551:, so the government policies aim to regulate the use of the strong cryptography. In the 2000s, the effect of encryption on the surveillance capabilities was limited by the ever-increasing share of communications going through the global social media platforms, that did not use the strong encryption and provided governments with the requested data. Murphy talks about a legislative balance that needs to be struck between the power of the government that are broad enough to be able to follow the quickly-evolving technology, yet sufficiently narrow for the public and overseeing agencies to understand the future use of the legislation.
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2111:
261:. To be strong, an algorithm needs to have a sufficiently long key and be free of known mathematical weaknesses, as exploitation of these effectively reduces the key size. At the beginning of the 21st century, the typical security strength of the strong symmetrical encryption algorithms is 128 bits (slightly lower values still can be strong, but usually there is little technical gain in using smaller key sizes).
876:
700:
321:
36:
138:
424:, and implies, in comparison to some other algorithm (which is thus cryptographically weak), greater resistance to attack. But it can also be used to describe hashing and unique identifier and filename creation algorithms. See for example the description of the Microsoft .NET runtime library function Path.GetRandomFileName. In this usage, the term means "difficult to guess".
307:. But just as the development of digital computers and electronics helped in cryptanalysis, it also made possible much more complex ciphers. It is typically the case that use of a quality cipher is very efficient, while breaking it requires an effort many orders of magnitude larger - making cryptanalysis so inefficient and impractical as to be effectively impossible.
3063:
533:, and doing so often introduces vulnerabilities which are not due to faults in an algorithm. For example, essentially all algorithms require random choice of keys, and any cryptosystem which does not provide such keys will be subject to attack regardless of any attack resistant qualities of the encryption algorithm(s) used.
295:
algorithms) made strong cryptography available for civilian use. Mid-1990s saw the worldwide proliferation of knowledge and tools for strong cryptography. By the 21st century the technical limitations were gone, although the majority of the communication were still unencrypted. At the same the cost
282:
The level of expense required for strong cryptography originally restricted its use to the government and military agencies, until the middle of the 20th century the process of encryption required a lot of human labor and errors (preventing the decryption) were very common, so only a small share of
273:
are reused A successful attack might not even involve algorithm at all, for example, if the key is generated from a password, guessing a weak password is easy and does not depend on the strength of the cryptographic primitives. A user can become the weakest link in the overall picture, for example,
521:
would seem to mean that the described method has some kind of maturity, perhaps even approved for use against different kinds of systematic attacks in theory and/or practice. Indeed, that the method may resist those attacks long enough to protect the information carried (and what stands behind the
451:
key search — especially in explanations for newcomers to the field. Indeed, with this attack (always assuming keys to have been randomly chosen), there is a continuum of resistance depending on the length of the key used. But even so there are two major problems: many algorithms allow use of
567:", with the government exercising the legal control of dissemination of research results. This had quickly found to be impossible, and the efforts were switched to the control over deployment (export, as prohibition on the deployment of cryptography within the US was not seriously considered).
268:
and protocols are required (similarly, good materials are required to construct a strong building), but good system design and implementation is needed as well: "it is possible to build a cryptographically weak system using strong algorithms and protocols" (just like the use of good materials in
676:
President and government of Russia in 90s has issued a few decrees formally banning uncertified cryptosystems from use by government agencies. Presidential decree of 1995 also attempted to ban individuals from producing and selling cryptography systems without having appropriate license, but it
995:
v2 and v3. TLS 1.0 and TLS 1.1 are also deprecated now because of irreversible flaws which are still present by design and because they do not provide elliptical handshake (EC) for ciphers, no modern cryptography, no CCM/GCM ciphermodes. TLS1.x are also announced off by the PCIDSS 3.2 for
522:
information) for a useful length of time. But due to the complexity and subtlety of the field, neither is almost ever the case. Since such assurances are not actually available in real practice, sleight of hand in language which implies that they are will generally be misleading.
