1632:
itself, entering the water behind the main thrust of the flow driving the wheel, followed by the lift of the wheel out of the water ahead of the main thrust, actually impedes its own operation. The overshot wheel solves this problem by bringing the water flow to the top of the wheel. The water fills buckets built into the wheel, rather than the simple paddle wheel design of undershot wheels. As the buckets fill, the weight of the water starts to turn the wheel. The water spills out of the bucket on the down side into a spillway leading back to river. Since the wheel itself is set above the spillway, the water never impedes the speed of the wheel. The impulse of the water on the wheel is also harnessed in addition to the weight of the water once in the buckets. Overshot wheels require the construction of a dam on the river above the mill and a more elaborate millpond, sluice gate, mill race and spillway or tailrace.
726:
1499:
1475:
672:
1527:
1511:
696:
1487:
684:
1728:. This mill might be of any kind, undershot, overshot or horizontal but it does not employ a river for its power source. Instead a mole or causeway is built across the mouth of a small bay. At low tide, gates in the mole are opened allowing the bay to fill with the incoming tide. At high tide the gates are closed, trapping the water inside. At a certain point a sluice gate in the mole can be opened allowing the draining water to drive a mill wheel or wheels. This is particularly effective in places where the tidal differential is very great, such as the
1134:
1570:) known as a stone nut, which was attached to the shaft that drove the runner stone. The number of runner stones that could be turned depended directly upon the supply of water available. As waterwheel technology improved mills became more efficient, and by the 19th century, it was common for the great spur wheel to drive several stone nuts, so that a single water wheel could drive as many as four stones. Each step in the process increased the gear ratio which increased the maximum speed of the runner stone. Adjusting the
1028:
1772:
496:
718:
1382:
64:
52:
634:. So-called 'Greek Mills' used water wheels with a horizontal wheel (and vertical shaft). A "Roman Mill" features a vertical wheel (on a horizontal shaft). Greek style mills are the older and simpler of the two designs, but only operate well with high water velocities and with small diameter millstones. Roman style mills are more complicated as they require gears to transmit the power from a shaft with a horizontal axis to one with a vertical axis.
1612:
1594:
569:
1088:(618–907 AD) 'Ordinances of the Department of Waterways' written in 737 AD stated that watermills should not interrupt riverine transport and in some cases were restricted to use in certain seasons of the year. From other Tang-era sources of the 8th century, it is known that these ordinances were taken very seriously, as the government demolished many watermills owned by great families, merchants, and
1656:
1866:
1784:
1344:
241:
1363:
1435:). The force of the water's movement drives the blades of a wheel or turbine, which in turn rotates an axle that drives the mill's other machinery. Water leaving the wheel or turbine is drained through a tail race, but this channel may also be the head race of yet another wheel, turbine or mill. The passage of water is controlled by
1851:
1841:
In some developing countries, watermills are still widely used for processing grain. For example, there are thought to be 25,000 operating in Nepal, and 200,000 in India. Many of these are still of the traditional style, but some have been upgraded by replacing wooden parts with better-designed metal
847:
In a 2005 survey the scholar Adam Lucas identified the following first appearances of various industrial mill types in
Western Europe. Noticeable is the preeminent role of France in the introduction of new innovative uses of waterpower. However, he has drawn attention to the dearth of studies of the
2378:
The translation of this word is crucial to the interpretation of the passage. Traditionally, it has been translated as 'spoke' (e.g. Reynolds, p. 17), but Lewis (p. 66) points out that, while its primary meaning is 'ray' (as a sunbeam), its only concrete meaning is 'cog'. Since a horizontal-wheeled
1762:
wheels the mills are mostly on the banks of sizeable rivers or fast flowing streams. Other watermills were set beneath large bridges where the flow of water between the stanchions was faster. At one point London bridge had so many water wheels beneath it that bargemen complained that passage through
1631:
The overshot wheel was a later innovation in waterwheels and was around two and a half times more efficient than the undershot. The undershot wheel, in which the main water wheel is simply set into the flow of the mill race, suffers from an inherent inefficiency stemming from the fact that the wheel
1446:
Watermills can be divided into two kinds, one with a horizontal water wheel on a vertical axle, and the other with a vertical wheel on a horizontal axle. The oldest of these were horizontal mills in which the force of the water, striking a simple paddle wheel set horizontally in line with the flow
772:
alone. Later research estimates a less conservative number of 6,082 that should be considered a minimum as the northern reaches of
England were never properly recorded. In 1300, this number had risen to between 10,000 and 15,000. By the early 7th century, watermills were also well established in
1795:
In 1870 watermills still produced 2/3 of the power available for
British grain milling. By the early 20th century, availability of cheap electrical energy made the watermill obsolete in developed countries although some smaller rural mills continued to operate commercially later throughout the
166:
mechanism, and the other equipped with a horizontal waterwheel without such a mechanism. The former type can be further subdivided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into undershot, overshot, breastshot and pitchback (backshot or reverse shot) waterwheel mills. Another way to
1635:
An inherent problem in the overshot mill is that it reverses the rotation of the wheel. If a miller wishes to convert a breastshot mill to an overshot wheel all the machinery in the mill has to be rebuilt to take account of the change in rotation. An alternative solution was the pitchback or
3020:
1549:
However, in corn mills rotation about a vertical axis was required to drive its stones. The horizontal rotation was converted into the vertical rotation by means of gearing, which also enabled the runner stones to turn faster than the waterwheel. The usual arrangement in
British and American
1401:
1459:
Most watermills in
Britain and the United States of America had a vertical waterwheel, one of four kinds: undershot, breast-shot, overshot and pitchback wheels. This vertical produced rotary motion around a horizontal axis, which could be used (with cams) to lift hammers in a
1455:
which is atop a shaft leading directly up from the wheel. The bedstone does not turn. The problem with this type of mill arose from the lack of gearing; the speed of the water directly set the maximum speed of the runner stone which, in turn, set the rate of milling.
1192:
The industrial uses of watermills in the
Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled watermills were both in widespread use by the 9th century. A variety of industrial watermills were used in the Islamic world, including
220:
mechanism, and the other equipped with a horizontal-waterwheel without such a mechanism. The former type can be further divided, depending on where the water hits the wheel paddles, into undershot, overshot, breastshot and reverse shot waterwheel mills.
637:
Although to date only a few dozen Roman mills are archaeologically traced, the widespread use of aqueducts in the period suggests that many remain to be discovered. Recent excavations in Roman London, for example, have uncovered what appears to be a
1581:
In many mills (including the earliest) the great spur wheel turned only one stone, but there might be several mills under one roof. The earliest illustration of a single waterwheel driving more than one set of stones was drawn by
283:(ca. 280−220 BC). The British historian of technology M.J.T. Lewis has shown that those portions of Philo of Byzantium's mechanical treatise which describe water wheels and which have been previously regarded as later
1067:
speculates that the water-powered millstone could have existed in Han China by the 1st century AD, there is no sufficient literary evidence for it until the 5th century AD. In 488 AD, the mathematician and engineer
1124:
According to Greek historical tradition, India received water-mills from the Roman Empire in the early 4th century AD when a certain
Metrodoros introduced "water-mills and baths, unknown among them till then".
