) on Duke Xiao. As was customary, a conference was hosted which the feudal lords attended, and during which the Son of Heaven bestowed the title.

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In 222 BC, Wang Jian was recalled to lead a second military invasion with 600,000 men against the Chu state. High in morale after their victory in the previous year, the Chu forces were content to sit back and defend against what they expected to be a

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writes that the other states were so awestruck that nobody dared attack Qi for more than 20 years. The demonstrated military prowess also had a calming effect on Qi's own population, which experienced great domestic tranquility during Wei's reign.

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Regardless of exaggeration, it seems clear that warfare had become excessive during this period. The bloodshed and misery of the Warring States period goes a long way in explaining China's traditional and current preference for a united throne.

2646:. In the far west, Qin, which had been weakened by a succession struggle in 307, yielded to the new coalition and appointed Lord Mengchang its chief minister. The alliance between Qin and Qi was sealed by a Qin princess marrying King Min. This 1846:

Zhao. However, there eventually was a shift in alliances because each state's ruler wanted to be independent in power. This caused hundreds of wars between 535 and 286 BC. The victorious state would have overall rule and control in China.

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remained a major factor in Chinese warfare long after it went out of fashion in the Middle East. Near the beginning of the Warring States period there is a shift from chariots to massed infantry, possibly associated with the invention of the

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The crossbow was the preferred long-range weapon of this period, due to several reasons. The crossbow could be mass-produced easily, and mass training of crossbowmen was possible. These qualities made it a powerful weapon against the enemy.

3139: 3030:, in 223 BC. At their peak, the combined armies of Chu and Qin are estimated to have ranged from hundreds of thousands to a million soldiers, more than those involved in the campaign of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years earlier. 2676:. After 3 years of fighting they took the pass and forced Qin to return territory to Han and Wei. They next inflicted major defeats on Yan and Chu. During the 5-year administration of Lord Mengchang, Qi was the major power in China. 1896:

The rulers of Jin had steadily lost political powers since the middle of the 6th century BC to their nominally subordinate nobles and military commanders, a situation arising from the traditions of the Jin which forbade the

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invaded at that point, with full force, and overran Huaiyang and the remaining Chu forces. Chu lost the initiative and could only sustain local guerrilla-style resistance until it too was fully conquered with the destruction of

3070:, the final unconquered state. It had not previously contributed or helped other states when Qin was conquering them. As soon as Qin's intention to invade it became clear, Qi swiftly surrendered all its cities, completing the 2595:, reigned only four years before dying without legitimate heirs. Some damaging turbulence ensued throughout 307 BC before a son of King Hui by a concubine (i.e. a younger half-brother of King Wu) could be established as 2253:

Shang made laws forcing citizens to marry at a young age and passed tax laws to encourage raising multiple children. He also enacted policies to free convicts who worked in opening wastelands for agriculture. Shang abolished

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After Chu was defeated in 278, the remaining great powers were Qin in the west and Zhao in the north-center. There was little room for diplomatic maneuver and matters were decided by wars. Zhao had been much strengthened by

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spent years visiting the courts of Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Qi and Chu and persuaded them to form a united front against Qin. In 318 BC all states except Qi launched a joint attack on Qin, which however was not successful.

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and created a double tax on households that had more than one son living in the household, to break up large clans into nuclear families. Shang also moved the capital to reduce the influence of nobles on the administration.

2112:, proposed to attack the Wei capital while the Wei army was tied up besieging Zhao. The strategy was a success; the Wei army hastily moved south to protect its capital, was caught on the road and decisively defeated at the 3539:

sinecures and creating a new hierarchy based on meritorious service to the state, which were drawn from the lower rungs of society. Systematic auditing and reporting systems, and fixed salaries for officials were created.

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shift, the rulers of all the major states (except for Chu, which had claimed kingly title much earlier) abandoned their former feudal titles for the title of 王, or King, claiming equality with the rulers of the Zhou.

2200:, the new generation of rulers ascending the thrones in the Warring States period would not entertain even the pretence of being vassals of the Zhou dynasty, instead proclaiming themselves fully independent kingdoms. 1514:, but had lost political power and functioned in practice as a figurehead. This dynamic served as the backdrop for the machinations of the eponymous Warring States. The label "Warring States period" derives from the 3312:

very different from what we see in movies or re-enactment shows today. Professional warriors of that era used the military concepts of "Master" Sun Tzu and created several successful "Ge Dou" martial schools.

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of relatives of the ducal house. This allowed other clans to gain fiefs and military authority, and decades of internecine struggle led to the establishment of four major families, the Han, Zhao, Wei and Zhi.

3005:. The first invasion was however an utter disaster when 200,000 Qin troops, led by the general, Li Xin, were defeated by 500,000 Chu troops in the unfamiliar territory of Huaiyang, modern-day northern 3091:

of the army to be done with ease and speed. The peasants were given a wider range of rights in regards of land, although they were subject to taxation, creating a large amount of revenue to the state.

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inexpensive) or "heavy" (a commodity which is important, essential, or expensive) and how whether a commodity is "light" or "heavy" must be understood in relation the contexts and other commodities.

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The new ruler set about reclaiming territories that had been lost to other states. He launched a successful campaign against Zhao, Wey and Wei, once again extending Qi territory to the Great Wall.

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attacked the weakened Wei. Wei was devastatingly defeated and ceded a large part of its territory in return for truce. With Wei severely weakened, Qi and Qin became the dominant states in China.

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In 364 BC Wei was defeated by Qin at the Battle of Shimen and was only saved by the intervention of Zhao. Qin won another victory in 362 BC. In 361 BC the Wei capital was moved east to

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influence. This situation ended with the partition of Jin, whereby the state was divided between the houses of Han, Zhao and Wei, and thus enabled the creation of the seven major warring states.

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political vacuum that enabled during the first 50 years expansion of Chu and Yue northward and Qi southward. Qin increased its control of the local tribes and began its expansion southwest to

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In 269 BC Fan Sui became chief advisor to Qin. He advocated authoritarian reforms, irrevocable expansion and an alliance with distant states to attack nearby states (the twenty-third of the

2881:. The new Qin king proceeded to conquer East Zhou, seven years after the fall of West Zhou. Thus the 800-year Zhou dynasty, nominally China's longest-ruling regime, finally came to an end. 1990:

from the south invaded Wei. On the verge of conquering Wei, the leaders of Zhao and Han fell into disagreement about what to do with Wei, and both armies abruptly retreated. As a result,

2778:(325–299). In 307 he enlarged his cavalry by copying the northern nomads. In 306 he took more land in the northern Shanxi plateau. In 305 he defeated the north-eastern border state of 3588:

were used to represent both negative and positive integers, and rational numbers, a true positional number system, with a blank for zero dating back to the Warring States period.

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have him publicly executed to draw out the assassins. King Min complied with Su's request and killed him, putting an end to the first generation of Vertical alliance thinkers.

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and Autumn period, and led to such events as the partition of Jin and the usurpation of Qi by the Tian clan, was eventually reversed by the same process of bureaucratisation.

2080:(370–319 BC) set about restoring the state. In 362–359 BC he exchanged territories with Han and Zhao in order to make the boundaries of the three states more rational. 2809:

made the first move by attacking the weak state of Han which held the Yellow River gateway into Qin. He moved north-east across Wei territory to cut off the Han exclave of

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but soon realized that the city walls were too tough to break into. They devised a new strategy in which they utilized the power of a local river that was linked to the

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north of Luoyang and south of Zhao. The Han king agreed to surrender Shangdang, but the local governor refused and presented it to King Xiaocheng of Zhao. Zhao sent out

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Warfare in the Warring States period evolved considerably from the Spring and Autumn period, as most armies made use of infantry and cavalry in battles, and the use of

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influences. Mozi was very much against warfare, although he was a great tactician in defense. He defended the small state of Song from many attempts of the Chu state.