283:
written information could have been encrypted. US government, in particular, was able to keep a monopoly on the development and use of cryptography in the US into the 1960s. In the 1970, the increased availability of powerful computers and unclassified research breakthroughs (
468:, and who cannot therefore be said to have any particular strength with respect to brute force key search. Furthermore, US export regulations restrict key length for exportable cryptographic products and in several cases in the 1980s and 1990s (e.g., famously in the case of
611:
are dual-use while artillery is of purely military value). This classification had its obvious drawbacks: a major bank is arguably just as systemically important as a military installation, and restriction on publishing the strong cryptography code run against the
1497:
225:
within the reach of a skilled individual, so in practice there are only two levels of cryptographic security, "cryptography that will stop your kid sister from reading your files, and cryptography that will stop major governments from reading your files"
594:
items ("commodities") need to be commercially available without excessive paperwork, so, depending on the destination, broad permissions can be granted for sales to civilian customers. The licensing for the dual-use items is provided by the
681:
and wasn't a law per se. The decree of No.313 issued in 2012 further amended previous ones allowing to produce and distribute products with embedded cryptosystems and requiring no license as such, even though it declares some restrictions.
427:
An encryption algorithm is intended to be unbreakable (in which case it is as strong as it can ever be), but might be breakable (in which case it is as weak as it can ever be) so there is not, in principle, a continuum of strength as the
432:
would seem to imply: Algorithm A is stronger than
Algorithm B which is stronger than Algorithm C, and so on. The situation is made more complex, and less subsumable into a single strength metric, by the fact that there are many types of
444:, which is not generally possible to use because of the difficulties involved in exchanging one-time pads without their being compromised. So any encryption algorithm can be compared to the perfect algorithm, the one-time pad.
525:
There will always be uncertainty as advances (e.g., in cryptanalytic theory or merely affordable computer capacity) may reduce the effort needed to successfully use some attack method against an algorithm.
805:
is generally considered an example of strong cryptography, with versions running under most popular operating systems and on various hardware platforms. The open source standard for PGP operations is
603:
Since the original applications of cryptography were almost exclusively military, it was placed on the munitions list. With the growth of the civilian uses, the dual-use cryptography was defined by
996:
commercial business/banking implementations on web frontends. Only TLS1.2 and TLS 1.3 are allowed and recommended, modern ciphers, handshakes and ciphermodes must be used exclusively.
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1921:
472:' export approval) only partial keys were used, decreasing 'strength' against brute force attack for those (export) versions. More or less the same thing happened outside the
2151:
269:
construction does not guarantee a solid structure). Many real-life systems turn out to be weak when the strong cryptography is not used properly, for example, random
264:
Demonstrating the resistance of any cryptographic scheme to attack is a complex matter, requiring extensive testing and reviews, preferably in a public forum. Good
1473:
1774:
1058:
The sources provided here are in
Russian. To alleviate the problem of lack of English-written ones the sources are cited by using official government documents.
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242:
660:) represent a group of states with similar views one the issues of security and privacy. The group might have enough heft to drive the global agenda on the
817:. However, the IDEA signature key in classical PGP is only 64 bits long, therefore no longer immune to collision attacks. OpenPGP therefore uses the
559:
The initial response of the US government to the expanded availability of cryptography was to treat the cryptographic research in the same way the
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transactions, is generally considered strong. Several vulnerabilities exist in previous versions, including demonstrated attacks such as
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2845:
2900:
1767:
959:
783:
588:. The restrictions for the munitions are very tight, with individual export licenses specifying the product and the actual customer;
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attack and that any given algorithm is likely to force the attacker to do more work to break it when using one attack than another.
404:
181:
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The position of the EU, in comparison to the US, had always been tilting more towards privacy. In particular, EU had rejected the
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209:, including the government agencies. There is no precise definition of the boundary line between the strong cryptography and (
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of building and running systems with strong cryptography became roughly the same as the one for the weak cryptography.
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664:. The efforts of this group are not entirely coordinated: for example, the 2019 demand for Facebook not to implement
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163:
86:
1449:"Положение о лицензировании деятельности по разработке, производству, распространению шифровальных средств и систем"
1965:
1618:
886:
710:
331:
159:
46:
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2406:
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599:. The process of moving an item from the munition list to commodity status is handled by the Department of State.
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different length keys at different times, and any algorithm can forgo use of the full key length possible. Thus,
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1807:
1723:
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Diffie, Whitfield; Landau, Susan (2007). "The export of cryptography in the 20th and the 21st centuries".