1498:
1574:
and thus the flow of the water past the main wheel allowed the miller to compensate for seasonal variations in the water supply. Finer speed adjustment was made during the milling process by
1510:
695:
1474:
671:
1486:
683:
1331:
More than 300 watermills were at work in Iran till 1960. Now only a few are still working. One of the famous ones is the water mill of Askzar and the water mill of the
3142:
1640:
was placed at the end of the flume on the headrace, this turned the direction of the water without much loss of energy, and the direction of rotation was maintained.
2966:
Adam Robert, Lucas (2005). "Industrial
Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe".
2916:
Adam Robert, Lucas (2005). "Industrial
Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe".
526:. Further sawmills, also powered by crank and connecting rod mechanisms, are archaeologically attested for the 6th century AD water-powered stone sawmills at
1443:
control; large mill complexes may have dozens of sluices controlling complicated interconnected races that feed multiple buildings and industrial processes.
797:
In recent years, a number of new archaeological finds has consecutively pushed back the date of the earliest tide mills, all of which were discovered on the
1652:
is an example of a flour mill that originally used a breastshot wheel, but was converted to use a pitchback wheel. Today it operates as a breastshot mill.
1141:(1878–1880). The rectangular water mill has a thatched roof and traditional design with a small horizontal mill-house built of stone or perhaps mud bricks.
2178:
Maaß, Anna-Lisa; Schüttrumpf, Holger (2019). "Elevated floodplains and net channel incision as a result of the construction and removal of water mills".
3501:
Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), "A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a
Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications",
2758:
Adam Robert Lucas, 'Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe',
1257:
as a source of water, used to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Fulling mills, and steel mills may have spread from
3568:
2892:(Historiarum compendium), a certain Metrodoros who went to India in c. AD 325 "constructed water-mills and baths, unknown among them till then".
1276:
to take advantage of the increased flow. Another solution was the ship mill, a type of watermill powered by water wheels mounted on the sides of
515:
1578:, that is, adjusting the gap between the stones according to the water flow, the type of grain being milled, and the grade of flour required.
3397:
3378:
3327:
3309:
3240:
3125:
3064:
1268:
The engineers of the Islamic world used several solutions to achieve the maximum output from a watermill. One solution was to mount them to
3405:, Estuarine/ Alluvial Archaeology in Ireland. Towards Best Practice, University College Dublin and National Roads Authority, archived from
2434:
3389:
Economia ed Energia, Seccoli XIII - XVIII, Atti delle 'Settimane di Studi' e Altrie Convegni, Istituto Internazionale di Storia Economica
3004:
1916:
were, until the introduction of the steam engine, almost invariably water powered. Furnaces and Forges were sometimes called iron mills.
3653:
665:
cut off the water supply for those mills. These floating mills had a wheel that was attached to a boat moored in a fast flowing river.
178:
Watermills impact the river dynamics of the watercourses where they are installed. During the time watermills operate channels tend to
3387:
Munro, John H. (2003), "Industrial energy from water-mills in the European economy, 5th to 18th Centuries: the limitations of power",
1405:
162:
One major way to classify watermills is by wheel orientation (vertical or horizontal), one powered by a vertical waterwheel through a
3692:
3559:
3519:
3494:
3479:
3462:
3444:
3425:
3362:
3345:
3289:
3222:
3169:
1800:
712:
1842:
ones to improve the efficiency. For example, the Centre for Rural Technology in Nepal upgraded 2,400 mills between 2003 and 2007.
584:. The tangential water inflow of the millrace made the horizontal wheel in the shaft turn like a true turbine, the earliest known.
1080:(581–618 AD) was said to operate hundreds of them by the beginning of the 6th century. A source written in 612 AD mentions
725:
3677:
1835:
3687:
3249:
Donners, K.; Waelkens, M.; Deckers, J. (2002), "Water Mills in the Area of Sagalassos: A Disappearing Ancient Technology",
1048:
3582:
2734:
1526:
194:
increase. Over time however these effects are cancelled by river banks becoming higher. Where mills have been removed,
3682:
1587:
1367:
1221:. By the 11th century, every province throughout the Islamic world had these industrial watermills in operation, from
43:
3189:
1133:
1186:
442:
319:
235:
1815:
in the UK still operate for demonstration purposes. Small-scale commercial production is carried out in the UK at
1562:, mounted on a vertical shaft, which turns the (larger) great spur wheel (mounted on the same shaft). This large
1073:
777:. A century later they began to spread across the former Roman Rhine and Danube frontier into the other parts of
375:
2420:
Kevin Greene, "Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered",
2005:
1816:
1641:
1097:
261:
386:
Hold back your hand from the mill, you grinding girls; even if the cockcrow heralds the dawn, sleep on. For
264:
invented the two main components of watermills, the waterwheel and toothed gearing, and used, along with the
3418:
Science and Civilisation in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology; Part 2, Mechanical Engineering
2024:
used water not only for motive power, but also required it in large quantities in the manufacturing process.
1952:
1812:
1733:
1138:
1093:
1027:
1394:
1154:
839:
horsepower (650 W) at its peak. Remains of an earlier mill dated at 619 were also found at the site.
818:
630:
The Romans used both fixed and floating water wheels and introduced water power to other provinces of the
341:
1736:. The last two examples in the United Kingdom which are restored to working conditions can be visited at
741:
The surviving evidence for watermills sharply increases with the emergence of documentary genres such as
1995:
1956:
2954:
717:
495:
2189:
1745:
1280:
829:. Its millstones are 830 mm in diameter and the horizontal wheel is estimated to have developed
489:
382:
mill around 20 BC/10 AD. He praised for its use in grinding grain and the reduction of human labour:
56:
359:
has the first technical description of a watermill, dated to 40/10 BC; the device is fitted with an
3672:
2888:
This is also the period when water-mills started to spread outside the former Empire. According to
2180:
1804:
1771:
814:
761:
757:
199:
3406:
2379:
corn mill does not need gearing (and hence has no cogs), the mill must have been vertical-wheeled.
1100:(r. 712–756 AD) owned a watermill by 748 AD which employed five waterwheels that ground 300
17:
3603:
3595:
3270:
3262:
2983:
2933:
2205:
2128:
2001:
1919:
817:. Alongside it, another tide mill was found which was powered by a vertical undershot wheel. The
601:
500:
418:
280:
3399:
Excavations of a Mill at Killoteran, Co. Waterford as Part of the N-25 Waterford By-Pass Project
2258:
M. J. T. Lewis, Millstone and Hammer: the origins of water power (University of Hull Press 1997)
1381:
63:
2438:
2075:
1555:
642:
together with a possible sequence of mills worked by an aqueduct running along the side of the
51:
3555:
3538:
3515:
3490:
3475:
3458:
3440:
3432:
3421:
3374:
3358:
3341:
3323:
3305:
3285:
3236:
3218:
3121:
3060:
3001:
1893:
1824:
1559:
1534:
1056:
519:
504:
183:
3650:
394:, who leaping down upon the topmost part of the wheel, rotate its axle; with encircling cogs,
3587:
3254:
2975:
2925:
2197:
2148:
2039:
1371:
1150:
1109:
1089:
1052:
826:
822:
554:
461:
per day, sufficient to supply enough bread for the 12,500 inhabitants occupying the town of
1400:
789:, both of which yet unattested for the ancient period, were introduced in the 6th century.