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At the same time, the constant conflict and need for innovative social and political models led to the development of many philosophical doctrines, later known as the

3078:. The last Qi king lived out his days in exile in Gong and was not given a posthumous name after death, therefore he is known to posterity by his personal name Jian. 2487:

had enfeoffed his younger brother as Duke Huan of Henan. Three generations later, this cadet branch of the royal house began calling themselves "dukes of East Zhou".

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By the end of King Wei's reign, Qi had become the strongest of the states and proclaimed itself "king"; establishing independence from the Zhou dynasty (see below).

5156: 2294:), using the same tactic, attacking Wei's capital. Sun Bin feigned a retreat and then turned on the overconfident Wei troops and decisively defeated them at the 4586: 3426: 3297:, who advocated 'nomadic dress and horse archery'. But the war chariot still retained its prestige and importance, despite the tactical superiority of cavalry. 2938:, was adjacent to the much stronger Qin, and had suffered continuous assaults by Qin in earlier years of the Warring States period. This went on until Emperor 3614:

Many sayings of Spring and Autumn philosophers, which had previously been circulated orally, were put into writing in the Warring States. These include the

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Contrarily to other schools, it did not want to gain influence in the offices of states and Laozi even refused to be in the minister of the state of Chu.

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In 298 BC Zhao offered Qin an alliance and Lord Mengchang was driven out of Qin. The remaining three allies, Qi, Wei and Han, attacked Qin, driving up the

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they used 45,000 troops and 300 chariots. For the Warring States period the following figures for the military strengths of various states are reported:

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From before 405 until 383 BC the three Jins were united under the leadership of Wei and expanded in all directions. The most important figure was

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had joined the other kings in declaring himself king, he retracted this order in 318 BC, after Zhao suffered a great defeat at the hands of Qin.

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provinces. Xiang Yan, the Chu commander, had lured Qin by allowing a few initial victories, but then counterattacked and burnt two large Qin camps.

1479: – 256 BC), which were characterized by warfare, bureaucratic and military reform, and political consolidation. It followed the 3058:, but this failure only helped to fuel the rage and determination of the Qin king, and he increased the number of troops to conquer the Yan state. 3382: 2396:

Early in the Warring States period, Chu was one of the strongest states in China. The state rose to a new level of power around 389 BC when

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died in 379 BC with no heir from the house of Jiang, which had ruled Qi since the state's founding. The throne instead passed to the future

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The Warring States period saw the introduction of many innovations to the art of warfare in China, such as the use of iron and of cavalry.

2797:). His maxim "attack not only the territory, but also the people" enunciated a policy of mass slaughter that became increasingly frequent. 2282:

In 341 BC, Wei attacked Han. Qi allowed Han to be nearly defeated and then intervened. The generals from the Battle of Guiling met again (

3277:, 4th–3rd century BC. This is the earliest known representation of a cavalryman in China. The outfit is of Central Asian style, probably 4535: 2767: 2266:

After the reforms Qin became much more aggressive. In 340 Qin took land from Wèi after it had been defeated by Qi. In 316 Qin conquered

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The nine linked-rings puzzle, an advanced puzzle device which requires mathematical analysis to solve, was invented during the period.

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Other minor states: There were many minor states which were satellites of the larger ones until they were absorbed. Many were in the

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and fled to Wei. His alliance system collapsed. Qi and Qin made a truce and pursued their own interests. Qi moved south against the

130: 111: 4180:"Ancient times table hidden in Chinese bamboo strips: The 2,300-year-old matrix is the world's oldest decimal multiplication table" 2502: 2043:, from the house of Tian. The Tian had been very influential at court towards the end of Jiang rule, and now openly assumed power. 3046:. After the conquest of Zhao, the Qin army turned its attention towards Yan. Realizing the danger and gravity of this situation, 83: 5161: 2559: 2446: 1942:

officially recognized Zhao, Wei and Han as immediate vassals, thereby raising them to the same rank as the other warring states.

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Domestically, King Hui patronized philosophy and the arts, and is perhaps best remembered for hosting the Confucian philosopher

2005:. To the south, the weaker state of Han held the east–west part of the Yellow River valley, surrounded the Zhou royal domain at 1532: 2533:) in which the states would ally with each other to repel Qin. The other advocated a 'horizontal' or east–west alliance called 2234:

During the early Warring States period Qin generally avoided conflicts with the other states. This changed during the reign of

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By the end of the period Zhao extended from the Shanxi plateau across the plain to the borders of Qi. Wei reached east to Qi,

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Iron weapons became more widespread and began to replace bronze. Most armour and weapons of this period were made from iron.

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in Sichuan to the southwest. Development of this area took a long time but slowly added greatly to Qin's wealth and power.

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hurriedly came out of the capital and surrendered it to the Qin army in order to avoid further bloodshed of his people.

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In 354 BC, King Hui of Wei started a large-scale attack on Zhao. By 353 BC, Zhao was losing badly and its capital,

1516: 1484: 1343: 1152: 97: 5046: 4603: 1733: 1395: 533: 2786:. King Huiwen of Zhao (298–266) chose able servants and expanded against the weakened Qi and Wei. In 296 his general 2196:, in effect declaring their independence from the Zhou court. This marked a major turning point: unlike those in the 3230: 2782:. In 304 he pushed far to the north-west and occupied the east–west section of the Yellow River in the north of the 2320:

also established a good relationship with his Qi counterpart, with both promising to recognize the other as "king".

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between the states of Zhao and Yan was the state of Zhongshan, which was eventually annexed by Zhao in 296 BC.

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In 278 BC, the Qin general Bai Qi attacked from Qin's new territory in Sichuan to the west of Chu. The capital of

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was eventually able to restore much of Qi's territory, but it never regained the influence it had under King Min.

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Guo, Li; Eyman, Douglas; Sun, Hongmei (2024). "Introduction". In Guo, Li; Eyman, Douglas; Sun, Hongmei (eds.).

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also became important, and some merchants had considerable power in politics, the most prominent of which was

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and divided the last remaining Jin territory between themselves, which marked the final end of the Jin state.

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While scholars have identified several different dates as marking the beginning of the Warring States period,

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convince King Hui of Liang, although was unsuccessful since the king saw no advantage in the period of wars.

2716:'emperor'), of the west and east respectively. They swore a covenant and started planning an attack on Zhao. 2154:) was held by figurehead rulers of the Zhou dynasty, while the rulers of most states held the title of duke ( 1813:

403 BC – The year when the Zhou court officially recognised Han, Zhao and Wei as states.

1673:

was the State of Yue, which was highly active in the late Spring and Autumn era but was later annexed by Chu.

3364: 3321: 3242: 3153: 2918: 2878: 2826:

who promised a decisive battle. At the same time Qin secretly replaced Wang He with the notoriously violent

1960:

The growing power of Wei caused Zhao to back away from the alliance. In 383 BC it moved its capital to

1762:

481 BC – Proposed by Song-era historian Lü Zuqian, since this year marks the end of the

1953:

to the northeast on the other side of Zhao. At the same time he pushed west across the Yellow River to the

824: 5151: 4595: 3391: 2494:

in 314, East Zhou became an independent state. The king came to reside in what became known as West Zhou.

1375: 1353: 1338: 543: 482: 477: 4156:

Edgar Kiser; Yong Cai (Aug 2003). "War and Bureaucratization in Qin China: Exploring an Anomalous Case".

3678:

which irrigated large areas of land in the Guanzhong Plain, again increasing Qin's agricultural output.