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are not efficient for the legitimate surveillance, yet pose great danger to the general digital security.
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that, when used correctly, provide a very high (usually insurmountable) level of protection against any
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1945:
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1619:"U.S. Security Policy: The Dual-Use Regulation of Cryptography and its Effects on Surveillance"
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2005:
1995:
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The usual sense in which this term is (loosely) used, is in reference to a particular attack,
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234:
857:. Worse, some cipher-suites are deliberately weakened to use a 40-bit effective key to allow
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1940:
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do not match the common meaning of this word). The export of munitions is controlled ty the
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as well, as for example in the case of more than one of the cryptographic algorithms in the
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techniques. These improvements eventually place the capabilities once available only to the
1515:"Furtive Encryption: Power, Trusts, and the Constitutional Cost of Collective Surveillance"
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2805:
2735:
2664:
2630:
2615:
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624:), in 1996 almost all cryptographic items were transferred to the Department of Commerce.
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2015:
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DHE/EDHE is guessable/weak when using/re-using known default prime values on the server
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was not supported by either Canada or New
Zealand, and did not result in a regulation.
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In addition, actual use of cryptographic algorithms requires their encapsulation in a
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The term is commonly used to convey that some algorithm is suitable for some task in
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1474:"Миф №49 "В России запрещено использовать несертифицированные средства шифрования""
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had quite strict regulations in this field, but has relaxed them in recent years.
1617:
Riebe, Thea; Kühn, Philipp; Imperatori, Philipp; Reuter, Christian (2022-02-26).
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military items (designated as "munitions", although in practice the items on the
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2025:
1448:
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607:, with the strong encryption remaining a munition in a similar way to the guns (
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and has no, or fewer, security weaknesses. Tasks are varied, and might include:
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320:
35:
27:
Term applied to cryptographic systems that are highly resistant to cryptanalysis
1637:
1576:"The Crypto-Wars myth: The reality of state access to encrypted communications"
17:
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1985:
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1975:
1022:
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Triple-DES (3DES / EDE3-DES) can be subject of the "SWEET32 Birthday attack"
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The use of computers changed the process of cryptanalysis, famously with
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Security
Bulletin: Sweet32 vulnerability that impacts Triple DES cipher
900: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
806:
724: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
677:
wasn't enforced in any way as it was suspected to be contradictory the
345: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
217:, as this border constantly shifts due to improvements in hardware and
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1901:
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is another system which is based on a graphical geometrical function.
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657:
621:
1671:
1654:
237:, for practical purposes usually defined as a number of bits in the
166:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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989:
which is subject to a number of attacks due to flaws in its design.
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Examples that are not considered cryptographically strong include:
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This term "cryptographically strong" is often used to describe an
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1756:
241:. For example, the United States government, when dealing with
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There is only one known unbreakable cryptographic system, the
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by sharing passwords and hardware tokens with the colleagues.
257:
equivalent to be strong and thus potentially a subject to the
222:
131:
29:
1424:"Указ Президента Российской Федерации от 03.04.1995 г. № 334"
1104:
Levy, Steven (12 July 1994). "Battle of the
Clipper Chip".
576:
The export control in the US historically uses two tracks:
1297:
1285:
828:
algorithm is considered strong after being selected in a
620:(where the US government kept special decryption keys in
464:
algorithms whose design specifically allowed for several
1122:"Encryption and Export Administration Regulations (EAR)"
980:, whose 56-bit keys allow attacks via exhaustive search.
543:
Cryptography § Forced disclosure of encryption keys
1665:(5). Association for Computing Machinery (ACM): 27–29.
1238:
1236:
1148:
1146:
155:
1922:
Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator
1087:
1085:
1007:
hash functions, no longer immune to collision attacks.
1632:(1). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 39–65.
1308:
1306:
1748:
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Widespread use of encryption increases the costs of
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2971:
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2508:
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60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
245:, considered as of 1999 any implementation of the
813:is an implementation of that standard from the
1399:"Пресловутый указ №334 о запрете криптографии"
2145:
1768:
1535:Strong Cryptography The Global Tide of Change
572:Export of cryptography from the United States
233:The strong cryptography algorithms have high
8:
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1215:
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1532:Reinhold, Arnold G. (September 17, 1999).