3657:
3371:
Harnessing the Tides: The Early Medieval Tide Mills at Nendrum Monastery, Strangford Lough
3193:
3008:
2133:
2069:
1737:
1352:
1261:
to Christian Spain in the 12th century. Industrial watermills were also employed in large
756:. These were more inclined to address watermilling, a mostly rural work process, than the
616:
551:
413:
300:
284:
96:
3571:(1995), "Water-Power in North Africa and the Development of the Horizontal Water-Wheel",
3173:
2955:
Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part II: Transmission Of Islamic Engineering
2193:
1554:
has been for the waterwheel to turn a horizontal shaft on which is also mounted a large
1419:
or mill pond to a turbine or water wheel, along a channel or pipe (variously known as a
2950:
1820:
1664:
1660:
1649:
1611:
1605:
1597:
1593:
1583:
1504:
Pitchback water wheel, often used to increase the power generated by a breastshot wheel
1214:
1064:
769:
523:
508:
478:
288:
195:
39:
3143:"Back to the grind: historic mills boosted by flour shortage during Covid-19 lockdown"
568:
3666:
3607:
3298:
3274:
2987:
2937:
2209:
2065:
1944:
1905:
1386:
1242:
1008:
994:
765:
605:
589:
450:
179:
92:
1708:
encouraged some mill owners to replace over- and undershot wheels with Pelton wheel
1681:
that is mounted near the outer edge of the wheel. This drives the machinery using a
216:
There are two basic types of watermills, one powered by a vertical-waterwheel via a
3210:
3147:
2106:
2045:
2035:
1962:
1909:
1855:
1729:
1705:
1465:
1461:
1448:
1234:
1226:
1085:
1032:
889:
631:
562:
449:
has been described as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the
427:
265:
245:
156:
152:
140:
3554:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 371–400,
3510:
Rynne, Colin (2000), "Waterpower in Medieval Ireland", in Squatriti, Paolo (ed.),
3457:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden: Brill, pp. 217–302,
3103:
2201:
1655:
764:
times, references to watermills had become "innumerable" in Frankish records. The
404:. If we learn to feast toil-free on the fruits of the earth, we taste again the
271:
The earliest evidence of a water-driven wheel appears in the technical treatises
3640:
3528:
2562:
2143:
2027:
1948:
1936:
1865:
1783:
1616:
1571:
1230:
1077:
1069:
1040:
1039:
The waterwheel was found in China from 30 AD onwards, when it was used to power
810:
802:
749:
643:
485:
435:
423:
379:
360:
315:
307:
296:
253:
211:
148:
107:. Such processes are needed in the production of many material goods, including
88:
35:
3514:, Technology and Change in History, vol. 3, Leiden: Brill, pp. 1–50,
1035:(960–1127) water-powered mill for dehusking grain with a horizontal wheel
2138:
2123:
2096:
2021:
1899:
1831:
1808:
1788:
1732:
in Canada where the tides can rise fifty feet, or the now derelict village of
1563:
1258:
1238:
1222:
1210:
1206:
1146:
1060:
957:
753:
662:
658:
405:
349:
337:
322:
240:
191:
163:
144:
136:
84:
68:
3437:
Greek and Roman Mechanical Water-Lifting Devices: The History of a Technology
3033:
Webster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged
295:
is, already fully developed, for the first time attested in a 2nd-century BC
3541:(1985), "Archaeological Evidence for Early Water-Mills. An Interim Report",
2738:
2031:
2015:
1991:
1972:
1881:
1759:
1741:
1725:
1694:
1678:
1551:
1424:
1312:
1292:
1284:
1218:
1194:
855:
First Appearance of Various Industrial Mills in Medieval Europe, AD 770-1443
806:
786:
782:
742:
730:
654:
650:
639:
609:
466:
401:
356:
311:
249:
172:
168:
128:
2979:
2929:
2004:
for scouring needles during manufacture were mostly water-powered (such as
604:, dating to the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. A possible water-powered
3215:
Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation
3186:
1827:. This was boosted to overcome flour shortages during the Covid pandemic.
701:
Breastshot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 3rd century AD
30:
This article is about a type of structure. For other locational uses, see
2889:
2153:
2087:
2068:
were used for slitting bars of iron into rods, which were then made into
2011:
1955:
were initially used to increase the water flow to the wheel, then as the
1913:
1713:
1671:
1620:
1601:
1516:
Breastshot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 3rd century AD
1452:
1432:
558:
543:
474:
368:
3233:
A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD)
1480:
Undershot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 1st century BC
1362:
1343:
1092:
that failed to acknowledge ordinances or meet government regulations. A
677:
Undershot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 1st century BC
3599:
3266:
2051:
1940:
1885:
1874:
1776:
1749:
1709:
1690:
1645:
1492:
Overshot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 1st century BC
1356:
1348:
1320:
1316:
1262:
1250:
1202:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1081:
1044:
970:
798:
778:
774:
745:
689:
Overshot water wheel, applied for watermilling since the 1st century BC
620:
597:
593:
581:
577:
573:
547:
539:
531:
431:
398:
387:
132:
120:
100:
31:
3586:, vol. 92, The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 92, pp. 1–32,
3453:
Oleson, John Peter (2000), "Water-Lifting", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.),
561:, demonstrating a diversified use of water-power in many parts of the
2083:
2079:
2059:
2055:
1930:
1923:
1870:
1859:
1436:
1375:
1288:
1273:
1198:
1166:
1162:
1101:
624:
535:
527:
446:
345:
329:
112:
104:
3591:
3550:
Wikander, Örjan (2000), "The Water-Mill", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.),
3258:
2735:"Recently discovered Tide Mill from 787 AD at Nendrum Monastic Site"
1153:, having been applied for centuries in those provinces prior to the
615:
Mills were commonly used for grinding grain into flour (attested by
167:
classify water mills is by an essential trait about their location:
2869:
2867:
2848:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2840:
2706:
2704:
2474:
2472:
1850:
1265:
complexes built in al-Andalus between the 11th and 13th centuries.
457:
mills. The capacity of the mills has been estimated at 4.5 tons of
453:". It featured 16 overshot waterwheels to power an equal number of
3580:
Wilson, Andrew (2002), "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy",
3487:
Stronger Than a Hundred Men: A History of the Vertical Water Wheel
3300:
The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages
2110:
2090:
1984:
1980:
1864:
1849:
1782:
1770:
1698:
1674:
1654:
1610:
1592:
1542:
1538:
1525:
1440:
1420:
1412:
1399:
1390:
1380:
1361:
1342:
1182:
1158:
1132:
1113:
1105:
1104:
of wheat a day. By 610 or 670 AD, the watermill was introduced to
1026:
734:
716:
567:
494:
462:
458:
454:
391:
364:
292:
239:
187:
124:
116:
108:
62:
50:
3645:
3209:
Burns, Robert I. (1996), "Paper comes to the West, 800−1400", in
3187:
Ashden Awards case study on upgrading of watermills by CRT/Nepal
1889:
1686:
1682:
1567:
1428:
1332:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1277:
1269:
1246:
518:
is the earliest known machine to incorporate the mechanism of a
470:
217:
503:, the earliest known machine to incorporate the mechanism of a
426:
operating in the greater part of Italy. There is evidence of a
3635:
2100:
1416:
1308:
1254:
3217:(4th ed.), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, pp. 413–422,
1685:
mounted on a shaft rather than taking power from the central
3625:
1566:, set with pegs, in turn, turned a smaller wheel (such as a
550:. They also seem to be indicated about the same time by the
367:. He also seems to indicate the existence of water-powered
2424:, New Series, Vol. 53, No. 1. (Feb., 2000), pp. 29-59 (39)
1237:. Muslim and Middle Eastern Christian engineers also used
1149:
adopted watermill technology from former provinces of the
3472:
Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-year History
2691:
2689:
1969:
mills were used for a finishing process on woollen cloth.
