Reclaimed water - Knowledge (XXG)

234: 4815: 1362: 1016: 4779: 1337:(in antibacterial soap and toothpaste) was found in all water types, but detected in higher levels (parts-per-trillion) in reclaimed water than in surface or groundwater. Very few hormones/steroids were detected in samples, and when detected were at very low levels. Haloacetic acids (a disinfection by-product) were found in all types of samples, even groundwater. The largest difference between reclaimed water and the other waters appears to be that reclaimed water has been disinfected and thus has disinfection byproducts (due to chlorine use). 249: 4839: 776:

communities reuse water to replenish groundwater basins. Others put it into surface water reservoirs. In these instances the reclaimed water is blended with other water supplies and/or sits in storage for a certain amount of time before it is drawn out and gets treated again at a water treatment or distribution system. In some communities, the reused water is put directly into pipelines that go to a water treatment plant or distribution system.

1959:(UF), chlorination) to reduce associated risks and improve the water quality. Since the year 1968 the capital of Namibia, Windhoek, has used reclaimed wastewater as one of their drinking water sources, which nowadays represent about 14% of the city's drinking water production. In 2001, the New Goreangab Reclamation Plant (NGWRP) was built by the City of Windhoek and it started to deliver drinking water in 2002 (about 21,000 m of water per day). 7070: 6081: 5501: 31: 5491: 1600:, reuse of water is mentioned as one of the possible measures to achieve the Directive's quality goals. However, this remains a relatively vague recommendation rather than a requirement: Part B of Annex VI refers to reuse as one of the "supplementary measures which Member States within each river basin district may choose to adopt as part of the programme of measures required under Article 11(4)". 4977: 1272: 7082: 4827: 4803: 5538: 1939:. In most localities, water is reused for irrigation. In Windhoek, reclaimed water is also used for potable uses. Windhoek has been using recovered water for fifty years. Approximately 30% of the city's 400 000 residents' present drinking water supply is made up of reclaimed water. A representative example of direct potable reuse is the case of 2045:

supply by 10,000 m per day, approximately one third of the drinking water demand. The process configuration includes the following treatment processes: drum screen, UF, and chlorine disinfection. Provision has been made for powdered activated carbon (PAC) addition at George WTW, if required as an additional operational barrier.

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potentially create trade barriers for agricultural goods irrigated with reclaimed water. Once on the common market, the level of safety in the producing member states may be not considered sufficient by the importing countries. The most representative standards on wastewater reuse from European member states are the following:

1989:, which is called "used water" in Singapore, is treated in conventional advanced wastewater treatment plants that are called reclamation plants in Singapore. The effluent from the reclamation plants is either discharged into the sea or undergoes further microfiltration, reverse osmosis and ultraviolet treatment. 1723:

fire protection; commercial uses such as vehicle washing; industrial reuse such as cooling water, boiler water and process water; environmental and recreational uses such as the creation or restoration of wetlands; as well as agricultural irrigation. In some cases, such as in Irvine Ranch Water District in

1702:(EPA), but the EPA has developed water reuse guidelines that were most recently updated in 2012. The EPA Guidelines for Water Reuse represents the international standard for best practices in water reuse. The document was developed under a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement between the EPA, the 1695:

assessment of the chemical and microbiological water quality. The $ 30 million study found that the water produced met all health standards and compared favorably with Denver's high quality drinking water. Further, the projected cost was lower than estimates for obtaining distant new water supplies.

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strategy (2009/2010), where final effluents from its Outeniqua WWTP are treated to a very high quality through UF and disinfection prior to being returned to the main storage facility, the Garden Route Dam, where they are combined with current raw water supplies. This initiative augments the existing

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concerning the reuse of treated wastewater states that "treated wastewater shall be reused whenever appropriate", which some consider not specific enough to promote water reuse as it may leave too much room for interpretation as to what can be considered as an "appropriate" situation to reuse treated

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Reclaimed water can offer a viable and effective alternative to freshwater where freshwater supplies are scarce. Reclaimed water is utilized to maintain or increase lake levels, restore wetlands, and restore river flows during hot weather and droughts, protecting biodiversity. Additionally, reclaimed

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Reuse of reclaimed water is an increasingly common response to water scarcity in many parts of the United States. Reclaimed water is being reused directly for various non-potable uses in the United States, including urban landscape irrigation of parks, school yards, highway medians and golf courses;

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is a trade association in the United States which promotes reuse of water. According to their website, "The WateReuse Association is the nation's only trade association solely dedicated to advancing laws, policy, funding, and public acceptance of recycled water. WateReuse represents a coalition of

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It was estimated that in 2002 a total of 1.7 billion US gallons (6,400,000 m) per day, or almost 3% of public water supply, were being directly reused. California reused 0.6 and Florida 0.5 billion US gallons (1,900,000 m) per day respectively. Twenty-five states had regulations

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Denver's Direct Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project examined the technical, scientific, and public acceptance aspects of DPR from 1979 to 1993. A chronic lifetime whole-animal health effects study on the 1 MGD advanced treatment plant product was conducted in conjunction with a comprehensive

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Planned potable reuse is publicly acknowledged as an intentional project to recycle water for drinking water. There are two ways in which potable water can be delivered for reuse – "Indirect Potable Reuse" (IPR) and "Direct Potable Reuse". Both these forms of reuse are described below, and commonly

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developed guidelines for safe use of wastewater in 2006, advocating a ‘multiple-barrier' approach wastewater use, for example by encouraging farmers to adopt various risk-reducing behaviors. These include ceasing irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight;

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plants if it contains nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. There are benefits of using recycled water for irrigation, including the lower cost compared to some other sources and consistency of supply regardless of season, climatic conditions and associated water restrictions. When

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and landscape irrigation, industrial processes, toilet flushing, and groundwater replenishing (EPA, 2004)." A similar description is: "Water Reuse, the use of reclaimed water from treated wastewater, has been a long-established reality in many (semi)arid countries and regions. It helps to alleviate

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A study published in 2009 compared the differences in water quality between reclaimed/recycled water, surface water, and groundwater. Results indicated that reclaimed water, surface water, and groundwater are more similar than dissimilar with regard to constituents. The researchers tested for 244

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IPR occurs through the augmentation of drinking water supplies with municipal wastewater treated to a level suitable for IPR followed by an environmental buffer (e.g. rivers, dams, aquifers, etc.) that precedes drinking water treatment. In this case, municipal wastewater passes through a series of

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Indirect potable reuse (IPR) means the water is delivered to the consumer indirectly. After it is purified, the reused water blends with other supplies and/or sits a while in some sort of storage, man-made or natural, before it gets delivered to a pipeline that leads to a water treatment plant or

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Australia: National level Guidelines: Government of Australia (the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, the Environment Protection and Heritage Council, and the Australian Health Ministers Conference (NRMMC-EPHC-AHMC)): Guidelines for water recycling: managing health and environmental

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Some municipalities are using and others are investigating IPR of reclaimed water. For example, reclaimed water may be pumped into (subsurface recharge) or percolated down to (surface recharge) groundwater aquifers, pumped out, treated again, and finally used as drinking water. This technique may

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of 1972 mandated elimination of the discharge of untreated waste from municipal and industrial sources to make water safe for fishing and recreation. The US federal government provided billions of dollars in grants for building sewage treatment plants around the country. Modern treatment plants,

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Warsinger, David M.; Chakraborty, Sudip; Tow, Emily W.; Plumlee, Megan H.; Bellona, Christopher; Loutatidou, Savvina; Karimi, Leila; Mikelonis, Anne M.; Achilli, Andrea; Ghassemi, Abbas; Padhye, Lokesh P.; Snyder, Shane A.; Curcio, Stefano; Vecitis, Chad D.; Arafat, Hassan A.; Lienhard, John H.

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from the Tel Aviv metropolitan area is treated and reused as irrigation water for agriculture and public works. In 2012 the Dan Region Wastewater Treatment Plant was cited as a global model by the United Nations. The plant, known locally as Shafdan, was lauded for its unique method of using the

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in the United States found that the risk of exposure to certain microbial and chemical contaminants from drinking reclaimed water does not appear to be higher than the risk experienced in some current drinking water treatment systems, and may be orders of magnitude lower. This report recommends

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on the water reuse standards of several member states concluded that they differed in their approach. There are important differences among the standards regarding permitted uses, parameters to be monitored, and limit values allowed. This lack of harmonization among water reuse standards could

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Fresh water makes up less than 3% of the world's water resources, and just 1% of that is readily available. Even though fresh water is scarce, just 3% of it is extracted for human consumption. The remaining water is mostly used for agriculture, which uses roughly two-thirds of all fresh water.

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Direct potable reuse (DPR) means the reused water is put directly into pipelines that go to a water treatment plant or distribution system. Direct potable reuse may occur with or without "engineered storage" such as underground or above ground tanks. In other words, DPR is the introduction of

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The water needs of a community, water sources, public health regulations, costs, and the types of water infrastructure in place— such as distribution systems, man-made reservoirs, or natural groundwater basins— determine if and how reclaimed water can be part of the drinking water supply. Some

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Some water agencies reuse highly treated effluent from municipal wastewater or resource recovery plants as a reliable, drought-proof source of drinking water. By using advanced purification processes, they produce water that meets all applicable drinking water standards. System reliability and

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Reclaimed water is considered safe when appropriately used. Reclaimed water planned for use in recharging aquifers or augmenting surface water receives adequate and reliable treatment before mixing with naturally occurring water and undergoing natural restoration processes. Some of this water

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Since 26 June 2023 there is an EU regulation on minimum requirements for water reuse for irrigation purposes. The water quality requirements are divided into four categories depending on what is irrigated and how the irrigation is performed. The water quality parameters included are

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France: Jorf num.0153, 4 July 2014. Order of 2014, related to the use of water from treated urban wastewater for irrigation of crops and green areas (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Public Health, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, Ministry of Ecology, Energy and

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Bischel, H.N.; J.E. Lawrence; B.J. Halaburka; M.H. Plumlee; A.S. Bawazir; J.P. King; J.E. McCray; V.H. Resh; R.G. Luthy (1 August 2013). "Renewing Urban Streams with Recycled Water for Streamflow Augmentation: Hydrologic, Water Quality, and Ecosystem Services Management".

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system. The system costs $ 250 million and has been working since May 2009. The system recycles wastewater and urine back into potable water used for drinking, food preparation, and oxygen generation. This cuts back on the need to frequently resupply the space station.