3579: 3571: 3556: 3293:

The first official native Chinese cavalry unit was formed in 307 BC during the military reforms of

2867: 2806: 2794: 2465: 2117: 1870: 1697: 1568:. This geographical position offered protection from the other states but limited its initial influence. 1506:'s choice of 475 BC is the most often cited. The era largely corresponds to the second half of the 1348: 2349: 1865:

The struggle for hegemony eventually created a state system dominated by several large states, such as

1700:

between the three Jins (west) and Qi (east) and Chu to the south. Some of the more important ones were

5076: 5051: 4995: 4982: 4544: 3563: 2935: 2931: 2643: 2631: 2120:, "besiege Wei, save Zhao"—meaning to attack a vulnerable spot to relieve pressure at another point. 1987: 1850: 1582: 1550: 1390: 603: 170: 223: 207: 4884: 4764: 4759: 4638: 3671: 3294: 2896: 2874: 2818: 2775: 2658: 2563: 2511: 2473: 2457: 2450: 1982:

died without naming a successor, which led to a war of succession. After three years of civil war,

1954: 1946: 1939: 1866: 1576: 555: 104: 3982:"Sino-Western Cultural Exchange as Seen through the Archaeology of the First Emperor's Necropolis" 3582:, indicating that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period. 431: 4829: 4794: 4410: 4197: 4047: 4004: 1979: 1649: 1622: 538: 412: 404: 2441:(338–311 BC) of Qin as hegemons, thereby in theory making Qin the chief ally of the court. 1927: 5101: 4949: 4508: 4498: 4476: 4454: 4379: 4371: 4356: 4335: 4307: 4297: 4268: 4258: 4224: 3960: 3259: 3055: 2779: 2426: 2317: 2113: 2062: 1950: 1906: 1859: 1837: 1793: 1676: 1655:

Besides these seven major states other smaller states survived into the period. They include:

1511: 1286: 609: 360: 352: 3662:, who rose to become Chancellor of Qin and was a key supporter of the eventual Qin Shihuang. 2877:, already an old man, died just three days after his coronation and was succeeded by his son 1853:

underwent enormous changes after 771 BC with the flight of the Zhou court to modern-day

30:

This article is about the period of Chinese history. For the period of Japanese history, see

4934: 4450: 4402: 4187: 4039: 3996: 3766: 3674:

in Sichuan and turned the former backwater region into a major Qin logistical base, and the

3199: 3047: 2863: 2859: 2847: 2831: 2747: 2699: 2596: 2491: 2484: 2434: 2295: 2235: 1883: 1800: 1561: 1496: 965: 523: 515: 259: 3105: 156: 4944: 3286: 3206: 2995: 2943: 2692: 2599:, who in stark contrast to his predecessor went on to rule for an unprecedented 53 years. 2591:

died in 311 BC, followed by prime minister Zhang Yi one year later. The new monarch,

2588: 2438: 2397: 2313: 2299: 2193: 2077: 2071: 2036: 1991: 1807: 1610: 1458: 324: 4869: 3143:

A horse-rider fighting a tiger, depicted on a gilded mirror discovered in Jincun, Luoyang

308: 4244: 4096: 3706: 3700: 3675: 3619: 3551: 3329: 3162: 3027: 2947: 2888:

allotted a patch of land in Yangren where he could continue his ancestral sacrifices".

2740: 2703: 2635: 2627: 2604: 2592: 2461: 2429:

had attempted to use what little royal prerogative he had left by appointing the dukes

2189: 2175: 2128: 2040: 2029: 1819: 1606: 1596: 1358: 867: 784: 31: 4526: 4393:

Lu, Liqing; Ke, Jinhua (2012), "A Concise History of Chinese Psychology of Religion",

3737: 3285:(246–221 BC) is known to have employed steppe cavalry men in his army, as seen in his 3246:

the literate class, rather than to the warrior class as had previously been the case.

3181:

200–360,000 infantry, 200,000 spearmen, 100,000 servants, 600 chariots, 5,000 cavalry;

2572:'the school of the vertical and horizontal') was derived from the two opposing ideas. 5125: 5096: 5061: 4914: 4819: 4809: 4774: 4688: 4658: 4414: 4201: 4051: 4027: 4008: 3770: 3682: 3083: 2939: 2751: 2684: 2339: 2255: 1709: 1635: 657: 624: 4376:

The Cambridge history of ancient China: from the origins of civilization to 221 B.C.

5071: 5066: 5020: 4939: 4924: 4919: 4904: 4899: 4889: 4864: 4849: 4729: 4714: 4663: 4628: 4540: 3608: 3459: 3282: 3122: 3118: 3039: 2967: 2669: 2662: 2651: 2620: 2517: 2469: 2376: 2067: 2002: 1983: 1751: 1738: 1717: 1701: 1602: 1586: 1507: 1488: 1469: 1232: 1208: 1195: 1182: 1126: 1107: 1097: 1085: 1023: 737: 727: 704: 421: 266: 236: 166: 4350: 3757:

Cook, Scott (2010). ""San De" and Warring States Views on Heavenly Retribution".

5106: 5091: 5081: 5041: 5015: 5010: 5005: 4990: 4959: 4879: 4874: 4859: 4854: 4824: 4804: 4779: 4769: 4744: 4739: 4719: 4709: 4683: 4678: 4668: 4653: 4633: 4623: 4618: 4552:, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Chris Cullen, Vivienne Lo & Carol Michaelson ( 3711: 3659: 3647: 3639: 3607:, which summarizes the preceding Spring and Autumn period. The less famous work 3585: 3523: 3495: 3387: 3370: 3113: 3075: 3043: 3023: 3002: 2959: 2639: 2414: 2354: 2329: 2306: 2267: 2095: 1965: 1898: 1721: 1713: 1690: 1666: 1641: 1627: 1592: 1557: 1521: 1492: 1323: 1139: 1010: 854: 844: 834: 812: 799: 633: 459: 186: 182: 174: 162: 46: 5056: 5036: 5000: 4909: 4894: 4844: 4839: 4799: 4704: 4673: 4648: 4643: 4406: 4311: 4272: 4192: 3479: 3475: 3355: 3305: 3067: 2971: 2904: 2783: 2763: 2673: 2271: 2239: 2108: 1998: 1814: 1705: 1686: 1618: 891: 680: 178: 17: 4115: 4734: 4549: 4497:. Vol. 1 to 8 - 403-207 BCE. Translated by Yap, Joseph P. CreateSpace. 4442: 4293: 4254: 3695: 3600: 3467: 3416: 3133: 2884: 2810: 2291: 2218: 2188:

In 344 BC the rulers of Qi and Wei mutually recognized each other as kings:

2047: 2010: 1806:

441 BC – The inaugural year of Zhou Kings starting with

1772: 1565: 1503: 369: 4287: 4248: 2650:

or east–west alliance might have secured peace except that it excluded the

2316:

meeting King Xuan of Qi on two occasions. After Hui's death, his successor

1803:

saw the formation of Han, Zhao, and Wei, three of the seven warring states.

4043: 3217:

is said to have been responsible for 890,000 enemy deaths over his career.

2545:), in which a state would ally with Qin to participate in its ascendancy. 4564: 4175: 3651: 3615: 3483: 3431: 3402: 3270: 3158: 2991: 2823: 2743:. King Min himself was later captured and executed by his own followers. 2725:

restored territory to Wei and Zhao. In 286 Qi annexed the state of Song.

2298:. After the battle all three of the Jin successor states appeared before 1693:(west). These ancient kingdoms were conquered by Qin later in the period. 1670: 390: 280: 4000: 3959:(1. Aufl ed.). Zürich: Neue Zürcher Zeitung. p. cat. no. 314. 3304:

Infantrymen deployed a variety of weapons, but the most popular was the

2691:

pushed back eastward against a Han/Wei alliance, gaining victory at the

2021: 4954: 4422: 3654:) were also brought into the Chinese cultural sphere during this time. 3643: 3560: 3499: 3487: 3463: 3335: 3274: 3051: 3006: 2987: 2963: 2962:. The Qin army led a direct invasion into Wei by besieging its capital 2814: 2787: 2615: 2390: 2287: 2283: 2124: 2103: 2099: 2084: 2006: 1911: 1854: 1682: 1660: 1645: 1034: 885: 879: 428: 4560:

Warring States wine made more than 2,300 years ago, as deep as the sea

3599:

An important literary achievement of the Warring States period is the

3351:, a statesman and commander who served the states of Wei and then Chu. 2665:

became the last of the seven major states to proclaim himself "king".