1704:
Toward the end of the 19th century, the invention of the
1689:. However, the basic mode of operation remains the same;
314:
in the first half of the 3rd century BC, and that of the
3630:
3021:
Conference of Qanat in Iran - water clock in Persia 1383
2783:
Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, pp. 390–392
850:
488:
mill dating to the late 2nd century AD was excavated at
3620:
3391:, vol. 34, no. 1, F. Datini, pp. 223–269
1758:
schemes do not divert water at all and usually involve
268:, undershot, overshot and breastshot waterwheel mills.
2525:
2357:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2324:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2283:
2230:
1084:
arguing over the revenues gained from watermills. The
3631:
The Society for the Preservation of Old Mills (SPOOM)
3059:. Newbury, Berks: Countryside Books. pp. 20–31.
2459:
2457:
2455:
2173:
2171:
2169:
465:
at that time. A similar mill complex existed on the
3651:
Windmills and watermills of the East Grinstead area
3170:"Water Mill Battery Charger (Nepal Ghatta Project)"
2513:
2511:
1076:(r. 482–493 AD). The engineer Yang Su of the
175:are water mills onboard (and constituting) a ship.
3297:
2490:
2478:
3474:, The MIT Press; Reprint edition (July 1, 1991).
3338:Mills in the Medieval Economy: England, 1300-1540
2181:Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography
1439:gates that allow maintenance and some measure of
3355:Millstone and Hammer: the origins of water power
3120:. USA: University of Chicago Press. p. 22.
2861:Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 400–401.
2834:Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 396–400.
2722:
768:, compiled in 1086, records 5,624 watermills in
287:interpolations, actually date back to the Greek
2886:
1072:had a watermill erected which was inspected by
1063:). Although the British chemist and sinologist
384:
306:Lewis assigns the date of the invention of the
252:. The millstone (upper floor) is powered by an
38:. For further details of the technologies, see
3626:The International Molinological Society (TIMS)
2825:Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 88–89.
1830:Some old mills are being upgraded with modern
1137:An Afghan water mill photographed during the
1051:, and in one case, to mechanically rotate an
390:has imposed the labours of your hands on the
8:
3621:Mill database with over 10000 European mills
2813:
2792:
1939:were driven by water. The power was used to
813:tide mill dating to c. 630 was excavated on
256:by the way of a gear mechanism (lower floor)
27:Structure that uses a water wheel or turbine
3369:McErlean, Thomas; Crothers, Norman (2007),
2048:shaped metal by passing it between rollers.
1994:prior to the introduction of the cupola (a
1902:were used for sharpening newly made blades.
1834:technology, such as those worked on by the
760:urban-centered literary class had been. By
3078:
3076:
1404:The interior of a functional watermill at
3489:. (Johns Hopkins University Press 1983).
1959:progressed, to directly drive the shafts.
805:tide mill was located at Killoteran near
3050:
3048:
2903:
2882:
2695:
2669:
2657:
2609:
2585:
2573:
2537:
2521:
2463:
2408:
2392:
2388:
2353:
2336:
2320:
2303:
2299:
2279:
2234:
1287:. This technique was employed along the
724:
340:to have existed near the palace of king
127:products. These watermills may comprise
2645:
2633:
2165:
1470:
667:
534:. Literary references to water-powered
477:important enough to be included in the
34:. For details of the technologies, see
2873:Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 401.
2852:Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 400.
2804:Needham (1986), Volume 4, Part 2, 370.
2762:, Vol. 46, (Jan. 2005), pp. 1-30 (17).
2681:
2621:
2597:
2517:
2502:
2396:
2287:
2267:
2246:
2226:
2222:
1943:the raw cotton, and then to drive the
1933:and rugs were sometimes water-powered.
1892:to produce a coarse powder for use in
821:from 787 was situated on an island in
516:Hierapolis water-powered stone sawmill
248:water-powered grain mill described by
95:to drive a mechanical process such as
3512:Working with Water in Medieval Europe
2771:
2710:
2563:Rob Spain: A possible Roman Tide Mill
1724:A different type of watermill is the
7:
3552:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology
3455:Handbook of Ancient Water Technology
3373:, Belfast: Stationery Office Books,
2526:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
2358:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
2325:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
2284:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
2231:Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002
1411:Typically, water is diverted from a
848:subject in several other countries.
473:'s population was judged by emperor
3340:, Oxford: Oxford University Press,
3104:Dictionary definition of "tailrace"
3092:A Course of Experimental Philosophy
3057:The Industrial Revolution explained
3636:U.S. mill pictures and information
3304:, London: Penguin (Non-Classics),
1677:wheels) transmit the power from a
1406:Weald and Downland Open Air Museum
397:it turns the hollow weight of the
25:
18:Watermill in the Greco-Roman world
3357:, University of Hull Press 1997.
3141:Partridge, Joanna (7 June 2020).
1799:A few historic mills such as the
1586:in 1723 and published in 1744 by
1299:, where large ship mills made of
713:List of early medieval watermills
443:multiple mill complex of Barbegal
3545:, vol. 10, pp. 151–179
3505:, vol. 20, pp. 138–163
3322:, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers,
3282:The Scottish Miller 1700 - 1900.
3094:II (1744; 1763 edition), 449-53.
2491:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007
2479:Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007
2103:, usually from non-ferrous mines
1509:
1497:
1485:
1473:
1249:in watermills and water-raising
694:
682:
670:
469:hill, whose supply of flour for
87:. It is a structure that uses a
3575:, vol. 8, pp. 499–510
3439:, University of Toronto Press,
3253:, vol. 52, pp. 1–17,
2713:, pp. 10, fig. 1.2, 17, 49
1836:South Somerset Hydropower Group
1366:Roblin's Mill, a watermill, at
363:and power is transmitted via a
3641:Watermills in Norfolk, England
2018:might be wind or water-powered
1697:through the motion of flowing
422:of around 70 AD water-powered
190:and sedimentation of adjacent
186:. Also in the backwater area,
171:use the movement of the tide;
1:
3320:The Mills of Medieval England
3235:, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill,
2202:10.1080/04353676.2019.1574209
2113:were sometimes water-powered.
2109:for spinning yarn or weaving
1926:and other textile industries.
1670:Larger water wheels (usually
1335:city, still producing flour.
653:were ingeniously used by the
3583:The Journal of Roman Studies
3573:Journal of Roman Archaeology
3529:"A possible Roman Tide Mill"
3503:Journal of Roman Archaeology
2723:McErlean & Crothers 2007
1990:Lead was usually smelted in
1922:made wooden bobbins for the
1627:Overshot and pitchback mills
310:mill to the Greek colony of
71:watermill, UK (14th century)
3646:Mills in Hampshire, England
3533:Kent Archaeological Society
3420:. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
3231:de Crespigny, Rafe (2007),
2422:The Economic History Review
2042:were usually water-powered.
1659:A breastshot waterwheel at
1368:Black Creek Pioneer Village
3709:
2672:, pp. 379 & 383f.
1763:the bridge was impaired.
1187:List of ancient watermills
1112:. It also became known in
853:
843:Survey of industrial mills
710:
619:), but industrial uses as
236:List of ancient watermills
233:
209:
29:
3531:, Paper submitted to the
3416:Needham, Joseph. (1986).