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and is bottled directly from an advanced water purification facility for educational and celebratory purposes. Though most of the reused water is used for high-tech industry in Singapore, a small amount is returned to reservoirs for drinking water. NEWater is the

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standards. Injecting reclaimed water into the water supply distribution system is known as direct potable reuse. Drinking reclaimed water is not typical. Reusing treated municipal wastewater for irrigation is a long-established practice. This is especially so in

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The term "water reuse" is generally used interchangeably with terms such as wastewater reuse, water reclamation, and water recycling. A definition by the USEPA states: "Water reuse is the method of recycling treated wastewater for beneficial purposes, such as

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There can be significant health hazards related to using untreated wastewater in agriculture. Municipal wastewater can contain a mixture of chemical and biological pollutants. In low-income countries, there are often high levels of pathogens from excreta. In

73:. There are many types of reuse. It is possible to reuse water in this way in cities or for irrigation in agriculture. Other types of reuse are environmental reuse, industrial reuse, and reuse for drinking water, whether planned or not. Reuse may include 694:

is increasingly using untreated municipal wastewater for irrigation – often in an unsafe manner. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so they are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce

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Despite the lack of common water reuse criteria at the EU level, several member states have issued their own legislative frameworks, regulations, or guidelines for different water reuse applications (e.g. Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, and Spain).

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Lopes, Ana Rita; Becerra-Castro, Cristina; Vaz-Moreira, Ivone; Silva, M. Elisabete F.; Nunes, Olga C.; Manaia, Célia M. (2015). "Irrigation with Treated Wastewater: Potential Impacts on Microbial Function and Diversity in Agricultural Soils".

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A 2005 study found that there had been no instances of illness or disease from either microbial pathogens or chemicals, and the risks of using reclaimed water for irrigation are not measurably different from irrigation using potable water.

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water is utilized for street cleaning, irrigation of urban green spaces, and industrial processes. Reclaimed water has the advantage of being a consistent source of water supply that is unaffected by seasonal droughts and weather changes.

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Psychological barriers, sometimes referred to as the "yuck factor", can also be an impediment to implementation, particularly for direct potable reuse plans. These psychological factors are closely associated with disgust, specifically

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with reclaimed water and 13% of a survey group said they would not even sip it. Nonetheless, the main health risk for potable use of reclaimed water is the potential for pharmaceutical and other household chemicals or their derivatives

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and promote socioeconomic benefits. It may also lead to reduced application of fertilizers (i.e. conservation of nutrients and reducing the need for artificial fertilizer through soil nutrition by the nutrients existing in the treated

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Restricted: The use of reclaimed water for non-potable applications in municipal settings, where public access is controlled or restricted by physical or institutional barriers, such as fencing, advisory signage, or temporal access

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natural filtration qualities of sand to improve the quality of sewage. In 2010, about 400 million cubic metres/year of treated wastewater was reused, primarily in agriculture. This constitutes about 40% of water use in agriculture.

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Low economic viability of water reuse schemes. This may partly be due to costs of water quality monitoring and identification of contaminants. Difficulties in contaminant identification may include the separation of inorganic and

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supplies. Most of the uses of water reclamation are non-potable uses such as washing cars, flushing toilets, cooling water for power plants, concrete mixing, artificial lakes, irrigation for golf courses and public parks, and for

1943:(Namibia, New Goreangab Water Reclamation Plant (NGWRP)), where treated wastewater has been blended with drinking water for more than 45 years. It is based on the multiple treatment barriers concept (i.e. pre-ozonation, enhanced 1753:

utilities that recycle water, businesses that support the development of recycled water projects, and consumers of recycled water." The WateReuse Research Foundation was merged into the WateReuse Association on July 11, 2016.

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Global treated wastewater reuse is estimated at 40.7 billion m per year, representing approximately 11% of the total domestic and manufacturing wastewater produced. Municipal wastewater reuse is particularly high in the

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There are several technologies used to treat wastewater for reuse. A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free from

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Water/wastewater reuse, as an alternative water source, can provide significant economic, social and environmental benefits, which are key motivators for implementing such reuse programs. These benefits include:

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Tow, Emily W.; Hartman, Anna Letcher; Jaworowski, Aleksander; Zucker, Ines; Kum, Soyoon; AzadiAghdam, Mojtaba; Blatchley, Ernest R.; Achilli, Andrea; Gu, Han; Urper, Gulsum Melike; Warsinger, David M. (2021).

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reclaimed water derived from domestic wastewater after extensive treatment and monitoring to assure that strict water quality requirements are met at all times, directly into a municipal water supply system.

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applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw; cleaning vegetables with disinfectant; or allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure.

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to be eaten raw or for crops which are intended for human consumption to be eaten raw or unprocessed. For processed food crops: crops which are intended for human consumption not to be eaten raw but after

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is plentiful. However, reclaimed water is usually sold to citizens at a cheaper rate to encourage its use. As fresh water supplies become limited from distribution costs, increased population demands, or

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and ponds; reduced energy consumption associated with production, treatment, and distribution of water (1.2 to 2.1 kWh/m) compared to using deep groundwater resources, water importation or desalination

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Some water-demanding activities do not require high grade water. In this case, wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment. One example of this scenario is in the domestic environment where

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and pesticides). Irrigation with wastewater can have both positive and negative effects on soil and plants, depending on the composition of the wastewater and on the soil or plant characteristics.

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Spain: RD 1620/2007. The legal framework for the reuse of treated wastewater (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, Ministry of Health).

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In some areas, one driving force is also the implementation of advanced wastewater treatment for the removal of organic micropollutants, which leads to an overall improved water quality.

3812: 2873: 678:(i.e. cooked, industrially processed). It can also be used on crops which are not intended for human consumption (e.g. pastures, forage, fiber, ornamental, seed, forest and turf crops). 180:

Water recycling and reuse is of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments. Municipal wastewater reuse is particularly high in the

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Tunisia: Standard for the use of treated wastewater in agriculture (NT 106-109 of 1989) and list of crops that can be irrigated with treated wastewater (Ministry of Agriculture, 1994).

1206:, the cost ratios will evolve also. The evaluation of reclaimed water needs to consider the entire water supply system, as it may bring important flexibility into the overall system 494:

Food crops not commercially processed; Food crops commercially processed; Pasture for milking animals; Fodder; Fibre; Seed crops; Ornamental flowers; Orchards; Hydroponic culture;

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regarding the use of reclaimed water in 2002. Planned direct reuse of reclaimed water was initiated in 1932 with the construction of a reclaimed water facility at San Francisco's

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control and associated regulations (KDP 772/2003, KDP 269/2005) (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Agriculture, Natural resources and Environment, Water Development Department).

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process steps before it can be used. Steps might include screening, primary settling, biological treatment, tertiary treatment (for example reverse osmosis), and disinfection.

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allow communities to reuse water for many different purposes. The water is treated differently depending upon the source and use of the water as well as how it gets delivered.

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in 1932. The Water Replenishment District of Southern California was the first groundwater agency to obtain permitted use of recycled water for groundwater recharge in 1962.

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in coastal aquifers. IPR has generally included some type of environmental buffer, but conditions in certain areas have created an urgent need for more direct alternatives.

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is plentiful. The costs of water reclamation options might be compared to the costs of alternative options which also achieve similar effects of freshwater savings, namely

6984: 1703: 1412: 2215:"Assessing the potential of a membrane bioreactor and granular activated carbon process for wastewater reuse – A full-scale WWTP operated over one year in Scania, Sweden" 3425:

Pintilie, Loredana; Torres, Carmen M.; Teodosiu, Carmen; Castells, Francesc (December 15, 2016). "Urban wastewater reclamation for industrial reuse: An LCA case study".

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De facto, unacknowledged or unplanned potable reuse refers to situations where reuse of treated wastewater is practiced but is not officially recognized. For example, a

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China: China National Reclaimed Water Quality Standard; China National Standard GB/T 18920-2002, GB/T 19923-2005, GB/T 18921-2002, GB 20922-2007 and GB/T 19772-2005.

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substitution – keep drinking water for drinking and reclaimed water for non-drinking use such as industry, cleaning, irrigation, domestic uses, and toilet flushing).

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Italy: DM 185/2003. Technical measures for reuse of wastewater (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Public Health).

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Japan: National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management: Report of the Microbial Water Quality Project on Treated Sewage and Reclaimed Wastewater (2008).

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Greece: CMD No 145116. Measures, limits and procedures for reuse of treated wastewater (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change).

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by the United Nations, Target 6.3 states "Halving the proportion of untreated wastewater and substantially increasing recycling and safe reuse globally by 2030".

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Wastewater reuse (planned or unplanned) is a practice which has been applied throughout human history and is closely connected to the development of sanitation.

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South Africa: The latest revision of the Water Services Act of 1997 relating to grey-water and treated effluent (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 2001).

6308: 1699: 1679:'s sanitation districts started providing treated wastewater for landscape irrigation in parks and golf courses in 1929. The first reclaimed water facility in 654:

reclaimed water is used for irrigation in agriculture, the nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) content of the treated wastewater has the benefit of acting as a

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are being over-drafted. Reuse will continue to increase as the world's population becomes increasingly urbanized and concentrated near coastlines, where local

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Takman, Maria; Svahn, Ola; Paul, Catherine; Cimbritz, Michael; Blomqvist, Stefan; Struckmann Poulsen, Jan; Lund Nielsen, Jeppe; Davidsson, Åsa (2023-10-15).

1411:. It also helps to reduce the likelihood of drought as recycling of water reduces the use of fresh water supply from underground sources. For instance, the 836:. This includes slow processes of further multiple purification steps via the layers of earth/sand (absorption) and microflora in the soil (biodegradation). 4446: 1422:

The main potential risks that are associated with reclaimed wastewater reuse for irrigation purposes when the treatment is not adequate are the following:

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United Nations Water Decade Programme on Capacity Development (UNW-DPC): Proceedings on the UNWater project "Safe use of wastewater in agriculture" (2013).

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Drawbacks or risks often mentioned include the content of potentially harmful substances such as bacteria, heavy metals, or organic pollutants (including

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As of 2010, Israel leads the world in the proportion of water it recycles. Israel treats 80% of its sewage (400 billion liters a year), and 100% of the

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A pump station distributes reclaimed water to users around a city. These may include golf courses, agricultural uses, cooling towers, or landfills.

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representative constituents typically found in water. When detected, most constituents were in the parts-per-billion and parts-per-trillion range.

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IPR or even unplanned potable use of reclaimed wastewater is used in many countries, where the latter is discharged into groundwater to hold back

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supplies can be a water-saving measure. When used water is eventually discharged back into natural water sources, it can still have benefits to

6618: 1901: 1798: 4615: 7129: 7037: 5679: 4595: 3625: 3590: 3563: 2812: 2473: 2131: 1879: 1604: 994:) discharge their treated sewage ("non-potable water") into the Thames, which supplies water to London downstream. In the United States, the 4345: 4301: 1860:

are already considering building a reclaimed effluent process. Indirect potable reuse (IPR) has been considered for regional communities in

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Water reclaimation was pursued primarily due to geopolitical tensions arising from Singapore’s dependency on water imported from Malaysia.

1710:. The Guidelines provide a framework for states to develop regulations that incorporate the best practices and address local requirements. 1573: 711:, where industrial development is outpacing environmental regulation, there are increasing risks from inorganic and organic chemicals. The 1373:

Using reclaimed water for non-potable uses saves potable water for drinking, since less potable water will be used for non-potable uses.