832:that was open and involved numerous tests.
616:, so after experimenting in 1993 with the
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1601:1983/3c40a9b4-4a96-4073-b204-2030170b2e63
1599:
1538:. Cato Institute Briefing Papers No. 51.
1269:Path.GetRandomFileName Method (System.IO)
960:Learn how and when to remove this message
784:Learn how and when to remove this message
405:Learn how and when to remove this message
182:Learn how and when to remove this message
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
1378:"A ban on cryptography in Russia (fwd) "
1188:
1176:
1164:
1152:
201:are general terms used to designate the
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1051:
638:European Union Agency for Cybersecurity
1626:European Journal for Security Research
1312:
859:export under pre-1996 U.S. regulations
1242:
1227:
1200:
1091:
1076:
7:
3062:
1729:Comparison of cryptography libraries
898:adding citations to reliable sources
722:adding citations to reliable sources
343:adding citations to reliable sources
58:adding citations to reliable sources
1690:"Security pitfalls in cryptography"
1586:(3–4). SAGE Publications: 245–261.
1549:The History of Information Security
821:hash function and AES cryptography.
640:(ENISA) holds the opinion that the
311:Cryptographically strong algorithms
25:
1397:Antipov, Alexander (1970-01-01).
1035:Most rotary ciphers, such as the
3061:
3052:
3051:
2110:
2109:
1557:10.1016/b978-044451608-4/50027-4
874:
698:
319:
136:
34:
1653:Feigenbaum, Joan (2019-04-24).
1130:Bureau of Industry and Security
885:needs additional citations for
709:needs additional citations for
330:needs additional citations for
45:needs additional citations for
1971:Information-theoretic security
1739:Hash function security summary
1551:. Elsevier. pp. 725–736.
1500:. IBM Security Bulletin, 2016.
1:
1655:"Encryption and surveillance"
511:providing a method to ensure
480:cellular telephone standard.
1734:FBI–Apple encryption dispute
679:Russian Constitution of 1993
582:United States Munitions List
243:export control of encryption
3017:Cryptographic hash function
2087:Message authentication code
2042:Cryptographic hash function
1855:Cryptographic hash function
1376:Farber, Dave (1995-04-06).
836:Elliptic curve cryptography
162:the claims made and adding
3104:
1966:Harvest now, decrypt later
1638:10.1007/s41125-022-00080-0
1513:Vagle, Jeffrey L. (2015).
569:
540:
3047:
2105:
2082:Post-quantum cryptography
1752:
1659:Communications of the ACM
830:lengthy selection process
3007:Timeline of cryptography
2072:Quantum key distribution
2062:Authenticated encryption
1917:Random number generation
1688:Schneier, Bruce (1998).
1592:10.1177/1473779520980556
1364:Diffie & Landau 2007
1352:Diffie & Landau 2007
1337:Diffie & Landau 2007
1325:Diffie & Landau 2007
1255:Diffie & Landau 2007
1216:Diffie & Landau 2007
987:Wired Equivalent Privacy
519:Cryptographically strong
285:Data Encryption Standard
203:cryptographic algorithms
199:cryptographically strong
3002:Outline of cryptography
2973:Anti–computer forensics
2067:Public-key cryptography
2057:Symmetric-key algorithm
1860:Key derivation function
1820:Cryptographic primitive
1813:Authentication protocol
1803:Outline of cryptography
1798:History of cryptography
1719:Cipher security summary
1580:Common Law World Review
1574:Murphy, Cian C (2020).
1107:New York Times Magazine
1019:Content Scramble System
636:idea as early as 1997.