2435:"La meunerie de Barbegal"
1074:Emperor Wu of Southern Qi
481:in the late 3rd century.
376:Antipater of Thessalonica
3693:Sustainable technologies
2006:Forge Mill Needle Museum
1929:Carpet mills for making
1431:, leet, lade (Scots) or
1098:Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
1057:astronomical observation
412:The Roman encyclopedist
374:The Greek epigrammatist
59:, Belgium (12th century)
3396:Murphy, Donald (2005),
3118:Diet for a large planet
1888:, from oak or chestnut
1734:Tide Mills, East Sussex
1558:. This meshes with the
1295:rivers in 10th-century
1157:, including modern-day
1139:Second Anglo-Afghan War
608:has been identified at
3678:Agricultural buildings
3336:Langdon, John (2004),
3318:Holt, Richard (1988),
3280:Gauldie, Enid (1981).
3040:, n. A leat; a flume.
3002:Mechanical Engineering
2980:10.1353/tech.2005.0026
2968:Technology and Culture
2930:10.1353/tech.2005.0026
2918:Technology and Culture
2894:
2760:Technology and Culture
1877:
1862:
1813:The Darley Mill Centre
1792:
1780:
1667:
1623:
1608:
1546:
1464:, fulling stocks in a
1408:
1397:
1395:Bosnia and Herzegovina
1378:
1359:
1142:
1036:
819:Nendrum Monastery mill
738:
722:
585:
511:
410:
342:Mithradates VI Eupator
279:of the Greek engineer
257:
72:
60:
42:. For other uses, see
3688:Hydraulic engineering
3543:History of Technology
3296:Gimpel, Jean (1977),
3116:Otter, Chris (2020).
2612:, p. 170, fn. 45
1996:reverberatory furnace
1957:Industrial Revolution
1868:
1853:
1786:
1774:
1658:
1614:
1596:
1529:
1403:
1384:
1365:
1346:
1136:
1030:
924:Tool-sharpening mill
801:coast: A 6th century
728:
720:
711:Further information:
661:, when the besieging
571:
498:
378:tells of an advanced
328:The Greek geographer
243:
234:Further information:
66:
54:
3055:Yorke, Stan (2005).
2229:, pp. 217–302;
1869:Former watermill in
1679:toothed annular ring
1145:Engineers under the
1116:by at least 641 AD.
546:4th century AD poem
538:saws in what is now
499:Scheme of the Roman
490:Les Martres-de-Veyre
254:undershot waterwheel
83:is a mill that uses
3485:Reynolds, Terry S.
2270:, pp. 234, 270
2225:, pp. 325ff.;
2194:2019GeAnA.101..157M
1821:Little Salkeld Mill
627:were also applied.
514:The 3rd century AD
441:The 2nd century AD
355:The Roman engineer
230:Classical antiquity
3683:Ancient inventions
3656:2016-12-27 at the
3433:Oleson, John Peter
3284:Pub. John Donald.
3192:2008-04-30 at the
3007:2007-12-25 at the
2906:, pp. 158−162
2698:, pp. 155–157
2520:, pp. 507f.;
2493:, pp. 149–153
2323:, pp. 373f.;
2282:, pp. 396f.;
2237:, pp. 371−400
2233:, pp. 10−15;
2129:List of watermills
1878:
1863:
1793:
1781:
1668:
1636:backshot wheel. A
1624:
1609:
1547:
1409:
1398:
1385:Watermills on the
1379:
1360:
1315:every day for the
1143:
1037:
983:Ore-crushing mill
811:horizontal-wheeled
739:
723:
721:Medieval watermill
602:Roman North Africa
592:mill was found in
586:
512:
501:Hierapolis sawmill
419:Naturalis Historia
308:horizontal-wheeled
281:Philo of Byzantium
258:
97:milling (grinding)
73:
61:
3380:978-0-337-08877-3
3329:978-0-631-15692-5
3311:978-0-14-004514-7
3251:Anatolian Studies
3242:978-90-04-15605-0
3127:978-0-226-69710-9
3066:978-1-85306-935-2
2814:de Crespigny 2007
2793:de Crespigny 2007
1825:Redbournbury Mill
1588:J. T. Desaguliers
1535:San Vittore Olona
1531:Mulino Meraviglia
1307:could produce 10
1033:Northern Song era
1023:Ancient East Asia
1020:
1019:
952:Slovakia, France
365:gearing mechanism
299:wall painting in
188:inundation events
57:Braine-le-Château
16:(Redirected from
3700:
3610:
3576:
3564:
3546:
3524:
3506:
3467:
3449:
3413:
3411:
3404:
3392:
3383:
3350:
3332:
3314:
3303:
3277:
3245:
3227:
3196:
3184:
3178:
3177:
3176:on 7 March 2005.
3172:. Archived from
3166:
3160:
3159:
3157:
3155:
3138:
3132:
3131:
3113:
3107:
3101:
3095:
3089:
3083:
3080:
3071:
3070:
3052:
3043:
3030:
3024:
3018:
3012:
2998:
2992:
2991:
2963:
2957:
2948:
2942:
2941:
2913:
2907:
2901:
2895:
2880:
2874:
2871:
2862:
2859:
2853:
2850:
2835:
2832:
2826:
2823:
2817:
2811:
2805:
2802:
2796:
2790:
2784:
2781:
2775:
2774:, pp. 417f.
2769:
2763:
2756:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2746:
2737:. Archived from
2731:
2725:
2720:
2714:
2708:
2699:
2693:
2684:
2679:
2673:
2667:
2661:
2655:
2649:
2643:
2637:
2631:
2625:
2624:, pp. 11–12
2619:
2613:
2607:
2601:
2595:
2589:
2588:, pp. 372f.
2583:
2577:
2571:
2565:
2560:
2554:
2547:
2541:
2535:
2529:
2515:
2506:
2500:
2494:
2488:
2482:
2476:
2467:
2461:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2446:
2437:. Archived from
2431:
2425:
2418:
2412:
2406:
2400:
2386:
2380:
2376:
2370:
2367:
2361:
2351:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2318:
2307:
2297:
2291:
2277:
2271:
2265:
2259:
2256:
2250:
2244:
2238:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2175:
2040:smokeless powder
1756:Run of the river
1615:Shipmill on the
1513:
1501:
1489:
1477:
1451:balanced on the
1372:Toronto, Ontario
1155:Muslim conquests
1151:Byzantine Empire
1110:Korean Peninsula
1053:armillary sphere
919:England, France
851:
838:
837:
833:
827:Northern Ireland
823:Strangford Lough
803:vertical-wheeled
698:
686:
674:
555:Gregory of Nyssa
542:can be found in
486:breastshot wheel
416:mentions in his
352:, before 71 BC.