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Rodriguez, Clemencia; Van Buynder, Paul; Lugg, Richard; Blair, Palenque; Devine, Brian; Cook, Angus; Weinstein, Philip (17 March 2009).

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Rodriguez, Clemencia; Van Buynder, Paul; Lugg, Richard; Blair, Palenque; Devine, Brian; Cook, Angus; Weinstein, Philip (17 March 2009).

3975: 3009:"ISO 16075-1:2015 – Guidelines for treated wastewater use for irrigation projects – Part 1: The basis of a reuse project for irrigation" 150:. Some water-demanding activities do not require high grade water. In this case, wastewater can be reused with little or no treatment. 7020: 6898: 6818: 6658: 6633: 5965: 3342:"A real options approach to the design and architecture of water supply systems using innovative water technologies under uncertainty" 1158: 1154: 7159: 6567: 5835: 3855: 2604: 1311: 1229:

Full-scale implementation and operation of water reuse schemes still face regulatory, economic, social and institutional challenges.

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Moreira da Silva, Manuela; Resende, Flávia C.; Freitas, Bárbara; Aníbal, Jaime; Martins, António; Duarte, Amílcar (January 2022).

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Water recycling and reuse is of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments.

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Groundwater quality degradation by the various reclaimed water contaminants, migrating and accumulating in the soil and aquifers.

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where salt and other minerals are removed from seawater to produce potable water for drinking and irrigation, typically through

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Portugal: NP 4434 2005. Reuse of reclaimed urban water for irrigation (Issuing Institutions: Portuguese Institute for Quality).

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adjustments to the federal regulatory framework that could enhance public health protection for both planned and unplanned (or

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Regulation (EU) 2020/741 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 May 2020 on minimum requirements for water reuse

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involve a more formal public process and public consultation program than is the case with de facto or unacknowledged reuse.

442: 859:, ozone). In ‘indirect' potable reuse applications, the reclaimed wastewater is used directly or mixed with other sources. 7107: 7086: 7054: 6931: 6858: 5915: 5739: 5519: 5509: 5411: 5192: 2922: 2450:

WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater – Volume IV: Excreta and greywater use in agriculture

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Andersson, K., Rosemarin, A., Lamizana, B., Kvarnström, E., McConville, J., Seidu, R., Dickin, S. and Trimmer, C. (2016).

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Reclaimed water is water that is used more than one time before it passes back into the natural water cycle. Advances in

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impoundments with/without public access (e.g. fishing, boating, bathing); Aesthetic impoundments without public access;

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The water that is used as an input to the treatment and reuse processes can be from a variety of sources. Usually it is

5840: 4099: 3951: 2418: 457:), in artificial recharge of aquifers, in agriculture, and in the rehabilitation of natural ecosystems (for example in 7164: 6951: 6883: 6259: 5531: 5106: 2953:

Resource recovery from waste: business models for energy, nutrient and water reuse in low- and middle-income countries

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and wastewater management will require emphasis on actions linked to resource management, such as wastewater reuse or

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Michael-Kordatou, I.; Michael, C.; Duan, X.; He, X.; Dionysiou, D.D.; Mills, M.A.; Fatta-Kassinos, D. (June 2015).

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Michael-Kordatou, I.; Michael, C.; Duan, X.; He, X.; Dionysiou, D.D.; Mills, M.A.; Fatta-Kassinos, D. (June 2015).

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By 2023, a new EU agriculture law may raise water reuse by six times, from 1.7 billion m to 6.6 billion m, and cut

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that will keep valuable resources available for productive uses. This in turn supports human wellbeing and broader

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and ultraviolet disinfection are commonly used when reclaimed water will be mixed with the drinking water supply.

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A lavender-colored pipeline carrying non-potable water in a dual piping system in Mountain View, California, U.S.

712: 616:. Where applicable, systems run a dual piping system to keep the recycled water separate from the potable water. 273: 2393: 851:

and separation processes (e.g. MF, UF and RO), followed by an advanced chemical oxidation process (e.g. UV, UV+H

7174: 6786: 6663: 6628: 6377: 6367: 6341: 5569: 4998: 1169: 1061: 127: 486:; Street cleaning; Fire protection systems; Vehicle washing; Toilet flushing; Air conditioners; Dust control. 4723:"Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa" 4699:"Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production" 7074: 6848: 6691: 6501: 6473: 6196: 6186: 6104: 5940: 5880: 5807: 5649: 5436: 4946: 4864: 2745:"Urban Wastewater Reuse for Citrus Irrigation in Algarve, Portugal—Environmental Benefits and Carbon Fluxes" 1403:

The usage of water reclamation decreases the pollution sent to sensitive environments. It can also enhance

336: 3704: 3139: 1361: 1245:, and others. Full cost recovery from water reuse schemes is difficult. There is a lack of financial water 1124:

Rather than treating municipal wastewater for reuse purposes, other options can achieve similar effects of

400:

In agriculture: Irrigation with treated wastewater may contribute to improve production yields, reduce the

7100: 7093: 6913: 6868: 6823: 6638: 6602: 6592: 6387: 6362: 6346: 6331: 6313: 5797: 5792: 5757: 5476: 5320: 5275: 5132: 5040: 3728: 3323: 3027: 2070: 1527: 351: 2507: 7169: 6991: 6936: 6893: 6776: 6751: 6716: 6392: 5265: 5260: 5167: 5162: 4888: 4819: 1802: 1763:

Canada: "Canadian guidelines for domestic reclaimed water for use in toilet and urinal flushing" (2010).

1464: 1450: 1146: 170: 5542: 3886: 2479: 1593:, BOD5, total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity, legionella, and intestinal nematodes (helminth eggs). 386:

For the environment: Reduced nutrient loads to receiving waters (i.e. rivers, canals and other surface

3327: 6956: 6926: 6878: 6873: 6796: 6701: 6597: 6420: 6279: 6264: 6239: 6224: 6181: 6006: 5817: 5471: 5461: 5013: 4985: 4785: 4778: 3766: 3512: 3434: 3208: 3039: 2680: 2369: 2332: 2226: 2065: 2037: 1460:

and accumulation of various unknown constituents that might adversely affect agricultural production;

1142: 1099: 740: 613: 401: 166: 86: 4447:"Recycling sewage into drinking water is no big deal. They've been doing it in Namibia for 50 years" 3609:

Water Reuse: Potential for Expanding the Nation's Water Supply through Reuse of Municipal Wastewater

335:. Large quantities of freshwater can be saved by municipal wastewater reuse and recycling, reducing 7149: 7134: 6888: 6771: 6766: 6511: 6430: 6249: 6229: 6219: 5920: 5905: 5860: 5659: 5562: 5421: 5285: 5235: 5182: 5152: 5142: 5137: 5101: 4993: 4896: 2126:. Nairobi and Stockholm: United Nations Environment Programme and Stockholm Environment Institute. 1857: 1616: 1531: 1173: 1110: 1065: 848: 736: 332: 241: 131: 5490: 4698: 4632: 3904: 3837: 3755:"Water reuse from a circular economy perspective and potential risks from an unregulated approach" 2586: 6833: 6828: 6463: 6425: 6382: 6301: 6046: 6011: 5955: 5875: 5850: 5619: 5599: 5504: 5494: 5365: 5344: 5310: 5255: 5157: 5020: 4906: 4857: 4843: 4722: 3551:

A Reconnaissance-Level Quantitative Comparison of Reclaimed Water, Surface Water, and Groundwater

3071: 2722: 2487: 2060: 1928: 1676: 1670: 1254: 1181: 983: 808: 708: 687: 4373: 3278: 2321:"Country-level and gridded estimates of wastewater production, collection, treatment and reuse" 1333:(an insect repellant) and caffeine were found in all water types and in virtually all samples. 7042: 7025: 6996: 6791: 6675: 6481: 6234: 6171: 6085: 5870: 5767: 5614: 5305: 5295: 5240: 5065: 5055: 5003: 4941: 4680: 4591: 4566: 4527: 4293: 4254: 4078: 3851: 3794: 3621: 3586: 3559: 3530: 3450: 3224: 3063: 3055: 2990: 2808: 2714: 2696: 2600: 2469: 2350: 2296: 2252: 2244: 2190: 2172: 2127: 2124:

Sanitation, Wastewater Management and Sustainability: from Waste Disposal to Resource Recovery

2031: 1416: 995: 885: 877: 596:

use; Augmentation of surface drinking water supplies; Treatment until drinking water quality.

4470: 3669: 1149:– Urban design systems which incorporate rainwater harvesting and reduce runoff are known as 6966: 6838: 6813: 6706: 6532: 6506: 6458: 6453: 6435: 6372: 6323: 6244: 6214: 6209: 6166: 6001: 5960: 5945: 5845: 5825: 5466: 5456: 5340: 5315: 5215: 5035: 5008: 4956: 4931: 4921: 4916: 4901: 4838: 4672: 4558: 4517: 4507: 4285: 4244: 4234: 3843: 3784: 3774: 3613: 3520: 3481: 3442: 3353: 3216: 3105: 3047: 2980: 2969:"Enhancement of a Spent Irrigation Water Recycling Process: A Case Study in a Food Business" 2838: 2800: 2792: 2766: 2756: 2704: 2688: 2592: 2340: 2288: 2234: 2180: 2164: 1952: 1731: 1688: 1103: 1081: 1036: 999: 956: 840: 659: 641: 577: 565: 340: 324: 261: 253: 147: 103: 39: 1836:, interest in reclaimed effluent options increases. Two major capital cities in Australia, 6801: 6711: 6696: 6527: 6336: 5910: 5699: 5624: 5451: 5416: 5360: 5355: 5335: 5096: 5045: 4936: 4926: 2449: 2319:

Jones, Edward R.; van Vliet, Michelle T. H.; Qadir, Manzoor; Bierkens, Marc F. P. (2021).

2123: 2027: 2023: 1956: 1661: 1538:

and their transformation products), etc.) in it and subsequent uptake by plants and crops;

1519: 1475: 1471: 1177: 1073: 1069: 1057: 780: 731:

The use of reclaimed water to create, enhance, sustain, or augment water bodies including

700: 696: 675: 531: 483: 387: 376: 139: 135: 123: 4049: 4047: 3008: 2465:

The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped Resource

1775:

Jordan: Jordanian technical base n. 893/2006 Jordan water reuse management Plan (policy).

1673:

in addition to primary and secondary treatment, were required to meet certain standards.

106:

allows water to remain an alternative water source for human activities. This can reduce

3770: 3516: 3438: 3253: 3212: 3043: 2684: 2336: 2230: 699:

with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use

7144: 6726: 6643: 6577: 6572: 6291: 6269: 6204: 6153: 6127: 6061: 6041: 6031: 6026: 6016: 5996: 5935: 5830: 5762: 5704: 5689: 5634: 5396: 5290: 5270: 5060: 5025: 4831: 4522: 4495: 4249: 4222: 4056:"Overview of Water Reuse Technology: Pricing Considerations Related To Reclaimed Water" 2709: 2668: 2185: 2168: 2152: 2019: 1649: 1625: 1576:(UNEP): "Guidelines for municipal wastewater reuse in the Mediterranean region" (2005). 1546: 1246: 1203: 1027:

network that keeps reclaimed water pipes completely separate from potable water pipes.