3029:Homomorphic encryption
3022:List of hash functions
2161:Cryptographic software
1808:Cryptographic protocol
1724:Export of cryptography
841:The latest version of
605:cryptographic strength
597:Department of Commerce
3034:End-to-end encryption
1961:End-to-end encryption
1907:Cryptojacking malware
1021:used to encrypt most
909:"Strong cryptography"
733:"Strong cryptography"
666:end-to-end encryption
354:"Strong cryptography"
253:above 56 bits or its
69:"Strong cryptography"
2077:Quantum cryptography
2001:Trusted timestamping
894:improve this article
718:improve this article
563:research is, i.e., "
489:information security
339:improve this article
247:symmetric encryption
54:improve this article
1840:Cryptographic nonce
1520:Indiana Law Journal
662:lawful interception
586:Department of State
491:, but also resists
249:algorithm with the
195:Strong cryptography
2621:Facebook Messenger
1946:Subliminal channel
1930:Pseudorandom noise
1877:Key (cryptography)
1403:www.securitylab.ru
849:), used to secure
147:possibly contains
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3074:
2925:Service providers
2659:
2658:
2465:Check Point VPN-1
2127:
2126:
2123:
2122:
2006:Key-based routing
1996:Trapdoor function
1867:Digital signature
1714:40-bit encryption
1566:978-0-444-51608-4
1453:Российская газета
1298:Riebe et al. 2022
1286:Riebe et al. 2022
1110:. pp. 44–51.
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390:
388:
347:
323:
315:
259:export licensing
187:
180:
176:
173:
167:
164:inline citations
140:
139:
132:
125:
118:
114:
111:
105:
103:
62:
38:
30:
21:
3103:
3102:
3098:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3093:
3092:
3078:
3077:
3076:
3071:
3043:
2990:
2967:
2951:
2920:
2902:
2895:
2843:
2835:
2806:Java Anon Proxy
2782:
2668:
2667:
2665:Disk encryption
2655:
2631:Google Messages
2616:Signal Protocol
2570:
2537:
2504:
2451:
2348:
2300:
2243:
2236:
2163:
2158:
2128:
2119:
2101:
2030:
1786:
1781:
1710:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1687:
1672:10.1145/3319079
1652:
1621:
1616:
1573:
1567:
1546:
1531:
1512:
1509:
1504:
1496:
1492:
1483:
1481:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1458:
1456:
1447:
1446:
1442:
1433:
1431:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1408:
1406:
1396:
1395:
1391:
1382:
1380:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1362:
1358:
1350:
1343:
1335:
1331:
1323:
1319:
1311:
1304:
1296:
1292:
1284:
1277:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1253:
1249:
1241:
1234:
1226:
1222:
1214:
1207:
1199:
1195:
1187:
1183:
1175:
1171:
1163:
1159:
1151:
1144:
1134:
1132:
1120:
1119:
1115:
1103:
1102:
1098:
1090:
1083:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1049:
966:
955:
949:
946:
903:
901:
891:
879:
868:
799:
790:
779:
773:
770:
727:
725:
715:
703:
692:
674:
650:
630:
614:First Amendment
574:
565:born classified
557:
545:
539:
411:
400:
394:
391:
348:
346:
336:
324:
313:
280:
188:
177:
171:
168:
153:
141:
137:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
18:Weak encryption
15:
12:
11:
5:
3101:
3099:
3091:
3090:
3080:
3079:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3069:
3059:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3042:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3025:
3024:
3019:
3012:Hash functions
3009:
3004:
2998:
2996:
2995:Related topics
2992:
2991:
2989:
2988:
2983:
2977:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2965:
2959:
2957:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2949:
2944:
2939:
2934:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2921:
2919:
2918:
2913:
2907:
2905:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2852:
2850:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2792:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2775:
2774:
2773:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2677:
2675:
2661:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2653:
2650:
2649:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2613:
2608:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2596:
2586:
2580:
2578:
2572:
2571:
2569:
2568:
2563:
2558:
2553:
2547:
2545:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2514:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2472:
2467:
2461:
2459:
2453:
2452:
2450:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2362:BBM Enterprise
2358:
2356:
2350:
2349:
2347:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2310:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2257:
2255:
2246:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2179:
2173:
2171:
2165:
2164:
2159:
2157:
2156:
2149:
2142:
2134:
2125:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2118:
2117:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2100:
2099:
2094:
2092:Random numbers
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2031:
2029:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2016:Garlic routing
2013:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1943:
1938:
1936:Secure channel
1933:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1897:Key stretching
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1863:
1862:
1857:
1847:
1845:Cryptovirology
1842:
1837:
1832:
1830:Cryptocurrency
1827:
1822:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1805:
1800:
1794:
1792:
1788:
1787:
1782:
1780:
1779:
1772:
1765:
1757:
1747:
1746:
1744:Security level
1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1709:
1706:
1705:
1704:
1685:
1650:
1614:
1571:
1565:
1544:
1540:Cato Institute
1529:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1502:
1490:
1465:
1440:
1415:
1389:
1368:
1366:, p. 730.