2506:

An iron sword and two bronze swords dated to the Warring States period

2208: 1862:

to justify their conquest of other states and spread their influence.

1491:

annex each of the other contender states by 221 BC and found the

3635: 3491: 3451: 3214: 2846:

and was defeated by the allied force of Zhao, Wei and Chu during the

2843: 2827: 2735: 2688: 2581: 2555: 2366: 2091: 1994:(still a Marquess at the time) was able to ascend the throne of Wei. 1961: 1572: 3320:

The Warring States was a great period for military strategy; of the

3281:, and the rider with his large nose appears to be a foreigner. King 2873:

King Zhao's exceptionally long reign ended in 251 BC. His son

2472:, a relatively minor state, declared himself king. Uniquely, while 2242:

made centralizing and authoritarian reforms in accordance with his

2174:). A major exception was Chu, whose rulers were called kings since 4754: 4749: 4512: 4349:

Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2006),

3655: 3550: 3435: 3415: 3406: 3396: 3381: 3348: 3252: 3229: 3138: 3104: 3018: 3010: 2895: 2770:

were lost. The effect was to shift Chu significantly to the east.

2614: 2501: 2407: 2381: 2348: 2333: 2227: 2207: 2020: 1926: 1887: 1732: 1531: 2127:

at his court; their conversations form the first two chapters of

1648:. Late in the period it pushed northeast and began to occupy the 5086: 4929: 3455: 3421: 3342: 3278: 3263:, a Qin terracotta figurine from a tomb in the Taerpo cemetery ( 2386: 2026: 1949:(445–396 BC). In 408–406 BC he conquered the State of 1841:

Map showing states at the beginning of the Warring States period

1823:(1084) advocates this date as symbolic of eroded Zhou authority. 4568: 4352:

Pre-Modern East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

4289:

How China escaped shock therapy : the market reform debate

4250:

How China escaped shock therapy : the market reform debate

2468:

of the minor state Zhongshan. In 318 BC even the ruler of

40: 3877: 3875: 3873: 3638:

as the dominant type of metal used in warfare. Areas such as

2638:. Lord Mengchang made a westward alliance with the states of 450: 436: 4531: 1957:

taking the area of Xihe (literally 'west of the river').

1869:, Chu, Qin, Yan, and Qi, while the smaller states of the 1685:

states: In the far southwest were the non-Zhou states of

1630:

south, with its core territory around the valleys of the

471: 409: 395: 381: 2576:

Su Qin and the first vertical alliance (334–300 BC)

1605:

the northernmost of the three, roughly today's southern

1549:

The political geography of the era was dominated by the

3195:

For major battles, the following figures are reported:

2830:. When Zhao Kuo left his fortifications, Bai Qi used a 2413:

Chu rose to its peak in 334 BC, when it conquered

3703:– A period in Japanese history named after this period 3338:, a highly influential study of strategy and tactics. 2870:

and thereby symbolically becoming The Son of Heaven.

2866:

and conquered West Zhou in 256 BC, claiming the

2549: 2534: 2522: 357: 343: 329: 313: 285: 271: 4374:, in Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (eds.), 4217:

Games & Play in Chinese & Sinophone Cultures

3957:

Qin: the eternal emperor and his terracotta warriors

3851: 3849: 3800: 3798: 3796: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3390:

drinking vessel (over wood), Warring States period,

1251: 1173: 1053: 986: 916: 790: 5029: 4981: 4972: 4697: 4611: 4602: 4139: 4137: 4068: 3920: 3839: 3837: 3827: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3819: 3630:The Warring States period saw the proliferation of 3578:BC are the world's earliest example of a two digit 1971:In 376 BC, the states of Han, Wei and Zhao deposed 1931:Tomb Guardian of Chu Kingdom (300 BC) held at 1468:–221 BC) comprises the final centuries of the 465: 458: 444: 427: 420: 403: 389: 375: 368: 351: 337: 323: 307: 279: 265: 258: 253: 235: 215: 199: 145: 71:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4527:Warring States period - World History Encyclopedia 3171:1,000,000 infantry, 1,000 chariots, 10,000 horses; 2516:Towards the end of the Warring States period, the 2422:Qin, Han and Yan became kingdoms (325–323 BC) 2246:philosophy between the years 356 and 338 BC. 1746:Timeline of the Warring States and the Qin dynasty 3234:Warring States swords and spearhead with patterns 1510:period, where the king of Zhou formally ruled as 4378:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 587–649, 4028:"China and the steppe: reception and resistance" 3324:of China, four were written during this period: 2116:. The battle is remembered in the second of the 4122:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University 3938:"From wooden attendants to terracotta warriors" 3906:Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1999). 3409:, 5th–3rd centuries BC, Warring States period, 2839:remained united against Qin, but they did not. 2032:garment ornament from the Warring States period 1595:located in the middle, roughly today's eastern 3450:. The most notable schools of thought include 2498:Horizontal and vertical alliances (334–249 BC) 1560:located in the far west, with its core in the 1520:, a work of history compiled during the early 4580: 3945:Bernisches Historisches Museum the Newsletter 3264: 2729:The second horizontal alliance and fall of Qi 2711: 2567: 2540: 2528: 2401: 2169: 2159: 2149: 1434: 221: 205: 8: 3117:A Chinese soldier's bronze helmet, from the 3081:The Qin king Ying Zheng declared himself as 2766:was captured and Chu's western lands on the 2312:Wei came to rely on Qi for protection, with 1792:), chose this date as the inaugural year of 1754:court in 771 BC marks the start of the 1571:The Three Jins located in the center on the 1524:(202 BC – 220 AD). 4475:. Bloomington, Indiana, U.S.: AuthorHouse. 4080: 2679:In 294, Lord Mengchang was implicated in a 1849:The system of feudal states created by the 1575:plateau were the three successor states of 27:Period of Chinese history, c. 475 to 221 BC 4978: 4608: 4587: 4573: 4565: 4470:Wars with the Xiongnu: A Translation from 4103:. Canada: Interlink Books. pp. 64–71. 3132:Model of a Warring States period traction 2619:A bronze statue of a seated man, from the 2611:The first horizontal alliance (300–287 BC) 1659:Royal territory of the Zhou king was near 1441: 1427: 1257: 1252: 1174: 1059: 1054: 987: 922: 917: 791: 502: 250: 155: 4191: 3881: 2900:Animated map of the Warring States period 2009:and held an area north of Luoyang called 131:Learn how and when to remove this message 4355:, Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 3127: 3112: 3087:, "The first Sovereign Emperor of Qin". 2981: 2908:Unification of Qin from 230 BC to 221 BC 2903: 2558:, who advocated vertical alliances, and 2204:Shang Yang reforms Qin (356–338 BC) 2061: 1836: 4429:, New York, NY: Oxford University Press 4120:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3728: 2720:Su Dai and the second vertical alliance 2070:with two dragon heads, Warring States, 514: 5157:5th-century BC establishments in China 4091: 4089: 3908:The Cambridge History of Ancient China 3405:pendant in the shape of a man wearing 3373:, a commander serving the state of Qi. 2842:In 257 BC, Qin army failed to besiege 2379:, depicting men wearing precursors to 2098:intervened. The famous Qi strategist, 1923:The three Jins recognized (403–364 BC) 411: 359: 142: 3931: 3929: 3893: 3611:is thought to be by the same author. 3570:A bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the 2548:There were some initial successes in 2017:Qi resurgence under Tian (379–340 BC) 7: 4334:, Singapore: John Wiley & Sons, 4143: 2449:, a prominent representative of the 1799:453 BC BC – The 1663:in the Han area on the Yellow River. 1589:, controlling the approaches to Qin. 69:adding citations to reliable sources 4536:University of Massachusetts Amherst 4069:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 3921:Ebrey, Walthall & Palais (2006) 3109:An iron sword of the Warring States 2140:Qi and Wei became kingdoms (344 BC) 2129:the book which bears Meng Zi's name 4453:New Haven: Yale University Press. 4447:Eastern Zhou and Qin Civilizations 4372:"Warring States Political History" 3736:Cartwright, Mark (July 12, 2017). 3559:, containing the world's earliest 3026:and the death of its last leader, 2456:He was followed in 323 BC by 2389:dress) and riding in a two-horsed 2102:the great-great-great-grandson of 1644:northeast, centered on modern-day 25: 3530:Nobles, bureaucrats and reformers 2580:Beginning in 334 BC the diplomat 1771:476–475 BC – 4114:Fraser, Chris (1 January 2015). 3936:Khayutina, Maria (Autumn 2013). 3771:10.1111/j.1540-6253.2010.01622.x 2854:End of Zhou dynasty (256–249 BC) 2630:came to be highly influenced by 2357:painting from the Jingmen Tomb ( 2222:percussion instruments from the 1964:and attacked the small state of 522: 45: 2418:then proceeded to conquer Yue. 2214:Bianzhong of Marquis Yi of Zeng 2087:to be out of the reach of Qin. 472: 451: 437: 410: 396: 382: 56:needs additional citations for 36:Warring States (disambiguation) 4425:; Griffith, Samuel B. (1963), 4221:University of Washington Press 4101:A traveller's history of China 4026:Rawson, Jessica (April 2017). 3101:Military of the Warring States 2371: 2362: 1892:Warring States Bronze Warriors 1778:Records of the Grand Historian 1536:Leather horse armour from the 1381:Science and technology history 358: 344: 330: 314: 287: 286: 272: 222: 206: 1: 4550:China's Warring States period 3980:Qingbo, Duan (January 2023). 3759:Journal of Chinese Philosophy 3438:Province (5th–3rd century BC) 2892:Qin unites China (247–221 BC) 2179: 1878:Partition of Jin (453–403 BC) 1782: 1540: 1473: 1462: 751: 710: 686: 663: 639: 580: 189: 4541:Rulers of the warring states 4158:American Sociological Review 3668:Dujiangyan Irrigation System 3580:decimal multiplication table 3095:Military theory and practice 2406:) named the famous reformer 2278:Qin defeats Wei (341–340 BC) 1669:On the southeast coast near 1517:Record of the Warring States 161:The seven Warring States of 4370:Lewis, Mark Edward (1999), 3430:from Zidanku Tomb no. 1 in 3148:Increasing scale of warfare 2986:A drinking cup carved from 2634:, a grandson of the former 2550: 2535: 2523: 1750:The eastward flight of the 5183: 4330:Cotterell, Arthur (2010), 3989:Journal of Chinese History 3743:World History Encyclopedia 3448:Hundred Schools of Thought 3098: 2934:. Han, the weakest of the 2911: 2801:Qin-Zhao wars (282–257 BC) 2746:King Min was succeeded by 2509: 2480:Partition of Zhou (314 BC) 2345:with gold and silver inlay 2327: 2302:, pledging their loyalty. 2224:Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng 1881: 1743: 1538:tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng 29: 4407:10.1007/s11089-011-0395-y 4193:10.1038/nature.2014.14482 4081:Tzu & Griffith (1963) 3955:Khayutina, Maria (2013). 