756: 608: 593: 519: 454: 380: 359: 281: 276:

has recognized the following principal driving forces for municipal wastewater reuse:

199: 107: 94: 4422:"Namibia: Windhoek has been producing drinking water from its wastewater for 50 years" 4396:"Arid Israel recycles waste water on grand scale - Agricultural Commodities - Reuters" 1738:

network that keeps reclaimed water pipes completely separate from potable water pipes.

7123: 7031: 6756: 6741: 6736: 6721: 6542: 6496: 6254: 5719: 5644: 5639: 5441: 5431: 5300: 5250: 5111: 5081: 5050: 4961: 4654: 4652: 4633:"Microbiological Risk Assessment of the Water Reclamation Plant in Windhoek, Namibia" 3501:"The psychology of recycled water: Factors predicting disgust and willingness to use" 3341: 3075: 2791:. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry. Vol. 44. Springer. pp. 105–128. 2726: 2015: 1778:

Mexico: Mexican Standard NOM-001-ECOL-1996 governing wastewater reuse in Agriculture.

1684: 1535: 1457: 1426: 1238: 1194: 1135:

reuse systems – at a household level, treated or untreated greywater may be used for

796: 515: 355: 288: 154: 78: 4130: 3051: 2320: 2239: 2214: 772:

frequent monitoring and testing are imperative to their meeting stringent controls.

30: 7004: 6402: 6161: 6066: 5950: 5900: 5772: 5729: 5669: 5401: 5370: 5230: 4807: 3990:

Denver's Direct Potable Water Reuse Demonstration Project Final Report (25 volumes)

3905:"Water Reuse in Europe - Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation" 1483: 1479: 1478:

properties of the soil and contribution to the accumulation of chemical/biological

1165: 1136: 1088: 971: 669:

The irrigation water can be used in different ways on different crops, such as for

581: 550: 535: 479: 344: 222: 174: 90: 3926: 3446: 3400: 2923:"Water reuse in Europe. Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation" 4659:

Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (4 September 2015).

4562: 4272:

Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (4 September 2015).

3839:

Water Reuse in Europe - Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation

3607: 3220: 2588:

Water Reuse in Europe - Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation

2275:

Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (4 September 2015).

1570:(WHO): "Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater" (2006). 735:, aquatic habitats, or stream flow is called "environmental reuse". For example, 6587: 6582: 6547: 6410: 6056: 6051: 5975: 5930: 5890: 5787: 5694: 5375: 5325: 5225: 4471:"Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions" 4003: 3779: 3754: 3670:"Wastewater resource recovery can fix water insecurity and cut carbon emissions" 2897: 2011: 1944: 1920: 1907:

Reuse of treated wastewater is practiced in Namibia in many urban areas such as

1735: 1523: 1271: 1214: 1210: 1198: 1125: 1024: 932: 825: 691: 624: 546: 503: 499: 495: 422: 410: 302: 158: 82: 4976: 3644: 2856: 2692: 970:

Unplanned Indirect Potable Use has existed for a long time. Large towns on the

17: 6746: 6731: 6557: 6537: 6021: 5885: 5585: 5426: 5380: 5280: 4758:

When the Rivers Run Dry: Water-The Defining Crisis of the Twenty-First Century

4024: 3296: 2638: 2557: 1986: 1932: 1912: 1908: 1680: 1511: 1507: 1495: 1389: 1381: 1366: 939: 928: 888: 804: 670: 655: 650: 646: 554: 328: 298: 237: 206: 194: 74: 4684: 4297: 3798: 3534: 3454: 3059: 2994: 2700: 2532: 2354: 2345: 2300: 2248: 2176: 7015: 6961: 6415: 5855: 5802: 5654: 5350: 4880: 4802: 4609: 4607: 4103: 3555: 2075: 1924: 1865: 1833: 1707: 1666: 1446: 1430: 1408: 1334: 1132: 1092: 1053: 991: 960: 924: 812: 414: 306: 162: 119: 4616:

Treatment of wastewater for re-use in the drinking water system of Windhoek

4570: 4531: 4258: 3789: 3358: 3228: 3067: 2718: 2256: 2194: 4512: 4239: 3109: 2842: 2804: 627:

applications in municipal settings, where public access is not restricted.

6808: 5782: 5674: 5609: 5086: 4152: 3525: 3500: 3377:"Water Scarcity, a driver for water reclamation, reuse and collaboration" 3026:

Ofori, Solomon; Puškáčová, Adéla; Růžičková, Iveta; Wanner, Jiří (2021).

2985: 2968: 2796: 2771: 1940: 1936: 1861: 1849: 1841: 1837: 1515: 1499: 1491: 1442: 1434: 1377: 1049: 920: 569: 527: 523: 391: 320: 294:

increasing environmental pollution from improper wastewater disposal, and

115: 110:. It also eases pressures on groundwater and other natural water bodies. 2761: 2744: 93:, businesses, and industry. It is possible to treat wastewater to reach 6781: 5709: 5406: 4676: 4350: 4289: 3485: 2292: 2153:"A review of polymeric membranes and processes for potable water reuse" 1977: 1829: 1438: 1404: 1296: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1242: 987: 916: 787: 744: 732: 573: 461:). The main reclaimed water applications in the world are shown below: 458: 418: 4783:

Knowledge (XXG)'s health care articles can be viewed offline with the

967:

which is used as a drinking water supply for another city downstream.

942:

have been able to drink recycled urine due to the introduction of the

27:

Converting wastewater into water that can be reused for other purposes

6445: 5724: 5714: 4911: 3499:

Wester, Julia; Timpano, Kiara R.; Çek, Demet; Broad, Kenneth (2016).

3468:

Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (2015).

1916: 1886: 1503: 1385: 979: 975: 908: 800: 663: 240:

water is pumped from this tank which stores effluent received from a

210: 50: 42:

effluent, and finally reclaimed water (after several treatment steps)

35: 4546: 3582:

Irrigation of Parks, Playgrounds, and Schoolyards: Extent and Safety

3196: 923:) are output from the other end. The soil could be used for growing 4661:"International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse" 4660: 4274:"International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse" 4273: 3617: 3470:"International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse" 3469: 2277:"International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse" 2276: 5629: 5446: 5330: 4951: 3847: 2596: 1982: 1948: 1542: 1487: 1360: 1014: 964: 943: 912: 904: 900: 876:

Wastewater reclamation can be especially important in relation to

247: 232: 58: 29: 6096: 4500:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

4227:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

1985:

given to ultra-pure water that is produced from reclaimed water.

397:

Reduced manufacturing costs of using high quality reclaimed water

4496:"Indirect Potable Reuse: A Sustainable Water Supply Alternative" 4223:"Indirect Potable Reuse: A Sustainable Water Supply Alternative" 3089:

Gerrity, D.; Pecson, B.; Trussell, R.S.; Trussell, R.R. (2013).

2669:"Modeling the energy consumption of potable water reuse schemes" 1330: 896: 881: 435: 181: 99: 6100: 5558: 4853: 3992:. Denver Water and US EPA Cooperative Agreement CS-806821-01-4. 2462:

WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme) (2017).

1947:/dissolved air flotation/rapid sand filtration, and subsequent 1249:

comparable to already subsidized conventional treatment plants.

795:) to persist in this water. This would be less of a concern if 2004:

Water supply and sanitation in South Africa § Wastewater reuse

1734:. Reclaimed water is typically distributed with a color-coded 1716:

Water supply and sanitation in the United States § Water reuse

1265: 89:. Reused water also serve various needs in residences such as 5554: 4751:

Planet Water: Investing in the World’s Most Valuable Resource

4346:"UN cites Israeli wastewater treatment plant as global model" 3585:. Alexandria, VA: The Water Research Foundation. p. 60. 755:

Treated wastewater can be reused in industry (for example in

453:

Treated wastewater can be reused in industry (for example in

417:, improving streamflow, nourishing plant life and recharging 4849: 4765:

Water: The Epic Struggle for Wealth, Power, and Civilization

2857:

Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals

2145: 2143: 2141: 2139: 5777: 1823:

Water supply and sanitation in Australia § Wastewater reuse

4198:"Reuse of wastewater in agriculture: A guide for planners" 2967:

Garcia-Garcia, Guillermo; Jagtap, Sandeep (January 2021).

1971:

Water supply and sanitation in Singapore § Reclaimed water

438:, in countries such as the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait and Israel. 184:, in countries such as the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait and Israel. 4175:"State Corporation Commission—Clerk's Information System" 1392:

garden and agricultural plants when used for irrigation.

1376:

It sometimes contains higher levels of nutrients such as

409:

Reclaiming water for reuse applications instead of using

3645:"Water Recycling and Reuse: The Environmental Benefits/" 3028:"Treated wastewater reuse for irrigation: Pros and cons" 1023:

Non-potable reclaimed water is often distributed with a

6986:

UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)

3171:"Pharmaceuticals in the environment: a growing problem" 2898:"Water Recycling and Reuse: The Environmental Benefits" 1880:

Water supply and sanitation in Israel § Reclaimed water

607:

In rarer cases reclaimed water is also used to augment

4665:

Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology

4278:

Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology

3474:

Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology

2452:. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland 2281:

Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology

1353:

reuse) and increase public confidence in water reuse.

331:

supplies are limited or are available only with large

118:. The following are some of the typical technologies: 4791: 3903:

Alcalde Sanz, Laura; Gawlik, Bernd (1 January 2014).

3759:

Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health

3098:

Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua

3091:"Potable reuse treatment trains throughout the world" 649:

with recycled municipal wastewater can also serve to

102:

countries. Reusing wastewater as part of sustainable

4307:

from the original on Jul 8, 2024 – via Zenodo.

3647:. US Environment Protection Agency. 23 February 2016 1902:

Water supply and sanitation in Namibia § Water reuse

1415:

instituted a water recycling program to protect the

1325:

eventually becomes part of drinking water supplies.

1095:

from baths and showers with little or no treatment.