336:a water-powered
316:vertical-wheeled
67:Interior of the
21:
3708:
3707:
3703:
3702:
3701:
3699:
3698:
3697:
3663:
3662:
3658:Wayback Machine
3617:
3592:10.2307/3184857
3579:
3567:
3562:
3549:
3539:Wikander, Örjan
3537:
3522:
3509:
3500:
3470:Pacey, Arnold,
3465:
3452:
3447:
3431:
3409:
3402:
3395:
3386:
3381:
3368:
3348:
3335:
3330:
3317:
3312:
3295:
3259:10.2307/3643076
3248:
3243:
3230:
3225:
3208:
3205:
3200:
3199:
3194:Wayback Machine
3185:
3181:
3168:
3167:
3163:
3153:
3151:
3140:
3139:
3135:
3128:
3115:
3114:
3110:
3102:
3098:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3074:
3067:
3054:
3053:
3046:
3035:(1952) states:
3031:
3027:
3019:
3015:
3009:Wayback Machine
3000:Hill; see also
2999:
2995:
2965:
2964:
2960:
2949:
2945:
2915:
2914:
2910:
2902:
2898:
2885:, p. 400:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2865:
2860:
2856:
2851:
2838:
2833:
2829:
2824:
2820:
2812:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2791:
2787:
2782:
2778:
2770:
2766:
2757:
2753:
2744:
2742:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2721:
2717:
2709:
2702:
2694:
2687:
2680:
2676:
2668:
2664:
2656:
2652:
2644:
2640:
2636:, pp. 9–10
2632:
2628:
2620:
2616:
2608:
2604:
2596:
2592:
2584:
2580:
2572:
2568:
2561:
2557:
2548:
2544:
2536:
2532:
2524:, p. 377;
2516:
2509:
2501:
2497:
2489:
2485:
2477:
2470:
2462:
2453:
2444:
2442:
2433:
2432:
2428:
2419:
2415:
2407:
2403:
2395:, p. 403;
2391:, p. 158;
2387:
2383:
2377:
2373:
2368:
2364:
2356:, p. 375;
2352:
2343:
2335:
2331:
2319:
2310:
2302:, p. 160;
2298:
2294:
2278:
2274:
2266:
2262:
2257:
2253:
2245:
2241:
2221:
2217:
2177:
2176:
2167:
2162:
2134:Mill (heraldry)
2120:
1848:
1769:
1722:
1712:driven through
1629:
1524:
1517:
1514:
1505:
1502:
1493:
1490:
1481:
1478:
1353:Veszprem County
1347:A watermill in
1341:
1329:
1313:flour from corn
1131:
1122:
1090:Buddhist abbeys
1025:
835:
831:
830:
809:. A twin flume
715:
709:
702:
699:
690:
687:
678:
675:
617:Pliny the Elder
552:Christian saint
430:in 73/74 AD in
361:undershot wheel
332:reports in his
325:around 240 BC.
301:Ptolemaic Egypt
238:
232:
227:
214:
208:
182:, particularly
47:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3706:
3704:
3696:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3665:
3664:
3661:
3660:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3616:
3615:External links
3613:
3612:
3611:
3577:
3569:Wilson, Andrew
3565:
3560:
3547:
3535:
3525:
3520:
3507:
3498:
3483:
3468:
3463:
3450:
3445:
3429:
3414:
3393:
3384:
3379:
3366:
3353:Lewis, M. J.,
3351:
3346:
3333:
3328:
3315:
3310:
3293:
3278:
3246:
3241:
3228:
3223:
3204:
3201:
3198:
3197:
3179:
3161:
3133:
3126:
3108:
3096:
3084:
3072:
3065:
3044:
3025:
3013:
2993:
2958:
2951:Ahmad Y Hassan
2943:
2908:
2896:
2875:
2863:
2854:
2836:
2827:
2818:
2816:, p. 1050
2806:
2797:
2785:
2776:
2764:
2751:
2726:
2715:
2700:
2685:
2674:
2662:
2650:
2638:
2626:
2614:
2602:
2590:
2578:
2566:
2555:
2542:
2530:
2507:
2495:
2483:
2468:
2451:
2426:
2413:
2401:
2381:
2371:
2369:Lewis, p. vii.
2362:
2341:
2329:
2308:
2292:
2290:, pp. 7f.
2286:, p. 11;
2272:
2260:
2251:
2239:
2215:
2188:(2): 157–176.
2164:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2157:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2119:
2116:
2115:
2114:
2104:
2094:
2073:
2066:Slitting mills
2063:
2049:
2043:
2025:
2019:
2009:
1999:
1988:
1970:
1960:
1945:spinning mules
1934:
1927:
1917:
1914:tinplate works
1906:Blast furnaces
1903:
1897:
1847:
1844:
1811:in the US and
1768:
1767:Current status
1765:
1721:
1718:
1665:United Kingdom
1661:Dalgarven Mill
1650:Worcestershire
1628:
1625:
1606:United Kingdom
1598:Dalgarven Mill
1584:Henry Beighton
1523:
1520:
1519:
1518:
1515:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1472:
1340:
1337:
1328:
1325:
1243:water turbines
1205:, ship mills,
1130:
1127:
1121:
1118:
1082:Buddhist monks
1065:Joseph Needham
1024:
1021:
1018:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1004:
1003:
1000:
997:
991:
990:
987:
984:
980:
979:
976:
973:
967:
966:
963:
960:
954:
953:
950:
947:
943:
942:
939:
936:
932:
931:
928:
925:
921:
920:
917:
914:
910:
909:
906:
903:
899:
898:
895:
892:
886:
885:
882:
879:
875:
874:
869:
864:
858:
857:
845:
844:
795:
794:
708:
705:
704:
703:
700:
693:
691:
688:
681:
679:
676:
669:
524:connecting rod
509:connecting rod
479:Aurelian walls
380:overshot wheel
291:original. The
289:3rd century BC
277:Parasceuastica
231:
228:
226:
223:
207:
204:
198:increases and
196:river incision
149:trip hammering
40:Mill machinery
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3705:
3694:
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3674:
3671:
3670:
3668:
3659:
3655:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3618:
3614:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3585:
3584:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3566:
3563:
3561:90-04-11123-9
3557:
3553:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3536:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3523:
3521:90-04-10680-4
3517:
3513:
3508:
3504:
3499:
3496:
3495:0-8018-7248-0
3492:
3488:
3484:
3481:
3480:0-262-66072-5
3477:
3473:
3469:
3466:
3464:90-04-11123-9
3460:
3456:
3451:
3448:
3446:90-277-1693-5
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3427:
3426:0-521-05803-1
3423:
3419:
3415:
3412:on 2007-11-18
3408:
3401:
3400:
3394:
3390:
3385:
3382:
3376:
3372:
3367:
3364:
3363:0-85958-657-X
3360:
3356:
3352:
3349:
3347:0-19-926558-5
3343:
3339:
3334:
3331:
3325:
3321:
3316:
3313:
3307:
3302:
3301:
3294:
3291:
3290:0-85976-067-7
3287:
3283:
3279:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3247:
3244:
3238:
3234:
3229:
3226:
3224:3-7861-1748-9
3220:
3216:
3212:
3211:Lindgren, Uta
3207:
3206:
3202:
3195:
3191:
3188:
3183:
3180:
3175:
3171:
3165:
3162:
3150:
3149:
3144:
3137:
3134:
3129:
3123:
3119:
3112:
3109:
3105:
3100:
3097:
3093:
3088:
3085:
3079:
3077:
3073:
3068:
3062:
3058:
3051:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3026:
3022:
3017:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3003:
2997:
2994:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2962:
2959:
2956:
2952:
2947:
2944:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2912:
2909:
2905:
2904:Wikander 1985
2900:
2897:
2893:
2891:
2884:
2883:Wikander 2000
2879:
2876:
2870:
2868:
2864:
2858:
2855:
2849:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2841:
2837:
2831:
2828:
2822:
2819:
2815:
2810:
2807:
2801:
2798:
2795:, p. 184
2794:
2789:
2786:
2780:
2777:
2773:
2768:
2765:
2761:
2755:
2752:
2741:on 2007-09-27
2740:
2736:
2730:
2727:
2724:
2719:
2716:
2712:
2707:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2696:Wikander 1985
2692:
2690:
2686:
2683:
2678:
2675:
2671:
2670:Wikander 2000
2666:
2663:
2660:, p. 400
2659:
2658:Wikander 2000
2654:
2651:
2648:, pp. 11
2647:
2642:
2639:
2635:
2630:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2615:
2611:
2610:Wikander 1985
2606:
2603:
2599:
2594:
2591:
2587:
2586:Wikander 2000
2582:
2579:
2576:, p. 383
2575:
2574:Wikander 2000
2570:
2567:
2564:
2559:
2556:
2552:
2546:
2543:
2540:, p. 407
2539:
2538:Wikander 2000
2534:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2522:Wikander 2000
2519:
2514:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2499:
2496:
2492:
2487:
2484:
2481:, p. 161
2480:
2475:
2473:
2469:
2466:, p. 375
2465:
2464:Wikander 2000
2460:
2458:
2456:
2452:
2441:on 2007-01-17
2440:
2436:
2430:
2427:
2423:
2417:
2414:
2411:, p. 406
2410:
2409:Wikander 2000
2405:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2393:Wikander 2000
2390:
2389:Wikander 1985
2385:
2382:
2375:
2372:
2366:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2354:Wikander 2000
2350:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2339:, p. 402
2338:
2337:Wikander 2000
2333:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2321:Wikander 2000
2317:
2315:
2313:
2309:
2306:, p. 396
2305:
2304:Wikander 2000
2301:
2300:Wikander 1985
2296:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2280:Wikander 2000
2276:
2273:
2269:
2264:
2261:
2255:
2252:
2249:, p. 233
2248:
2243:
2240:
2236:
2235:Wikander 2000
2232:
2228:
2224:
2219:
2216:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2182:
2174:
2172:
2170:
2166:
2159:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2149:Sutter's Mill
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2121:
2117:
2112:
2108:
2107:Textile mills
2105:
2102:
2099:for crushing
2098:
2095:
2092:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2050:
2047:
2046:Rolling mills
2044:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2029:
2026:
2023:
2020:
2017:
2014:for crushing
2013:
2010:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1964:
1961:
1958:
1954:
1953:Steam engines
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1935:
1932:
1928:
1925:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1910:finery forges
1907:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1880:
1879:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1861:
1857:
1854:Watermill in
1852:
1845:
1843:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1828:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1790:
1787:Watermill in
1785:
1778:
1775:Watermill in
1773:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1702:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1673:
1666:
1662:
1657:
1653:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1633:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1579:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1521:
1512:
1507:
1500:
1495:
1488:
1483:
1476:
1471:
1469:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1454:
1450:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1423:, head race,
1422:
1418:
1414:
1407:
1402:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1364:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1345:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1140:
1135:
1128:
1126:
1120:Ancient India
1119:
1117:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1049:smelting iron
1046:
1042:
1034:
1029:
1022:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1009:slitting mill
1006:
1005:
1001:
998:
996:
995:Blast furnace
993:
992:
988:
985:
982:
981:
977:
974:
972:
969:
968:
964:
961:
959:
956:
955:
951:
948:
945:
944:
940:
937:
934:
933:
929:
926:
923:
922:
918:
915:
912:
911:
907:
904:
902:Tanning mill
901:
900:
896:
893:
891:
888:
887:
883:
880:
877:
876:
873:
870:
868:
865:
863:
860:
859:
856:
852:
849:
842:
841:
840:
828:
824:
820:
816:
815:Little Island
812:
808:
804:
800:
792:
791:
790:
788:
784:
780:
776:
771:
767:
766:Domesday Book
763:
759:
755:
752:and Germanic
751:
747:
744:
737:, around 1411
736:
732:
727:
719:
714:
706:
697:
692:
685:
680:
673:
668:
666:
664:
660:
656:
652:
647:
645:
641:
635:
633:
628:
626:
622:
618:
613:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
591:
588:The earliest
583:
579:
575:
570:
566:
564:
560:
556:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
510:
506:
502:
497:
493:
491:
487:
482:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
451:ancient world
448:
444:
439:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
420:
415:
409:
407:
403:
400:
396:
393:
389:
383:
381:
377:
372:
370:
366:
362:
358:
353:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
326:
324:
321:
317:
313:
309:
304:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
269:
267:
263:
255:
251:
247:
242:
237:
229:
225:Western world
224:
222:
219:
213:
205:
203:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
176:
174:
170:
165:
160:
158:
154:
153:rolling mills
150:
146:
142:
141:textile mills
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
93:water turbine
90:
86:
82:
78:
70:
65:
58:
55:Watermill of
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3581:
3572:
3551:
3542:
3532:
3527:Spain, Rob:
3511:
3502:
3486:
3471:
3454:
3436:
3417:
3407:the original
3398:
3388:
3370:
3354:
3337:
3319:
3299:
3281:
3250:
3232:
3214:
3182:
3174:the original
3164:
3152:. Retrieved
3148:The Guardian
3146:
3136:
3117:
3111:
3099:
3091:
3087:
3056:
3037:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3023:, in Persian
3016:
2996:
2974:(1): 1–30 .
2971:
2967:
2961:
2946:
2924:(1): 1–30 .
2921:
2917:
2911:
2899:
2887:
2878:
2857:
2830:
2821:
2809:
2800:
2788:
2779:
2767:
2759:
2754:
2743:. Retrieved
2739:the original
2729:
2718:
2677:
2665:
2653:
2646:Langdon 2004
2641:
2634:Langdon 2004
2629:
2617:
2605:
2593:
2581:
2569:
2558:
2550:
2545:
2533:
2528:, p. 13
2505:, p. 16
2498:
2486:
2443:. Retrieved
2439:the original
2429:
2421:
2416:
2404:
2399:, p. 16
2384:
2374:
2365:
2360:, p. 13
2332:
2327:, p. 12
2295:
2275:
2263:
2254:
2242:
2218:
2185:
2179:
2036:black powder
2028:Powder mills
2002:Needle mills
1976:
1966:
1937:Cotton mills
1920:Bobbin mills
1856:Caldas Novas
1846:Applications
1840:
1829:
1817:Daniels Mill
1798:
1794:
1755:
1754:
1730:Bay of Fundy
1723:
1706:Pelton wheel
1703:
1669:
1642:Daniels Mill
1637:
1634:
1630:
1580:
1575:
1568:lantern gear
1548:
1530:
1522:Milling corn
1466:fulling mill
1458:
1449:runner stone
1445:
1410:
1330:
1267:
1235:Central Asia
1227:North Africa
1191:
1144:
1129:Arabic world
1123:
1086:Tang dynasty
1041:trip hammers
1038:
1007:Cutting and
890:Fulling mill
871:
866:
862:Type of mill
861:
854:
846:
796:
748:, Christian
740:
648:
636:
632:Roman Empire
629:
614:
587:
563:Roman Empire
513:
483:
445:in southern
440:
428:fulling mill
424:trip hammers
417:
411:
395:
385:
373:
354:
333:
327:
305:
276:
272:
270:
259:
215:
177:
161:
157:wire drawing
80:
76:
74:
48:
2682:Murphy 2005
2622:Gimpel 1977
2600:, p. 3
2598:Wilson 2002
2518:Wilson 1995
2503:Wilson 2002
2397:Wilson 2002
2288:Wilson 2002
2268:Oleson 2000
2247:Oleson 2000
2227:Oleson 2000
2223:Oleson 1984
2144:Scoop wheel
2097:Stamp mills
2076:Spoke mills
2030:for making
2022:Paper mills
1949:ring frames
1900:Blade mills
1838:in the UK.