3265: 3191:several hundred thousand; 3066:In 221 BC, Qin conquered 3038:In 222 BC, Qin conquered 3001:In 223 BC, Qin conquered 2994:, Warring States period, 2958:In 225 BC, Qin conquered 2930:In 230 BC, Qin conquered 2914:Qin's wars of unification 2790:defeated two Qin armies. 2712: 2568: 2541: 2529: 2402: 2324:Chu conquers Yue (334 BC) 2170: 2160: 2150: 1255: 1177: 1057: 990: 920: 794: 497: 249: 245: 231: 154: 150: 5142:3rd-century BC conflicts 5137:4th-century BC conflicts 5132:5th-century BC conflicts 4495:: Warring States and Qin 4286:Weber, Isabella (2021). 3605:Spring and Autumn Annals 3547:Sophisticated arithmetic 3411:Arthur M. Sackler Museum 3360:of uncertain authorship. 3034:Conquest of Zhao and Yan 2990:, unearthed at Banshan, 2817:who based his armies at 2338:A Warring States bronze 2198:Spring and Autumn period 2178:started using the title 1938:In 403 BC, the court of 1933:Birmingham Museum of Art 1833:Background and formation 1765:Spring and Autumn Annals 1756:Spring and Autumn period 1481:Spring and Autumn period 201:Traditional Chinese 5162:Axial Age civilizations 4468:Yap, Joseph P. (2009). 4332:Asia, a Concise History 3738:"Warring States Period" 3670:, which controlled the 3574:collection dated to 305 3365:The Methods of the Sima 3322:Seven Military Classics 2919:King Zhuangxiang of Qin 2879:King Zhuangxiang of Qin 2750:in 283 BC. His general 2687:whilst the Qin General 2623:, Warring States period 2375:, circa 316 BC) of the 2094:, was under siege. The 1499:in East Asian history. 1497:imperial dynastic state 1483:and concluded with the 217:Simplified Chinese 80:"Warring States period" 4596:Ancient Chinese states 4532:Warring States Project 3567: 3439: 3413: 3394: 3392:Honolulu Museum of Art 3290: 3235: 3144: 3136: 3125: 3110: 2998: 2909: 2901: 2758:Qin and Zhao expansion 2624: 2566:, whose Chinese name ( 2507: 2490:Upon the ascension of 2437:(361–338 BC) and 2393: 2346: 2305:In the following year 2238:, when prime minister 2231: 2074: 2033: 1935: 1893: 1842: 1741: 1621:east, centered on the 1546: 34:. For other uses, see 5147:Warring States period 4044:10.15184/aqy.2016.276 3626:Economic developments 3557:Tsinghua Bamboo Slips 3554: 3419: 3400: 3385: 3256: 3233: 3226:Military developments 3142: 3131: 3116: 3108: 2985: 2907: 2899: 2807:King Zhaoxiang of Qin 2795:Thirty-Six Stratagems 2618: 2505: 2352: 2337: 2211: 2118:Thirty-Six Stratagems 2065: 2024: 1930: 1891: 1840: 1736: 1535: 1455:Warring States period 1246:(mainland, 1912–1949) 146:Warring States period 4545:Chinese Text Project 3634:in China, replacing 3564:multiplication table 3369:It is attributed to 3347:It is attributed to 3334:It is attributed to 3074:and ushering in the 3072:unification of China 2936:Seven Warring States 2672:below Shanxi to the 2106:, the author of the 1918:Early Warring States 1851:Western Zhou dynasty 1609:as well as northern 1551:Seven Warring States 467:Baxter–Sagart (2014) 65:improve this article 5167:Civil wars in China 4490:Sima Guang (2016). 4395:Pastoral Psychology 4001:10.1017/jch.2022.25 3995:(1): 26 Fig.1, 27. 3896:, pp. 626–629. 3566:, dated 305 BC 3427:man riding a dragon 3378:Culture and society 3295:King Wuling of Zhao 2776:King Wuling of Zhao 2564:School of Diplomacy 2512:School of Diplomacy 2474:King Wuling of Zhao 2458:King Xuanhui of Han 2451:School of Diplomacy 2433:(384–362 BC), 2410:as his chancellor. 2144:The title of king ( 1986:from the north and 1947:Marquess Wen of Wei 1940:King Weilie of Zhou 397:Zin3 gwok3 si4 doi6 4296:. pp. 19–20. 4292:. Abingdon, Oxon: 4253:. Abingdon, Oxon: 4178:(7 January 2014). 4144:Lu & Ke (2012) 3855:Shi Ji, chapter 69 3813:Shi Ji, chapter 16 3804:Shi Ji, chapter 46 3790:Shi Ji, chapter 15 3568: 3440: 3414: 3395: 3291: 3236: 3145: 3137: 3126: 3111: 2999: 2910: 2902: 2625: 2508: 2394: 2385:(i.e. traditional 2347: 2232: 2216:, a set of bronze 2135:Dukes become kings 2075: 2034: 1980:Marquess Wu of Wei 1936: 1894: 1843: 1742: 1650:Liaodong Peninsula 1623:Shandong Peninsula 1547: 1261: 1071:Five Dynasties and 1063: 998:Southern dynasties 926: 825:Chu–Han Contention 5119: 5118: 5115: 5114: 4968: 4967: 4482:978-1-4490-0604-4 4385:978-0-521-47030-8 4341:978-0-470-82959-2 4303:978-0-429-49012-5 4264:978-0-429-49012-5 3966:978-3-03823-838-6 3884:, pp. 90–91. 3843:Shi Ji, chapter 5 3831:Shi Ji, chapter 4 3260:Taerpo horserider 3056:King Zheng of Qin 2427:King Xian of Zhou 2114:Battle of Guiling 1907:Battle of Jinyang 1860:Mandate of Heaven 1794:King Yuan of Zhou 1585:south, along the 1512:Chinese sovereign 1451: 1450: 1408:Transport history 1334:Education history 1306: 1305: 1301: 1300: 1287:Republic of China 1269:People's Republic 1242:Republic of China 1221: 1220: 1170: 1169: 1165: 1164: 1050: 1049: 983: 982: 978: 977: 914: 913: 817:(206 BC – 220 AD) 747:Spring and Autumn 610:Liao civilization 501: 500: 493: 492: 483:tar-sə(~əʔ)lˤək-s 377:Yale Romanization 339:Yale Romanization 316:Chan-kuo Shih-tai 260:Standard Mandarin 141: 140: 133: 115: 16:(Redirected from 5174: 4979: 4609: 4589: 4582: 4575: 4566: 4516: 4486: 4464: 4449:. Translated by 4430: 4418: 4401:(5–6): 623–639, 4389: 4366: 4345: 4316: 4315: 4283: 4277: 4276: 4241: 4235: 4234: 4212: 4206: 4205: 4195: 4172: 4166: 4165: 4153: 4147: 4141: 4132: 4131: 4129: 4127: 4111: 4105: 4104: 4093: 4084: 4078: 4072: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4023: 4017: 4016: 3986: 3977: 3971: 3970: 3952: 3947:(65): 2, Fig.4. 3942: 3933: 3924: 3918: 3912: 3911: 3903: 3897: 3891: 3885: 3882:Cotterell (2010) 3879: 3868: 3862: 3856: 3853: 3844: 3841: 3832: 3829: 3814: 3811: 3805: 3802: 3791: 3788: 3775: 3774: 3754: 3748: 3747: 3733: 3577: 3526:in 221 BC. 3494:(represented by 3474:(represented by 3462:(represented by 3316:Military thought 3268: 3267: 3200:Battle of Maling 3050:of Yan had sent 3048:Crown Prince Dan 2946:to attack Zhao. 2864:King Nan of Zhou 2860:King Zhao of Qin 2848:Battle of Handan 2715: 2714: 2700:King Zhao of Qin 2571: 2570: 2553: 2544: 2543: 2538: 2532: 2531: 2526: 2485:King Kao of Zhou 2405: 2404: 2373: 2364: 2296:Battle of Maling 2184: 2181: 2173: 2172: 2163: 2162: 2153: 2152: 1973:Duke Jing of Jin 1884:Partition of Jin 1817:, author of the 1801:Partition of Jin 1791: 1787: 1784: 1775:, author of the 1634:and, later, the 1562:Wei River Valley 1545: 1542: 1485:wars of conquest 1478: 1475: 1467: 1464: 1443: 1436: 1429: 1371:Military history 1329:Economic history 1317:Related articles 1294: 1276: 1258: 1253: 1247: 1214: 1201: 1188: 1175: 1158: 1145: 1132: 1113: 1103: 1091: 1078: 1060: 1055: 1039: 1029: 1016: 1003: 988: 971: 966:Sixteen Kingdoms 949: 939: 923: 918: 907: 873: 860: 850: 840: 830: 818: 805: 792: 770: 762: 760: 756: 753: 743: 733: 721: 719: 715: 712: 697: 695: 691: 688: 674: 672: 668: 665: 650: 648: 644: 641: 591: 589: 585: 582: 526: 516:History of China 503: 489: 488: 484: 479: 454: 453: 452:Tsiàn-kok sî-tāi 440: 439: 438:Chiàn-kok sî-tāi 416: 415: 414: 399: 398: 385: 384: 383:Jin'gwok sìhdoih 364: 363: 362: 347: 346: 333: 332: 319: 318: 317: 303: 302: 301: 299: 295: 291: 275: 274: 251: 227: 226: 211: 210: 194: 191: 159: 143: 136: 129: 125: 122: 116: 114: 73: 49: 41: 21: 5182: 5181: 5177: 5176: 5175: 5173: 5172: 5171: 5122: 5121: 5120: 5111: 5025: 4964: 4693: 4598: 4593: 4556:, Apr. 1, 2004) 4523: 4505: 4489: 4483: 4467: 4461: 4441: 4438: 4436:Further reading 4433: 4421: 4392: 4386: 4369: 4363: 4348: 4342: 4329: 4325: 4320: 4319: 4304: 4285: 4284: 4280: 4265: 4245:Weber, Isabella 4243: 4242: 4238: 4231: 4219:. Seattle, WA: 4214: 4213: 4209: 4174: 4173: 4169: 4155: 4154: 4150: 4142: 4135: 4125: 4123: 4113: 4112: 4108: 