6975: 6912: 6684: 6611: 6520: 6472: 6444: 6401: 6355: 6322: 6195: 6152: 5989: 5816: 5738: 5592: 5389: 5208: 5120: 5074: 4984: 4887: 3836:European Commission. Joint Research Centre (2014). 2585:European Commission. Joint Research Centre (2014). 1545:and vegetation in canals carrying wastewater (i.e. 951:

De facto wastewater reuse (unplanned potable reuse)

77:of gardens and agricultural fields or replenishing 2394:"Water Reuse - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics" 1864:, NSW, the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) and 1413:San Jose/Santa Clara Water Pollution Control Plant 793:environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants 4319:"Arid Israel recycles waste water on grand scale" 3927:"Water Reuse - Environment - European Commission" 3401:"Water Reuse - Environment - European Commission" 1518:), contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) (i.e. 3279:"Astronauts Drink Recycled Urine, and Celebrate" 1407:, which benefits the wildlife depending on that 703:with urban waste directly to water their crops. 297:increasing recognition of the resource value of 202:by supplementing limited freshwater resources." 4196:Khouri, N; Kalbermatten, J. M.; Bartone, C. R. 3952:"New EU guidelines for agriculture water reuse" 3697:"Competing for Clean Water Has Led to a Crisis" 2738: 2736: 907:are input into one end of the reactor and pure 7010:Rio Declaration on Environment and Development 2533:RIPPLE EFFECTS: POPULATION AND COASTAL REGIONS 61:for a variety of purposes . It is also called 6112: 5570: 4865: 4153:"Increasing Safe and Reliable Water Supplies" 1769:Israel: Ministry of Health regulation (2005). 1698:Reclaimed water is not regulated by the U.S. 824:distribution system. That storage could be a 623:Unrestricted: The use of reclaimed water for 8: 4083:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3813:"NATIONAL WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT STRATEGY" 3258:Scientific American Frontiers – PBS Programs 2874:"National Water Quality Management Strategy" 2040:faced water shortages and had decided on an 1976:In Singapore, reclaimed water is branded as 1193:The cost of reclaimed water exceeds that of 1102:, the wastewater must pass through numerous 153:The cost of reclaimed water exceeds that of 3907:. Publications Office of the European Union 2118: 2116: 1225:Barriers to water reclamation may include: 7081: 6119: 6105: 6097: 5577: 5563: 5555: 4872: 4858: 4850: 4127:"Rules and Regulations for Recycled Water" 2492:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2444: 2442: 2440: 2438: 2041: 2010:In South Africa, the main driver for waste 1615:However, an evaluation carried out by the 1429:of the food chain with microcontaminants, 1209:Reclaimed water systems usually require a 1002:effluent and the source of potable water. 619:Usage types are distinguished as follows: 7021:Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) 4521: 4511: 4248: 4238: 4125:The City of San Diego. Water Department. 3788: 3778: 3524: 3357: 2984: 2770: 2760: 2708: 2344: 2238: 2184: 1704:U.S. Agency for International Development 1312:Learn how and when to remove this message 1217:, which adds to the costs of the system. 262:municipal wastewater treatment technology 7049:UN Conference on Sustainable Development 1727:, it is also used for flushing toilets. 1109:Wastewater is generally treated to only 938:Aboard the International Space Station, 482:, sporting facilities, private gardens, 463: 221:wastewater) but it could also come from 4798: 2945: 2943: 2789:Wastewater Reuse and Current Challenges 2314: 2312: 2310: 2087: 2014:is drought conditions. For example, in 1951:, biological activated carbon/granular 1846:Western Corridor Recycled Water Project 721:pharmaceuticals, personal care products 34:Sequence of reclamation from left: raw 6619:Corporate environmental responsibility 4076: 3723: 3721: 3691: 3689: 3664: 3662: 3639: 3637: 2855:Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina. " 2485: 1799:History of water supply and sanitation 807:or, alternatively, systems that treat 3898: 3896: 3894: 3371: 3369: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2623: 2538:(Report). Population Reference Bureau 2370:"Basic Information about Water Reuse" 375:For cities and households: Increased 7: 6992:Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983) 5537: 2950:Otoo, Miriam; Drechsel, Pay (2018). 2270: 2268: 2266: 2208: 2206: 2204: 1803:Ecological sanitation § History 1706:(USAID), and the global consultancy 1605:Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive 1574:United Nations Environment Programme 1463:Distribution of the indigenous soil 1294:adding citations to reliable sources 1197:in many regions of the world, where 828:basin or a surface water reservoir. 157:in many regions of the world, where 3976:Federal Water Pollution Control Act 3753:Voulvoulis, Nikolaos (2018-04-01). 3612:. National Research Council. 2012. 1624:Cyprus: Law 106 (I) 2002 Water and 1419:area's natural salt water marshes. 1052:. Some common technologies include 786:Many people associate a feeling of 436:Middle East and North Africa region 287:increasing populations and related 182:Middle East and North Africa region 6634:Environmental full-cost accounting 5966:Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation 3558:Research Foundation. p. 141. 2956:. Oxon, UK: Routledge - Earthscan. 2169:10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2018.01.004 1159:sustainable urban drainage systems 998:serves as both the destination of 323:that are used by over half of the 25: 6568:Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity 5836:Agricultural wastewater treatment 4004:"Environmental Protection Agency" 3169:Owens, Brian (19 February 2015). 2831:Environmental Engineering Science 959:from one city may be discharging 847:treatment steps that encompasses 526:water; Washing aggregate; Making 7080: 7069: 7068: 7038:UN Millennium Declaration (2000) 6080: 6079: 5536: 5500: 5499: 5489: 5246:Extended producer responsibility 4975: 4837: 4825: 4813: 4801: 4777: 4584:Grabow, W. O. K. (26 May 2009). 4372:Melanie lidman (6 August 2010). 3733:education.nationalgeographic.org 3340:Zhang, S.X.; V. Babovic (2012). 3032:Science of the Total Environment 2219:Science of the Total Environment 2095:Tuser, Cristina (May 24, 2022). 2002:This section is an excerpt from 1969:This section is an excerpt from 1900:This section is an excerpt from 1878:This section is an excerpt from 1821:This section is an excerpt from 1714:This section is an excerpt from 1603:Besides that, Article 12 of the 1270: 6624:Corporate social responsibility 6553:Ocean thermal energy conversion 6492:Community-supported agriculture 6177:Human impact on the environment 5896:Industrial wastewater treatment 5866:Decentralized wastewater system 4344:Rinat, Zafrir (June 25, 2012). 4026:2012 Guidelines for Water Reuse 3254:"Scientific American Frontiers" 3052:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144026 2240:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165185 1700:Environmental Protection Agency 1281:needs additional citations for 1213:network, often with additional 1157:(LID) in the United States and 884:announced it had built a human 739:fed by wastewater provide both 85:. This latter is also known as 6864:Socially responsible marketing 2417:Schiller, Antje (2021-05-06). 2030:, and permeate disinfected by 1344:A 2012 study conducted by the 443:Sustainable Development Goal 6 343:. Reuse can be an alternative 1: 7055:Sustainable Development Goals 6859:Socially responsible business 5916:Rotating biological contactor 5412:Container-deposit legislation 4760:. Boston: Beacon Press, 2007. 4098:Irvine Ranch Water District. 4054:LeChevallier, Mark W., Ph.D. 3735:. National Geographic Society 3447:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.07.209 3427:Journal of Cleaner Production 2531:Creel, Liz (September 2003). 1161:(SUDS) in the United Kingdom. 49:is the process of converting 7130:Hydrology and urban planning 4587:Water and Health - Volume II 4563:10.1016/j.watres.2015.03.011 3703:. 2010-01-26. Archived from 3297:"Guidelines for water reuse" 3221:10.1016/j.watres.2015.03.011 2639:"Guidelines for water reuse" 2558:"Guidelines for water reuse" 2056:One Water (water management) 1151:water-sensitive urban design 779:Modern technologies such as 6884:Sustainability organization 6669:Standards and certification 6260:Social return on investment 5107:Materials recovery facility 4786:Medical Knowledge (XXG) app 3780:10.1016/j.coesh.2018.01.005 3346:Journal of Hydroinformatics 2157:Progress in Polymer Science 1848:once completed. Goulbourn, 1562:International organizations 1514:), natural chemicals (i.e. 1043:Nutrient Recovery and Reuse 893:International Space Station 682:Risks in agricultural reuse 244:in Haran-Al-Awamied, Syria. 7191: 6309:Systemic change resistance 5981:Wastewater treatment plant 5748:Adsorbable organic halides 4614:Menge, J. (January 2010). 4177:. Commonwealth of Virginia 4155:. WateReuse. 27 March 2015 3175:The Pharmaceutical Journal 2693:10.1016/j.wroa.2021.100126 2001: 1968: 1899: 1877: 1820: 1796: 1713: 1557:Guidelines and regulations 1365:Uses of recycled water in 1221:Barriers to implementation 1113:when used for irrigation. 1040: 1034: 639: 7064: 6487:Climate-smart agriculture 6134: 6075: 5753:Biochemical oxygen demand 5485: 4973: 4767:. New York: Harper, 2010. 3988:Lauer, William C (1993). 3330:, accessed 24 April 2007. 3138:Kean, Sam (Winter 2015). 2368:US EPA, OW (2019-08-13). 2325:Earth System Science Data 1598:Water Framework Directive 1568:World Health Organization 1346:National Research Council 1111:secondary level treatment 713:World Health Organization 421:, as part of the natural 319:Already, the groundwater 274:World Health Organization 7160:Sustainable technologies 6629:Environmental accounting 6378:Sustainable architecture 6368:Environmental technology 4753:. New York: Wiley, 2009. 4475:European Investment Bank 3974:33 Usc 1251 seq., 1972, 3674:European Investment Bank 3505:Water Resources Research 2861:SDG-Tracker.org, website 2346:10.5194/essd-13-237-2021 2097:"What is potable reuse?" 1170:energy-intensive process 891:designed for use in the 252:Reclaimed water sign in 7155:Sustainable agriculture 6502:Sustainable agriculture 5941:Sewage sludge treatment 5881:Fecal sludge management 5841:API oil–water separator 5808:Wastewater surveillance 5437:Reverse vending machine 3842:. Publications Office. 2679:. Elsevier BV: 100126. 2591:. Publications Office. 