1805:Newlin Mill
1572:sluice gate
1468:and so on.
1417:impoundment
1239:crankshafts
1231:Middle East
1215:sugar mills
1211:steel mills
1207:stamp mills
1078:Sui dynasty
1070:Zu Chongzhi
949:1269, 1283
913:Forge mill
762:Carolingian
754:legal codes
750:hagiography
707:Middle Ages
649:In 537 AD,
644:River Fleet
623:and sawing
436:Roman Syria
297:Hellenistic
244:Model of a
212:Water wheel
192:floodplains
180:sedimentate
145:hammermills
137:paper mills
123:, and many
89:water wheel
36:Water wheel
3673:Watermills
3667:Categories
3203:References
2772:Burns 1996
2745:2008-04-10
2711:Rynne 2000
2445:2008-04-11
2139:Molinology
2124:Horse mill
1992:smeltmills
1977:corn mills
1973:Gristmills
1882:Bark mills
1832:hydropower
1809:Yates Mill
1801:Water Mill
1791:(Slovakia)
1746:Woodbridge
1720:Tide mills
1564:face wheel
1552:corn mills
1259:Al-Andalus
1223:al-Andalus
1219:tide mills
1195:gristmills
1147:Caliphates
1061:Zhang Heng
958:Paper mill
935:Hemp mill
878:Malt mill
793:Tide mills
787:tide mills
783:Ship mills
731:ship mills
659:Belisarius
655:East Roman
651:ship mills
612:, France.
492:, France.
406:golden age
402:millstones
371:machines.
350:Asia Minor
338:grain-mill
323:Alexandria
293:sakia gear
273:Pneumatica
210:See also:
173:ship mills
169:tide mills
129:gristmills
85:hydropower
81:water mill
69:Lyme Regis
44:Water Mill
3608:154629776
3275:163811541
2988:109564224
2938:109564224
2210:133795380
2032:gunpowder
2016:oil seeds
2012:Oil mills
1894:tanneries
1796:century.
1779:(Finland)
1760:undershot
1742:Hampshire
1726:tide mill
1714:penstocks
1695:machinery
1683:spur gear
1576:tentering
1556:pit wheel
1447:turned a
1425:mill race
1339:Operation
1293:Euphrates
1285:midstream
916:ca. 1200
807:Waterford
640:tide mill
610:Marseille
467:Janiculum
357:Vitruvius
334:Geography
320:Ptolemaic
312:Byzantium
250:Vitruvius
184:backwater
105:hammering
77:watermill
3654:Archived
3435:(1984),
3190:Archived
3154:7 August
3082:Gauldie.
3005:Archived
2890:Cedrenus
2154:Windmill
2118:See also
2088:carriage
2052:Sawmills
1979:, grind
1710:turbines
1672:overshot
1621:Slovenia
1602:Ayrshire
1560:wallower
1541:, along
1433:penstock
1251:machines
1203:sawmills
1096:serving
989:Germany
975:c. 1300
946:Bellows
905:c. 1134
746:charters
743:monastic
657:general
576:mill at
559:Anatolia
544:Ausonius
475:Aurelian
399:Nisyrian
369:kneading
318:mill to
202:deepen.
200:channels
133:sawmills
121:textiles
3600:3184857
3267:3643076
3213:(ed.),
2549:Lewis,
2190:Bibcode
2078:turned
1963:Fulling
1931:carpets
1884:ground
1875:Estonia
1789:Jahodná
1777:Kuusamo
1750:Suffolk
1744:and at
1693:drives
1691:gravity
1646:Bewdley
1638:launder
1357:Hungary
1349:Tapolca
1321:Baghdad
1317:granary
1274:bridges
1263:factory
1253:, and
1229:to the
1199:hullers
1179:Morocco
1175:Tunisia
1171:Algeria
1102:bushels
1045:bellows
1016:France
1002:France
978:France
971:Sawmill
941:France
930:France
908:France
897:France
884:France
872:Country
834:⁄
779:Germany
775:Ireland
770:England
758:ancient
733:on the
729:German
621:fulling
606:furnace
598:Testour
594:Chemtou
590:turbine
582:Tunisia
578:Chemtou
574:turbine
548:Mosella
540:Germany
532:Ephesus
463:Arelate
432:Antioch
388:Demeter
206:History
159:mills.
151:mills,
101:rolling
32:Milldam
3606:
3598:
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3326:
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2551:passim
2208:
2091:wheels
2084:spokes
2080:lumber
2060:lumber
2056:timber
1981:grains
1924:cotton
1912:, and
1871:Kohila
1860:Brazil
1437:sluice
1376:Canada
1327:Persia
1289:Tigris
1281:moored
1217:, and
1181:, and
1167:Israel
1163:Jordan
1094:eunuch
1043:, the
965:Spain
625:marble
572:Roman
536:marble
528:Gerasa
447:France
392:nymphs
346:Cabira
330:Strabo
285:Arabic
266:Romans
262:Greeks
155:, and
113:lumber
3604:S2CID
3596:JSTOR
3410:(PDF)
3403:(PDF)
3271:S2CID
3263:JSTOR
2984:S2CID
2934:S2CID
2206:S2CID
2160:Notes
2111:cloth
2082:into
2070:nails
2058:into
1985:flour
1983:into
1975:, or
1890:trees
1807:and
1738:Eling
1699:water
1675:steel
1644:near
1545:river
1543:Olona
1539:Italy
1462:forge
1441:flood
1421:flume
1413:river
1391:Jajce
1387:Pliva
1278:ships
1270:piers
1247:gears
1185:(see
1183:Spain
1159:Syria
1114:Tibet
1106:Japan
1059:(see
1013:1443
999:1384
986:1317
962:1282
938:1209
927:1203
894:1080
799:Irish
735:Rhine
663:Goths
557:from
520:crank
505:crank
459:flour
455:flour
414:Pliny
246:Roman
125:metal
117:paper
109:flour
103:, or
3556:ISBN
3516:ISBN
3491:ISBN
3476:ISBN
3459:ISBN
3441:ISBN
3422:ISBN
3375:ISBN
3359:ISBN
3342:ISBN
3324:ISBN
3306:ISBN
3286:ISBN
3237:ISBN
3219:ISBN
3156:2021
3122:ISBN
3061:ISBN
3038:leet
2086:for
2054:cut
1967:walk
1947:and
1941:card
1886:bark
1823:and
1687:axle
1617:Mura
1453:rynd
1429:leat
1333:Yazd
1309:tons
1305:iron
1303:and
1301:teak
1297:Iraq
1291:and
1255:dams
1241:and
1233:and
1225:and
1108:via
1055:for
881:770
867:Date
785:and
596:and
530:and
522:and
507:and
471:Rome
275:and
260:The
218:gear
164:gear
3588:doi
3255:doi
2976:doi
2926:doi
2198:doi
2186:101
2101:ore
2038:or
1965:or
1533:in
1415:or
1389:in
1370:in
1319:in
1311:of
1283:in
1272:of
1189:).
1047:in
825:in
344:at
91:or
79:or
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