4097:Haw, Stephen G. 4095: 4094: 4087: 4079: 4075: 4067: 4063: 4025: 4024: 4020: 3984: 3979: 3978: 3974: 3967: 3954: 3940: 3935: 3934: 3927: 3919: 3915: 3905: 3904: 3900: 3892: 3888: 3880: 3871: 3863: 3859: 3854: 3847: 3842: 3835: 3830: 3817: 3812: 3808: 3803: 3794: 3789: 3778: 3756: 3755: 3751: 3735: 3734: 3730: 3725: 3720: 3692: 3628: 3597: 3575: 3549: 3532: 3380: 3368: 3359: 3346: 3333: 3318: 3287:terracotta army 3228: 3210:240,000 killed; 3209: 3207:Battle of Yique 3203:100,000 killed; 3202: 3190: 3185: 3180: 3175: 3170: 3150: 3121:, dated to the 3103: 3097: 3084:Qin Shi Huangdi 3064: 3054:to assassinate 3036: 2996:Hangzhou Museum 2980: 2978:Conquest of Chu 2956: 2954:Conquest of Wei 2928: 2926:Conquest of Han 2916: 2894: 2856: 2803: 2760: 2731: 2722: 2706:took the title 2693:Battle of Yique 2657:Around 299 BC, 2613: 2589:King Hui of Qin 2578: 2514: 2500: 2482: 2424: 2398:King Dao of Chu 2332: 2326: 2314:King Hui of Wei 2300:King Xuan of Qi 2280: 2206: 2194:King Hui of Wei 2182: 2164:) or marquess ( 2142: 2137: 2078:King Hui of Wei 2072:Shanghai Museum 2060: 2037:Duke Kang of Qi 2019: 1992:King Hui of Wei 1925: 1920: 1886: 1880: 1835: 1830: 1808:King Ai of Zhou 1790: BC 1789: 1785: 1748: 1737:Dagger handle, 1731: 1611:Shanxi Province 1543: 1530: 1476: 1465: 1459:Chinese history 1447: 1418: 1417: 1413:Women's history 1319: 1318: 1309: 1308: 1307: 1302: 1297: 1292: 1290: 1279: 1274: 1270: 1250: 1245: 1236: 1235: 1224: 1223: 1222: 1217: 1212: 1204: 1199: 1191: 1186: 1172: 1171: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1148: 1143: 1135: 1130: 1122: 1116: 1111: 1101: 1089: 1081: 1076: 1072: 1052: 1051: 1046: 1037: 1027: 1019: 1014: 1006: 1001: 997: 985: 984: 979: 974: 969: 961: 958: 952: 947: 937: 915: 910: 905: 897: 871: 863: 858: 848: 839:(202 BC – 9 AD) 838: 828: 816: 808: 803: 788: 787: 776: 775: 768: 758: 754: 749: 741: 731: 717: 713: 708: 700: 693: 689: 684: 670: 666: 661: 653: 646: 642: 637: 628: 627: 616: 615: 587: 583: 578: 570: 559: 558: 487: 331:Jhànguó shíhdài 325:Tongyong Pinyin 315: 297: 293: 289: 195: 192: 137: 126: 120: 117: 74: 72: 62: 50: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5180: 5178: 5170: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5124: 5123: 5117: 5116: 5113: 5112: 5110: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5079: 5074: 5069: 5064: 5059: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5039: 5033: 5031: 5027: 5026: 5024: 5023: 5018: 5013: 5008: 5003: 4998: 4993: 4987: 4985: 4976: 4974:Warring States 4970: 4969: 4966: 4965: 4963: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4917: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4877: 4872: 4867: 4862: 4857: 4852: 4847: 4842: 4837: 4832: 4827: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4807: 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4737: 4732: 4727: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4707: 4701: 4699: 4695: 4694: 4692: 4691: 4686: 4681: 4676: 4671: 4666: 4661: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4615: 4613: 4606: 4600: 4599: 4594: 4592: 4591: 4584: 4577: 4569: 4563: 4562: 4557: 4547: 4538: 4529: 4522: 4521:External links 4519: 4518: 4517: 4504:978-1533086938 4503: 4493:Zizhi Tongjian 4487: 4481: 4472:Zizhi Tongjian 4465: 4459: 4437: 4434: 4432: 4431: 4427:The Art of War 4419: 4390: 4384: 4367: 4361: 4346: 4340: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4318: 4317: 4302: 4278: 4263: 4257:. p. 19. 4236: 4229: 4207: 4167: 4148: 4133: 4106: 4085: 4073: 4061: 4018: 3972: 3965: 3925: 3913: 3910:. p. 625. 3898: 3886: 3869: 3857: 3845: 3833: 3815: 3806: 3792: 3776: 3749: 3727: 3726: 3724: 3721: 3719: 3716: 3715: 3714: 3709: 3707:Three Kingdoms 3704: 3701:Sengoku period 3698: 3691: 3688: 3676:Zhengguo Canal 3627: 3624: 3620:The Art of War 3601:Zuo Commentary 3596: 3593: 3548: 3545: 3531: 3528: 3454:(expounded by 3420:A painting on 3379: 3376: 3375: 3374: 3361: 3352: 3339: 3330:The Art of War 3317: 3314: 3227: 3224: 3219: 3218: 3211: 3204: 3193: 3192: 3187: 3186:300,000 total; 3182: 3177: 3172: 3163:Battle of Muye 3149: 3146: 3099:Main article: 3096: 3093: 3063: 3062:Conquest of Qi 3060: 3035: 3032: 3028:Lord Changping 2979: 2976: 2955: 2952: 2948:King An of Han 2927: 2924: 2912:Main article: 2893: 2890: 2868:Nine Cauldrons 2858:The forces of 2855: 2852: 2802: 2799: 2759: 2756: 2730: 2727: 2721: 2718: 2704:King Min of Qi 2636:King Wei of Qi 2632:Lord Mengchang 2628:King Min of Qi 2612: 2609: 2577: 2574: 2510:Main article: 2499: 2496: 2481: 2478: 2462:King Yi of Yan 2423: 2420: 2372:Jīngmén chǔ mù 2328:Main article: 2325: 2322: 2279: 2276: 2205: 2202: 2190:King Wei of Qi 2176:King Wu of Chu 2141: 2138: 2136: 2133: 2066:A jade-carved 2059: 2056: 2018: 2015: 1924: 1921: 1919: 1916: 1882:Main article: 1879: 1876: 1834: 1831: 1829: 1826: 1825: 1824: 1820:Zizhi Tongjian 1811: 1804: 1797: 1769: 1730: 1727: 1726: 1725: 1698:Central Plains 1694: 1680: 1674: 1664: 1653: 1652: 1639: 1625: 1616: 1615: 1614: 1607:Hebei Province 1600: 1597:Henan Province 1590: 1579:. These were: 1569: 1529: 1526: 1449: 1448: 1446: 1445: 1438: 1431: 1423: 1420: 1419: 1416: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1404: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1378: 1373: 1368: 1367: 1366: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1344:Jewish history 1341: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1320: 1316: 1315: 1314: 1311: 1310: 1304: 1303: 1299: 1298: 1296: 1295: 1282: 1280: 1278: 1277: 1275:(1949–present) 1264: 1262: 1256: 1249: 1248: 1237: 1231: 1230: 1229: 1226: 1225: 1219: 1218: 1216: 1215: 1203: 1202: 1190: 1189: 1178: 1168: 1167: 1163: 1162: 1160: 1159: 1149: 1146: 1136: 1133: 1123: 1119: 1117: 1115: 1114: 1104: 1093: 1092: 1080: 1079: 1066: 1064: 1058: 1048: 1047: 1045: 1044: 1043: 1042: 1041: 1040: 1018: 1017: 1005: 1004: 991: 981: 980: 976: 975: 973: 972: 962: 959: 955: 953: 951: 950: 940: 929: 927: 921: 912: 911: 909: 908: 896: 895: 875: 874: 868:Three Kingdoms 862: 861: 851: 841: 831: 820: 819: 807: 806: 795: 789: 783: 782: 781: 778: 777: 774: 773: 772: 771: 766:Warring States 763: 734: 723: 722: 699: 698: 676: 675: 671: 1046 BC 652: 651: 647: 1600 BC 629: 623: 622: 621: 618: 617: 614: 613: 593: 592: 588: 2000 BC 569: 568: 560: 554: 553: 552: 549: 548: 547: 546: 544:Historiography 541: 536: 528: 527: 519: 518: 512: 511: 499: 498: 495: 494: 491: 490: 486: 485: 480: 473: 469: 463: 462: 456: 455: 448: 442: 441: 434: 425: 424: 418: 417: 407: 401: 400: 393: 387: 386: 379: 373: 372: 370:Yue: Cantonese 366: 365: 355: 349: 348: 345:Jàn'gwó shŕdài 341: 335: 334: 327: 321: 320: 311: 305: 304: 283: 277: 276: 273:Zhànguó shídài 269: 263: 262: 256: 255: 254:Transcriptions 247: 246: 243: 242: 241:Zhànguó shídài 239: 233: 232: 229: 228: 219: 213: 212: 203: 197: 196: 160: 152: 151: 148: 147: 139: 138: 53: 51: 44: 32:Sengoku period 26: 24: 18:Warring States 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5179: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5152:Ancient China 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5129: 5127: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5078: 5075: 5073: 5070: 5068: 5065: 5063: 5060: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5050: 5048: 5045: 5043: 5040: 5038: 5035: 5034: 5032: 5028: 5022: 5019: 5017: 5014: 5012: 5009: 5007: 5004: 5002: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4992: 4989: 4988: 4986: 4984: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4971: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4868: 4866: 4863: 4861: 4858: 4856: 4853: 4851: 4848: 4846: 4843: 4841: 