872:Reuse in space stations 832:also be referred to as 576:; Stream augmentation; 337:environmental pollution 57:into water that can be 7045:(Rio+10, Johannesburg) 6914:Sustainable management 6899:Urban drainage systems 6639:Environmental planning 6603:Water recycling shower 6593:Tidal stream generator 6388:Sustainable industries 6347:Sustainable population 6332:Demographic transition 6314:Tragedy of the commons 5798:Total suspended solids 5793:Total dissolved solids 5758:Chemical oxygen demand 5477:Water recycling shower 5321:Reuse of human excreta 5291:Recycling (ecological) 5276:Material flow analysis 4590:. EOLSS Publications. 3978:, Enacted by Congress. 3729:"Freshwater Resources" 3548:Helgeson, Tom (2009). 3359:10.2166/hydro.2011.078 3324:Public Utilities Board 3242:University of Colorado 2071:Water recycling shower 1528:personal care products 1370: 1155:low-impact development 1020: 1000:sewage treatment plant 957:sewage treatment plant 834:groundwater recharging 819:Indirect potable reuse 449:Types and applications 352:sustainable sanitation 257: 245: 43: 40:sewage treatment plant 7140:Recycling by material 6937:Humanistic capitalism 6752:Environmental finance 6393:Sustainable packaging 5665:Industrial wastewater 5266:Interchangeable parts 5261:Industrial metabolism 4513:10.3390/ijerph6031174 4240:10.3390/ijerph6031174 3956:www.aquatechtrade.com 3579:Crook, James (2005). 3140:"Waste Not, Want Not" 3110:10.2166/aqua.2013.041 2843:10.1089/ees.2012.0201 2398:www.sciencedirect.com 1797:Further information: 1788:risks" Phase 1, 2006. 1750:WateReuse Association 1465:microbial communities 1451:antibiotic resistance 1364: 1357:Environmental aspects 1153:(WSUD) in Australia, 1139:or to water a garden. 1091:can be flushed using 1041:Further information: 1018: 1006:Design considerations 763:Planned potable reuse 747:for flora and fauna. 640:Further information: 592:Aquifer recharge for 251: 236: 55:industrial wastewater 33: 6904:Urban infrastructure 6598:Water heat recycling 6421:Conservation biology 6265:Steady-state economy 6240:Micro-sustainability 6225:Ecological footprint 6182:Planetary boundaries 6007:Groundwater recharge 5472:Water heat recycling 5462:Waste management law 4374:"Wastewater wonders" 3707:on February 19, 2021 3526:10.1002/2015WR018340 3328:Overseas Experiences 2986:10.3390/app112110355 2797:10.1007/698_2015_346 2066:Water heat recycling 1541:Excessive growth of 1290:improve this article 1143:Rainwater harvesting 1100:municipal wastewater 863:Direct potable reuse 741:wastewater treatment 737:constructed wetlands 688:developing countries 658:. This can make the 614:hydraulic fracturing 402:ecological footprint 167:rainwater harvesting 87:groundwater recharge 51:municipal wastewater 7005:Earth Summit (1992) 6659:Metrics and indices 6512:Sustainable fishery 6431:Holocene extinction 6250:Product stewardship 6220:Earth Overshoot Day 5921:Secondary treatment 5906:Membrane bioreactor 5861:Constructed wetland 5660:Infiltration/Inflow 5422:Ethical consumerism 5356:Urban lumberjacking 5286:Product stewardship 5236:Eco-industrial park 4100:"Water Reclamation" 3771:2018COESH...2...32V 3517:2016WRR....52.3212W 3439:2016JCPro.139....1P 3213:2015WatRe..77..213M 3044:2021ScTEn.76044026O 2762:10.3390/su141710715 2685:2021WRX....1300126T 2337:2021ESSD...13..237J 2231:2023ScTEn.89565185T 1858:Victoria, Australia 1617:European Commission 1532:household chemicals 1174:membrane filtration 1147:stormwater recovery 1120:Alternative options 1066:membrane bioreactor 1031:Treatment processes 849:membrane filtration 727:Environmental reuse 333:capital expenditure 242:constructed wetland 171:stormwater recovery 132:membrane bioreactor 7165:Water conservation 6464:Sustainable energy 6426:Endangered species 6383:Sustainable design 6297:Consumer behaviour 6086:Category: Sewerage 6047:Septic drain field 6012:Infiltration basin 5956:Stabilization pond 5876:Facultative lagoon 5740:Quality indicators 5620:Blackwater (waste) 5600:Acid mine drainage 5495:Environment portal 5366:Waste minimisation 5311:Reusable packaging 5256:Industrial ecology 4677:10.1039/C5EW00165J 4451:The World from PRX 4290:10.1039/C5EW00165J 3554:. Alexandria, VA: 3486:10.1039/C5EW00165J 2293:10.1039/C5EW00165J 2061:Water conservation 1743:Trade associations 1677:Los Angeles County 1486:, chemicals (i.e. 1470:Alteration of the 1371: 1255:pathogen avoidance 1235:organic pollutants 1182:steam distillation 1078:advanced oxidation 1021: 636:Agricultural reuse 562:Environmental uses 514:Processing water; 377:water availability 366:Potential benefits 258: 246: 144:advanced oxidation 44: 7117: 7116: 7043:Earth Summit 2002 7026:Lisbon Principles 6998:Our Common Future 6676:Sustainable yield 6482:Civic agriculture 6235:Green consumption 6172:Global governance 6094: 6093: 5871:Extended aeration 5818:Treatment options 5768:Oxygen saturation 5615:Blackwater (coal) 5593:Sources and types 5552: 5551: 5306:Resource recovery 5296:Refill (campaign) 5241:Ecological design 5221:Dematerialization 5031:Fluorescent lamps 4763:Solomon, Steven. 4597:978-1-84826-183-9 4428:. 18 October 2018 4065:on March 18, 2009 3627:978-0-309-25749-7 3592:978-0-9747586-3-3 3565:978-1-934183-12-0 2814:978-3-319-23891-3 2475:978-92-3-100201-4 2132:978-92-807-3488-1 2101:Wastewater Digest 2032:ultraviolet light 1660:In the U.S., the 1417:San Francisco Bay 1322: 1321: 1314: 1062:aerobic treatment 996:Mississippi River 886:waste reclamation 878:human spaceflight 600: 599: 543:Recreational uses 491:Agricultural uses 467:Categories of use 128:aerobic treatment 47:Water reclamation 16:(Redirected from 7182: 7084: 7083: 7072: 7071: 7016:Agenda 21 (1992) 6987: 6952:Natural resource 6839:Organic movement 6814:Impact investing 6533:Hydroelectricity 6507:Sustainable diet 6459:Renewable energy 6454:Carbon footprint 6436:Invasive species 6373:Natural building 6324:World population 6285:Marketing myopia 6245:Over-consumption 6215:Circular economy 6210:Anti-consumerism 6167:Environmentalism 6121: 6114: 6107: 6098: 6083: 6082: 6002:Evaporation pond 5990:Disposal options 5961:Trickling filter 5946:Sewage treatment 5846:Carbon filtering 5826:Activated sludge 5579: 5572: 5565: 5556: 5540: 5539: 5503: 5502: 5493: 5467:Waste management 5457:Waste collection 5316:Reuse of bottles 5216:Circular economy 5193:Northern Ireland 4979: 4874: 4867: 4860: 4851: 4842: 4841: 4830: 4829: 4828: 4818: 4817: 4816: 4806: 4805: 4797: 4781: 4749:Hoffman, Steve. 4737: 4736: 4734: 4732: 4727: 4719: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4708: 4703: 4695: 4689: 4688: 4656: 4647: 4646: 4644: 4642: 4637: 4629: 4623: 4622: 4620: 4611: 4602: 4601: 4581: 4575: 4574: 4542: 4536: 4535: 4525: 4515: 4506:(3): 1174–1203. 4491: 4485: 4484: 4482: 4481: 4467: 4461: 4460: 4458: 4457: 4443: 4437: 4436: 4434: 4433: 4418: 4412: 4411: 4409: 4407: 4398:. 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Archived from 3095: 3086: 3080: 3079: 3023: 3017: 3016: 3015:. 21 March 2018. 3005: 2999: 2998: 2988: 2973:Applied Sciences 2964: 2958: 2957: 2947: 2938: 2937: 2935: 2933: 2928:. European Union 2927: 2919: 2913: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2894: 2888: 2887: 2885: 2883: 2878: 2870: 2864: 2853: 2847: 2846: 2825: 2819: 2818: 2783: 2777: 2776: 2774: 2764: 2740: 2731: 2730: 2712: 2673:Water Research X 2663: 2657: 2656: 2654: 2652: 2643: 2635: 2618: 2617: 2615: 2613: 2582: 2576: 2575: 2573: 2571: 2562: 2554: 2548: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2537: 2528: 2522: 2521: 2519: 2517: 2512: 2504: 2498: 2497: 2491: 2483: 2478:. Archived from 2459: 2453: 2446: 2433: 2432: 2430: 2429: 2414: 2408: 2407: 2405: 2404: 2390: 2384: 2383: 2381: 2380: 2365: 2359: 2358: 2348: 2316: 2305: 2304: 2272: 2261: 2260: 2242: 2210: 2199: 2198: 2188: 2147: 2134: 2120: 2111: 2110: 2108: 2107: 2092: 1953:activated carbon 1811:Country examples 1732:Golden Gate Park 1689:Golden Gate Park 1632:Sustainability). 1317: 1310: 1306: 1303: 1297: 1274: 1266: 1104:sewage treatment 1082:activated carbon 1037:Sewage treatment 841:saline intrusion 811:separately from 799:was kept out of 751:Industrial reuse 709:emerging nations 660:reuse of excreta 642:Reuse of excreta 578:Wildlife habitat 566:Aquifer recharge 518:; Recirculating 464: 341:carbon footprint 325:world population 254:Dunedin, Florida 148:activated carbon 104:water management 63:wastewater reuse 21: 7190: 7189: 7185: 7184: 7183: 7181: 7180: 7179: 7175:Water treatment 7120: 7119: 7118: 7113: 7060: 6985: 6977: 6976:Agreements and 6971: 6908: 6712:Climate finance 6680: 6607: 6563:Reclaimed water 6516: 6468: 6440: 6397: 6351: 6337:Family planning 6318: 6191: 6148: 6130: 6125: 6095: 6090: 6071: 6037:Reclaimed water 5985: 5911:Reverse osmosis 5812: 5734: 5700:Reverse osmosis 5625:Boiler blowdown 5588: 5583: 5553: 5548: 5481: 5452:Waste-to-energy 5417:Dumpster diving 5385: 5361:Waste hierarchy 5336:Right to repair 5204: 5173:The Netherlands 5128:Rate by country 5116: 5070: 4980: 4971: 4883: 4878: 4848: 4836: 4826: 4824: 4814: 4812: 4800: 4792: 4790: 4782: 4774: 4746: 4744:Further reading 4741: 4740: 4730: 4728: 4725: 4721: 4720: 4716: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4697: 4696: 4692: 4658: 4657: 4650: 4640: 4638: 4635: 4631: 4630: 4626: 4618: 4613: 4612: 4605: 4598: 4583: 4582: 4578: 4544: 4543: 4539: 4493: 4492: 4488: 4479: 4477: 4469: 4468: 4464: 4455: 4453: 4445: 4444: 4440: 4431: 4429: 4420: 4419: 4415: 4405: 4403: 4394: 4393: 4389: 4379: 4377: 4371: 4370: 4366: 4356: 4354: 4343: 4342: 4338: 4328: 4326: 4317: 4316: 4312: 4304: 4271: 4270: 4266: 4220: 4219: 4215: 4205: 4203: 4200: 4195: 4194: 4190: 4180: 4178: 4173: 4172: 4168: 4158: 4156: 4151: 4150: 4146: 4136: 4134: 4133:on May 28, 2009 4124: 4123: 4119: 4109: 4107: 4106:on June 4, 2008 4097: 4096: 4092: 4075: 4068: 4066: 4062: 4053: 4052: 4045: 4035: 4033: 4029: 4023: 4022: 4018: 4008: 4006: 4002: 4001: 3997: 3987: 3986: 3982: 3973: 3969: 3960: 3958: 3950: 3949: 3945: 3935: 3933: 3925: 3924: 3920: 3910: 3908: 3902: 3901: 3892: 3885: 3881: 3876: 3872: 3862: 3860: 3858: 3835: 3834: 3830: 3820: 3818: 3815: 3811: 3810: 3806: 3752: 3751: 3747: 3738: 3736: 3727: 3726: 3719: 3710: 3708: 3695: 3694: 3687: 3678: 3676: 3668: 3667: 3660: 3650: 3648: 3643: 3642: 3635: 3628: 3606:"Water Reuse". 3605: 3604: 3600: 3593: 3578: 3577: 3573: 3566: 3547: 3546: 3542: 3498: 3497: 3493: 3467: 3466: 3462: 3424: 3423: 3419: 3409: 3407: 3399: 3398: 3394: 3384: 3382: 3379: 3375: 3374: 3367: 3339: 3338: 3334: 3322: 3318: 3308: 3306: 3299: 3295: 3294: 3290: 3285:. May 20, 2009. 