4838: 4836: 4833: 4831: 4828: 4826: 4823: 4821: 4818: 4816: 4813: 4811: 4808: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4778: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4711: 4708: 4706: 4703: 4702: 4700: 4696: 4690: 4687: 4685: 4682: 4680: 4677: 4675: 4672: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4660: 4657: 4655: 4652: 4650: 4647: 4645: 4642: 4640: 4637: 4635: 4632: 4630: 4627: 4625: 4622: 4620: 4617: 4616: 4614: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4590: 4585: 4583: 4578: 4576: 4571: 4570: 4567: 4561: 4558: 4555: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4524: 4520: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4478: 4474: 4471: 4466: 4462: 4460:0-300-03286-2 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4439: 4435: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4391: 4387: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4368: 4364: 4362:0-618-13386-0 4358: 4354: 4353: 4347: 4343: 4337: 4333: 4328: 4327: 4322: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4290: 4282: 4279: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4251: 4246: 4240: 4237: 4232: 4230:9780295752402 4226: 4223:. p. 6. 4222: 4218: 4211: 4208: 4203: 4199: 4194: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4171: 4168: 4164:(4): 527–528. 4163: 4159: 4152: 4149: 4145: 4140: 4138: 4134: 4121: 4117: 4110: 4107: 4102: 4098: 4092: 4090: 4086: 4082: 4077: 4074: 4071:, p. 29. 4070: 4065: 4062: 4058: 4053: 4049: 4045: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4022: 4019: 4015: 4010: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3983: 3976: 3973: 3968: 3962: 3958: 3951: 3946: 3939: 3932: 3930: 3926: 3922: 3917: 3914: 3909: 3902: 3899: 3895: 3890: 3887: 3883: 3878: 3876: 3874: 3870: 3867:, Sökord: 战国策 3866: 3861: 3858: 3852: 3850: 3846: 3840: 3838: 3834: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3822: 3820: 3816: 3810: 3807: 3801: 3799: 3797: 3793: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3781: 3777: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3753: 3750: 3745: 3744: 3739: 3732: 3729: 3722: 3717: 3713: 3710: 3708: 3705: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3694: 3693: 3689: 3687: 3684: 3679: 3677: 3673: 3669: 3663: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3650:(present-day 3649: 3645: 3642:(present-day 3641: 3637: 3633: 3625: 3623: 3621: 3617: 3612: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3594: 3592: 3589: 3587: 3583: 3581: 3573: 3565: 3562: 3558: 3553: 3546: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3529: 3527: 3525: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3444: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3428: 3423: 3418: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3399: 3393: 3389: 3384: 3377: 3372: 3367: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3357: 3353: 3350: 3345: 3344: 3340: 3337: 3332: 3331: 3327: 3326: 3325: 3323: 3315: 3313: 3309: 3307: 3302: 3298: 3296: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3262: 3261: 3255: 3251: 3247: 3244: 3239: 3232: 3225: 3223: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3205: 3201: 3198: 3197: 3196: 3188: 3183: 3178: 3176:same numbers; 3173: 3168: 3167: 3166: 3164: 3160: 3155: 3147: 3141: 3135: 3130: 3124: 3120: 3115: 3107: 3102: 3094: 3092: 3088: 3086: 3085: 3079: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3061: 3059: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3025: 3020: 3014: 3012: 3008: 3004: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2984: 2977: 2975: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2953: 2951: 2949: 2945: 2942:sent general 2941: 2940:Qin Shi Huang 2937: 2933: 2925: 2923: 2920: 2915: 2906: 2898: 2891: 2889: 2886: 2882: 2880: 2876: 2871: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2853: 2851: 2849: 2845: 2840: 2836: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2800: 2798: 2796: 2791: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2771: 2769: 2765: 2757: 2755: 2753: 2749: 2744: 2742: 2737: 2728: 2726: 2719: 2717: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2696: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2685:state of Song 2682: 2677: 2675: 2671: 2666: 2664: 2660: 2655: 2653: 2652:State of Zhao 2649: 2645: 2641: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2622: 2617: 2610: 2608: 2606: 2600: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2583: 2575: 2573: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2546: 2537: 2525: 2519: 2513: 2504: 2497: 2495: 2493: 2488: 2486: 2479: 2477: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2464:, as well as 2463: 2459: 2454: 2452: 2448: 2442: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2421: 2419: 2416: 2411: 2409: 2399: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2383: 2378: 2374: 2368: 2360: 2356: 2351: 2344: 2342: 2336: 2331: 2323: 2321: 2319: 2315: 2310: 2308: 2303: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2277: 2275: 2273: 2269: 2264: 2260: 2257: 2256:primogeniture 2251: 2247: 2245: 2241: 2237: 2230:(433 BC) 2229: 2225: 2221: 2220: 2215: 2210: 2203: 2201: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2186: 2183: 703 BC 2177: 2167: 2157: 2147: 2139: 2134: 2132: 2130: 2126: 2121: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2110: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2093: 2088: 2086: 2081: 2079: 2073: 2069: 2064: 2057: 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2681:coup d'état 2355:lacquerware 2330:Chu (state) 2096:state of Qi 2058:Wars of Wei 1978:In 370 BC, 1899:enfeoffment 1689:(east) and 1522:Han dynasty 1493:Qin dynasty 1477: 1046 1396:Discoveries 1391:Cartography 1386:Archaeology 1324:Art history 1213:(1644–1912) 1200:(1368–1644) 1187:(1271–1368) 1157:(1115–1234) 1144:(1038–1227) 1140:Western Xia 1112:(1127–1279) 944:Eastern Jin 934:Western Jin 859:(25–220 AD) 855:Eastern Han 835:Western Han 714: 1046 694: 1046 690: 1250 667: 1600 643: 2070 584: 8500 565:Paleolithic 556:Prehistoric 460:Old Chinese 5126:Categories 4513:2016908788 4312:1228187814 4273:1228187814 3718:References 3595:Literature 3480:Shen Buhai 3476:Shang Yang 3407:silk robes 3386:A Chinese 3356:Wei Liaozi 3306:dagger-axe 2972:Jia of Wei 2784:Ordos Loop 2748:King Xiang 2674:Hangu Pass 2648:horizontal 2318:King Xiang 2240:Shang Yang 2109:Art of War 1815:Sima Guang 1788: – c. 1744:See also: 1720:, Yue and 1553:, namely: 1466: 475 1401:Inventions 1131:(916–1125) 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1828:History 1683:Sichuan 1646:Beijing 1035:Wu Zhou 625:Ancient 604:Yangtze 429:Hokkien 105:scholar 4511: 4501: 4479: 4457: 4413: 4382: 4359: 4338: 4310: 4300: 4271: 4261: 4227: 4200: 4184:Nature 4050: 4007: 3963: 3865:"MDBG" 3683:Guanzi 3646:) and 3636:bronze 3576: 3492:Taoism 3490:) and 3452:Mohism 3215:Bai Qi 2844:Handan 2832:Cannae 2828:Bai Qi 2736:Yue Yi 2689:Bai Qi 2582:Su Qin 2556:Su Qin 2551:hezong 2524:hezong 2369:: 2367:pinyin 2361:: 2343:vessel 2092:Handan 2030:dragon 2001:, and 1962:Handan 1573:Shanxi 1233:Modern 889:, and 607:, and 598:Yellow 510:on the 446:Tâi-lô 298: 294: 290: 107: 100: 93: 86: 78: 5097:Zheng 4810:Liang 4775:Huang 4755:Guzhu 4750:Gumie 4689:Zheng 4411:S2CID 4198:S2CID 4048:S2CID 4005:S2CID 3985:(PDF) 3941:(PDF) 3656:Trade 3609:Guoyu 3468:Xunzi 3436:Hunan 3349:Wu Qi 3266:塔兒坡秦墓 3019:siege 3011:Anhui 2408:Wu Qi 2382:Hanfu 2363:荊門楚墓; 2228:Hubei 2068:huang 1710:Zheng 1661:Luoyi 658:Shang 112:JSTOR 98:books 5087:Yiqu 5072:Teng 5067:Song 5021:Zhao 4940:Zeng 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