3277: 3276: 3272: 3262: 3260: 3252: 3251: 3247: 3240: 3236: 3194: 3193: 3189: 3179: 3177: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3153: 3151: 3137: 3136: 3132: 3122: 3120: 3116: 3093: 3088: 3087: 3083: 3025: 3024: 3020: 3007: 3006: 3002: 2966: 2965: 2961: 2949: 2948: 2941: 2931: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2920: 2916: 2906: 2904: 2896: 2895: 2891: 2881: 2879: 2876: 2872: 2871: 2867: 2854: 2850: 2827: 2826: 2822: 2815: 2785: 2784: 2780: 2742: 2741: 2734: 2665: 2664: 2660: 2650: 2648: 2641: 2637: 2636: 2621: 2611: 2609: 2607: 2584: 2583: 2579: 2569: 2567: 2560: 2556: 2555: 2551: 2541: 2539: 2535: 2530: 2529: 2525: 2515: 2513: 2510: 2506: 2505: 2501: 2484: 2476: 2461: 2460: 2456: 2447: 2436: 2427: 2425: 2423:Umweltbundesamt 2416: 2415: 2411: 2402: 2400: 2392: 2391: 2387: 2378: 2376: 2367: 2366: 2362: 2318: 2317: 2308: 2274: 2273: 2264: 2212: 2211: 2202: 2149: 2148: 2137: 2121: 2114: 2105: 2103: 2094: 2093: 2089: 2084: 2052: 2047: 2046: 2007: 1999: 1991: 1990: 1974: 1966: 1961: 1960: 1957:ultrafiltration 1905: 1897: 1892: 1891: 1883: 1875: 1870: 1869: 1856:, and Regional 1828:When there are 1826: 1818: 1813: 1805: 1795: 1760: 1758:Other countries 1745: 1740: 1739: 1719: 1662:Clean Water Act 1658: 1586: 1564: 1559: 1520:pharmaceuticals 1476:microbiological 1472:physicochemical 1388:which may help 1359: 1318: 1307: 1301: 1298: 1287: 1275: 1264: 1247:pricing systems 1223: 1191: 1178:reverse osmosis 1122: 1098:In the case of 1074:reverse osmosis 1070:forward osmosis 1058:ultrafiltration 1045: 1039: 1033: 1013: 1008: 953: 899:mission. Human 874: 865: 858: 854: 821: 781:reverse osmosis 765: 753: 729: 697:water resources 684: 676:food processing 644: 638: 605: 532:Soil compaction 511:Industrial uses 451: 431: 388:water resources 368: 350:Achieving more 270: 256:, United States 231: 190: 165:reuse systems, 140:reverse osmosis 136:forward osmosis 124:ultrafiltration 91:toilet flushing 71:water recycling 28: 23: 22: 18:Water recycling 15: 12: 11: 5: 7188: 7186: 7178: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7147: 7142: 7137: 7132: 7122: 7121: 7115: 7114: 7112: 7111: 7104: 7097: 7090: 7078: 7065: 7062: 7061: 7059: 7058: 7052: 7051:(Rio+20, 2012) 7046: 7040: 7035: 7029: 7023: 7018: 7013: 7007: 7002: 6994: 6989: 6981: 6979: 6973: 6972: 6970: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6918: 6916: 6910: 6909: 6907: 6906: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6816: 6811: 6806: 6805: 6804: 6799: 6797:Infrastructure 6794: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6727:Eco-capitalism 6724: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6699: 6694: 6688: 6686: 6682: 6681: 6679: 6678: 6673: 6672: 6671: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6651: 6644:Sustainability 6641: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6615: 6613: 6612:Accountability 6609: 6608: 6606: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6524: 6522: 6518: 6517: 6515: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6478: 6476: 6470: 6469: 6467: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6450: 6448: 6442: 6441: 6439: 6438: 6433: 6428: 6423: 6418: 6413: 6407: 6405: 6399: 6398: 6396: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6359: 6357: 6353: 6352: 6350: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6328: 6326: 6320: 6319: 6317: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6305: 6304: 6299: 6289: 6288: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6270:Sustainability 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6205:Anthropization 6201: 6199: 6193: 6192: 6190: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6169: 6164: 6158: 6156: 6150: 6149: 6147: 6146: 6141: 6135: 6132: 6131: 6128:Sustainability 6126: 6124: 6123: 6116: 6109: 6101: 6092: 6091: 6089: 6088: 6076: 6073: 6072: 6070: 6069: 6064: 6062:Surface runoff 6059: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6042:Sanitary sewer 6039: 6034: 6032:Marine outfall 6029: 6027:Marine dumping 6024: 6019: 6017:Injection well 6014: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5997:Combined sewer 5993: 5991: 5987: 5986: 5984: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5938: 5936:Settling basin 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5831:Aerated lagoon 5828: 5822: 5820: 5814: 5813: 5811: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5765: 5763:Coliform index 5760: 5755: 5750: 5744: 5742: 5736: 5735: 5733: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5705:Sanitary sewer 5702: 5697: 5692: 5690:Produced water 5687: 5682: 5677: 5672: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5642: 5637: 5635:Combined sewer 5632: 5627: 5622: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5596: 5594: 5590: 5589: 5584: 5582: 5581: 5574: 5567: 5559: 5550: 5549: 5547: 5546: 5534: 5529: 5528: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5497: 5486: 5483: 5482: 5480: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5409: 5404: 5399: 5397:Bottle cutting 5393: 5391: 5387: 5386: 5384: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5308: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5271:Land recycling 5268: 5263: 5258: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5233: 5228: 5223: 5218: 5212: 5210: 5206: 5205: 5203: 5202: 5197: 5196: 5195: 5188:United Kingdom 5185: 5180: 5175: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5155: 5150: 5145: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5124: 5122: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5094: 5089: 5084: 5078: 5076: 5072: 5071: 5069: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5033: 5028: 5023: 5018: 5017: 5016: 5006: 5001: 4999:Automotive oil 4996: 4990: 4988: 4982: 4981: 4974: 4972: 4970: 4969: 4964: 4959: 4954: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4934: 4929: 4924: 4919: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4893: 4891: 4885: 4884: 4879: 4877: 4876: 4869: 4862: 4854: 4847: 4846: 4834: 4822: 4820:Earth sciences 4810: 4776: 4775: 4773: 4772:External links 4770: 4769: 4768: 4761: 4756:Pearce, Fred. 4754: 4745: 4742: 4739: 4738: 4714: 4690: 4671:(5): 563–580. 4648: 4624: 4603: 4596: 4576: 4551:Water Research 4537: 4486: 4462: 4438: 4413: 4402:on 21 May 2014 4387: 4364: 4336: 4325:on 21 May 2014 4310: 4284:(5): 563–580. 4264: 4213: 4188: 4166: 4144: 4117: 4090: 4043: 4016: 3995: 3980: 3967: 3943: 3918: 3890: 3879: 3870: 3856: 3828: 3804: 3745: 3717: 3685: 3658: 3633: 3626: 3618:10.17226/13303 3598: 3591: 3571: 3564: 3540: 3491: 3480:(5): 563–580. 3460: 3417: 3392: 3365: 3332: 3316: 3288: 3270: 3245: 3234: 3201:Water Research 3187: 3161: 3130: 3119:on 5 July 2016 3104:(6): 321–338. 3081: 3018: 3000: 2959: 2939: 2914: 2889: 2865: 2848: 2837:(8): 455–479. 2820: 2813: 2805:10400.14/23023 2778: 2749:Sustainability 2732: 2658: 2619: 2605: 2577: 2549: 2523: 2499: 2482:on 2017-04-08. 2474: 2454: 2434: 2409: 2385: 2360: 2331:(2): 237–254. 2306: 2287:(5): 563–580. 2262: 2200: 2135: 2112: 2086: 2085: 2083: 2080: 2079: 2078: 2073: 2068: 2063: 2058: 2051: 2048: 2020:water scarcity 2008: 2000: 1998: 1995: 1975: 1967: 1965: 1962: 1906: 1898: 1896: 1893: 1884: 1876: 1874: 1871: 1827: 1819: 1817: 1814: 1812: 1809: 1794: 1791: 1790: 1789: 1785: 1782: 1779: 1776: 1773: 1770: 1767: 1764: 1759: 1756: 1755: 1754: 1744: 1741: 1720: 1712: 1665:usually using 1657: 1654: 1646: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1629: 1626:Soil pollution 1585: 1584:European Union 1582: 1581: 1580: 1577: 1571: 1563: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1554: 1553: 1550: 1547:eutrophication 1539: 1536:food additives 1468: 1461: 1454: 1358: 1355: 1320: 1319: 1278: 1276: 1269: 1263: 1262:Health aspects 1260: 1259: 1258: 1250: 1239:microorganisms 1230: 1222: 1219: 1204:climate change 1190: 1187: 1186: 1185: 1162: 1140: 1121: 1118: 1035:Main article: 1032: 1029: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1004: 952: 949: 931:also produces 873: 870: 864: 861: 856: 852: 820: 817: 764: 761: 757:cooling towers 752: 749: 728: 725: 701:water polluted 683: 680: 637: 634: 633: 632: 628: 609:drinking water 604: 601: 598: 597: 594:drinking water 590: 586: 585: 563: 559: 558: 544: 540: 539: 520:cooling towers 512: 508: 507: 492: 488: 487: 478:Irrigation of 476: 472: 471: 468: 455:cooling towers 450: 447: 430: 427: 407: 406: 398: 395: 384: 381:drinking water 367: 364: 360:sustainability 339:and improving 311: 310: 295: 292: 285: 282:water scarcity 269: 268:Driving forces 266: 230: 227: 213:or municipal, 200:water scarcity 189: 186: 173:, or seawater 95:drinking water 53:or sewage and 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7187: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7127: 7125: 7110: 7109: 7105: 7103: 7102: 7098: 7096: 7095: 7091: 7089: 7088: 7079: 7077: 7076: 7067: 7066: 7063: 7056: 7053: 7050: 7047: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7033: 7032:Earth Charter 7030: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6999: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6988: 6983: 6982: 6980: 6974: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6922:Environmental 6920: 6919: 6917: 6915: 6911: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6854:Refurbishment 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6844:Organizations 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6812: 6810: 6807: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6789: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6757:Green economy 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6742:Eco-socialism 6740: 6738: 6737:Eco-investing 6735: 6733: 6730: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6722:Disinvestment 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6689: 6687: 6683: 6677: 6674: 6670: 6667: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6646: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6616: 6614: 6610: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6543:Marine energy 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6525: 6523: 6519: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6497:Cultured meat 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6479: 6477: 6475: 6471: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6451: 6449: 6447: 6443: 6437: 6434: 6432: 6429: 6427: 6424: 6422: 6419: 6417: 6414: 6412: 6409: 6408: 6406: 6404: 6400: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6364: 6361: 6360: 6358: 6354: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6329: 6327: 6325: 6321: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6303: 6300: 6298: 6295: 6294: 6293: 6290: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6272: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6255:Simple living 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6202: 6200: 6198: 6194: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6173: 6170: 6168: 6165: 6163: 6160: 6159: 6157: 6155: 6151: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6136: 6133: 6129: 6122: 6117: 6115: 6110: 6108: 6103: 6102: 6099: 6087: 6078: 6077: 6074: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5994: 5992: 5988: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5926:Sedimentation 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5823: 5821: 5819: 5815: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5759: 5756: 5754: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5745: 5743: 5741: 5737: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5720:Sewage sludge 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5681: 5678: 5676: 5673: 5671: 5668: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5645:Cooling water 5643: 5641: 5640:Cooling tower 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5623: 5621: 5618: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5605:Ballast water 5603: 5601: 5598: 5597: 5595: 5591: 5587: 5580: 5575: 5573: 5568: 5566: 5561: 5560: 5557: 5545: 5544: 5535: 5533: 5530: 5526: 5525:organizations 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5507: 5506: 5498: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5487: 5484: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5442:Simple living 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5432:Pallet crafts 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5394: 5392: 5388: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5371:Waste picking 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5346: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5322: 5319: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5309: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5301:Repairability 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5269: 5267: 5264: 5262: 5259: 5257: 5254: 5252: 5251:Green economy 5249: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5237: 5234: 5232: 5229: 5227: 5224: 5222: 5219: 5217: 5214: 5213: 5211: 5207: 5201: 5200:United States 5198: 5194: 5191: 5190: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5169: 5166: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5119: 5113: 5112:Waste sorting 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5085: 5083: 5080: 5079: 5077: 5073: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5044: 5042: 5041:Mobile phones 5039: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5029: 5027: 5024: 5022: 5019: 5015: 5012: 5011: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4991: 4989: 4987: 4983: 4978: 4968: 4965: 4963: 4960: 4958: 4955: 4953: 4950: 4948: 4945: 4943: 4940: 4938: 4935: 4933: 4930: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4918: 4915: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4894: 4892: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4875: 4870: 4868: 4863: 4861: 4856: 4855: 4852: 4845: 4840: 4835: 4833: 4823: 4821: 4811: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4795: 4788: 4787: 4780: 4771: 4766: 4762: 4759: 4755: 4752: 4748: 4747: 4743: 4724: 4718: 4715: 4700: 4694: 4691: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4655: 4653: 4649: 4634: 4628: 4625: 4617: 4610: 4608: 4604: 4599: 4593: 4589: 4588: 4580: 4577: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4541: 4538: 4533: 4529: 4524: 4519: 4514: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4490: 4487: 4476: 4472: 4466: 4463: 4452: 4448: 4442: 4439: 4427: 4423: 4417: 4414: 4401: 4397: 4391: 4388: 4375: 4368: 4365: 4353: 4352: 4347: 4340: 4337: 4324: 4320: 4314: 4311: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4268: 4265: 4260: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4217: 4214: 4199: 4192: 4189: 4176: 4170: 4167: 4154: 4148: 4145: 4132: 4128: 4121: 4118: 4105: 4101: 4094: 4091: 4086: 4080: 4061: 4057: 4050: 4048: 4044: 4032:. USEPA. 2012 4028: 4027: 4020: 4017: 4005: 3999: 3996: 3991: 3984: 3981: 3977: 3971: 3968: 3957: 3953: 3947: 3944: 3932: 3928: 3922: 3919: 3906: 3899: 3897: 3895: 3891: 3888: 3883: 3880: 3874: 3871: 3859: 3857:9789279443992 3853: 3849: 3848:10.2788/29234 3845: 3841: 3840: 3832: 3829: 3814: 3808: 3805: 3800: 3796: 3791: 3790:10044/1/57005 3786: 3781: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3749: 3746: 3734: 3730: 3724: 3722: 3718: 3706: 3702: 3698: 3692: 3690: 3686: 3675: 3671: 3665: 3663: 3659: 3646: 3640: 3638: 3634: 3629: 3623: 3619: 3615: 3611: 3610: 3602: 3599: 3594: 3588: 3584: 3583: 3575: 3572: 3567: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3552: 3544: 3541: 3536: 3532: 3527: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3495: 3492: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3464: 3461: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3421: 3418: 3406: 3402: 3396: 3393: 3378: 3372: 3370: 3366: 3360: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3336: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3317: 3305: 3298: 3292: 3289: 3284: 3280: 3274: 3271: 3259: 3255: 3249: 3246: 3243: 3238: 3235: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3191: 3188: 3176: 3172: 3165: 3162: 3149: 3145: 3144:Distillations 3141: 3134: 3131: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3092: 3085: 3082: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3022: 3019: 3014: 3010: 3004: 3001: 2996: 2992: 2987: 2982: 2979:(21): 10355. 2978: 2974: 2970: 2963: 2960: 2955: 2954: 2946: 2944: 2940: 2924: 2918: 2915: 2903: 2899: 2893: 2890: 2875: 2869: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2852: 2849: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2824: 2821: 2816: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2782: 2779: 2773: 2772:10400.1/18203 2768: 2763: 2758: 2755:(17): 10715. 2754: 2750: 2746: 2739: 2737: 2733: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2716: 2711: 2706: 2702: 2698: 2694: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2662: 2659: 2647: 2640: 2634: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2626: 2624: 2620: 2608: 2606:9789279443992 2602: 2598: 2597:10.2788/29234 2594: 2590: 2589: 2581: 2578: 2566: 2559: 2553: 2550: 2534: 2527: 2524: 2509: 2503: 2500: 2495: 2489: 2481: 2477: 2471: 2467: 2466: 2458: 2455: 2451: 2445: 2443: 2441: 2439: 2435: 2424: 2420: 2419:"Water Reuse" 2413: 2410: 2399: 2395: 2389: 2386: 2375: 2371: 2364: 2361: 2356: 2352: 2347: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2322: 2315: 2313: 2311: 2307: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2271: 2269: 2267: 2263: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2241: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2201: 2196: 2192: 2187: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2154: 2146: 2144: 2142: 2140: 2136: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2102: 2098: 2091: 2088: 2081: 2077: 2074: 2072: 2069: 2067: 2064: 2062: 2059: 2057: 2054: 2053: 2049: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2016:Beaufort West 2013: 2005: 1996: 1994: 1988: 1984: 1979: 1972: 1963: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1903: 1894: 1888: 1881: 1872: 1868:, Queensland. 1867: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1835: 1831: 1824: 1815: 1810: 1808: 1804: 1800: 1792: 1786: 1783: 1780: 1777: 1774: 1771: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1761: 1757: 1751: 1747: 1746: 1742: 1737: 1733: 1728: 1726: 1725:Orange County 1717: 1711: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1696: 1692: 1690: 1686: 1685:San Francisco 1683:was built at 1682: 1678: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1663: 1656:United States 1655: 1653: 1651: 1643: 1640: 1637: 1634: 1630: 1627: 1623: 1622: 1621: 1618: 1613: 1609: 1606: 1601: 1599: 1594: 1592: 1583: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1565: 1561: 1556: 1551: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1537: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1501: 1497: 1493: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1473: 1469: 1466: 1462: 1459: 1455: 1453:determinants; 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1427:Contamination 1425: 1424: 1423: 1420: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1374: 1368: 1363: 1356: 1354: 1352: 1347: 1342: 1338: 1336: 1332: 1326: 1316: 1313: 1305: 1295: 1291: 1285: 1284: 1279:This section 1277: 1273: 1268: 1267: 1261: 1256: 1251: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1236: 1231: 1228: 1227: 1226: 1220: 1218: 1216: 1215:storage tanks 1212: 1207: 1205: 1200: 1196: 1195:potable water 1188: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1160: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1137:flush toilets 1134: 1131: 1130: 1129: 1127: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1107: 1105: 1101: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1085: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1044: 1038: 1030: 1028: 1026: 1017: 1010: 1005: 1003: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 968: 966: 962: 958: 950: 948: 945: 941: 936: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 914: 910: 906: 902: 898: 895:and a crewed 894: 890: 887: 883: 879: 871: 869: 862: 860: 850: 844: 842: 837: 835: 829: 827: 818: 816: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 797:human excreta 794: 789: 784: 782: 777: 773: 769: 762: 760: 758: 750: 748: 746: 742: 738: 734: 726: 724: 722: 717: 714: 710: 704: 702: 698: 693: 689: 681: 679: 677: 672: 667: 665: 662:contained in 661: 657: 652: 648: 643: 635: 629: 626: 622: 621: 620: 617: 615: 610: 602: 595: 591: 588: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 567: 564: 561: 560: 556: 552: 548: 545: 542: 541: 537: 533: 529: 525: 521: 517: 516:Cooling water 513: 510: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 490: 489: 485: 481: 477: 474: 473: 469: 466: 465: 462: 460: 456: 448: 446: 444: 439: 437: 428: 426: 424: 420: 416: 412: 403: 399: 396: 393: 389: 385: 382: 378: 374: 373: 372: 365: 363: 361: 357: 356:excreta reuse 353: 348: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 317: 314: 308: 304: 300: 296: 293: 290: 289:food security 286: 283: 279: 278: 277: 275: 267: 265: 263: 255: 250: 243: 239: 235: 228: 226: 224: 220: 216: 212: 208: 203: 201: 196: 187: 185: 183: 178: 176: 172: 168: 164: 160: 156: 155:potable water 151: 149: 145: 141: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 111: 109: 105: 101: 96: 92: 88: 84: 80: 79:surface water 76: 72: 68: 64: 60: 56: 52: 48: 41: 37: 32: 19: 7170:Water supply 7106: 7099: 7092: 7085: 7073: 6997: 6762:Construction 6685:Applications 6562: 6403:Biodiversity 6162:Anthropocene 6067:Vacuum sewer 6036: 5951:Sewer mining 5901:Ion exchange 5851:Chlorination 5773:Heavy metals 5730:Urban runoff 5670:Ion exchange 5650:Fecal sludge 5541: 5402:Cogeneration 5231:Durable good 4966: 4784: 4764: 4757: 4750: 4729:. 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