1356:
1354:, p. 728.
1341:
1339:, p. 727.
1329:
1327:, p. 726.
1317:
1302:
1290:
1275:
1259:
1257:, p. 731.
1247:
1245:, p. 119.
1232:
1230:, p. 109.
1220:
1218:, p. 725.
1205:
1203:, p. 110.
1193:
1181:
1169:
1157:
1142:
1113:
1096:
1094:, p. 113.
1081:
1079:, p. 121.
1068:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1060:
1050:
1048:
1045:
1044:
1043:
1040:
1037:Enigma machine
1033:
1026:
1015:
1014:stream cipher.
1008:
997:
990:
984:
981:
968:
967:
882:
880:
873:
867:
864:
863:
862:
839:
833:
822:
798:
795:
792:
791:
706:
704:
697:
691:
688:
673:
670:
649:
646:
629:
626:
601:
600:
589:
570:Main article:
556:
553:
538:
535:
516:
515:
513:data integrity
509:
503:
413:
412:
327:
325:
318:
312:
309:
301:Bletchley Park
289:Diffie-Hellman
279:
276:
228:Bruce Schneier
190:
189:
144:
142:
135:
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3100:
3089:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3068:
3060:
3058:
3050:
3049:
3046:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3014:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2997:
2993:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2974:
2970:
2964:
2961:
2960:
2958:
2954:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2904:
2898:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2853:
2851:
2847:
2842:
2838:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2791:
2789:
2785:
2779:
2776:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2672:
2666:
2662:
2651:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2577:
2573:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2511:
2507:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2485:SoftEther VPN
2483:
2481:
2478:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2458:
2454:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2400:
2398:
2395:
2393:
2390:
2388:
2385:
2383:
2380:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2368:
2367:Bouncy Castle
2365:
2363:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2355:
2354:TLS & SSL
2351:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2303:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2258:
2256:
2254:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2244:communication
2239:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2174:
2172:
2170:
2169:Email clients
2166:
2162:
2155:
2150:
2148:
2143:
2141:
2136:
2135:
2132:
2116:
2108:
2107:
2104:
2098:
2097:Steganography
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2052:Stream cipher
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2039:
2037:
2033:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2011:Onion routing
2009:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1991:Shared secret
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1931:
1928:
1923:
1920:
1919:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1890:
1888:
1887:Key generator
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1861:
1858:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1851:
1850:Hash function
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1825:Cryptanalysis
1823:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1809:
1806:
1804:
1801:
1799:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1778:
1773:
1771:
1766:
1764:
1759:
1758:
1755:
1751:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1711:
1707:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1620:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1602:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1568:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1536:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1510:
1506:
1499:
1494:
1491:
1479:
1475:
1469:
1466:
1454:
1450:
1444:
1441:
1429:
1425:
1419:
1416:
1404:
1400:
1393:
1390:
1379:
1372:
1369:
1365:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1348:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1330:
1326:
1321:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1300:, p. 58.
1299:
1294:
1291:
1288:, p. 42.
1287:
1282:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1270:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1251:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1221:
1217:
1212:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1189:Schneier 1998
1185:
1182:
1178:
1177:Schneier 1998
1173:
1170:
1166:
1165:Schneier 1998
1161:
1158:
1154:
1153:Reinhold 1999
1149:
1147:
1143:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1117:
1114:
1109:
1108:
1100:
1097:
1093:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1073:
1070:
1064:
1055:
1052:
1046:
1041:
1038:
1034:
1031:
1027:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1002:
998:
994:
991:
988:
985:
982:
979:
975:
974:
973:
964:
961:
953:
942:
939:
935:
932:
928:
925:
921:
918:
914:
911: –
910:
906:
905:Find sources:
899:
895:
889:
888:
883:This section
881:
877:
872:
871:
865:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
837:
834:
831:
827:
823:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
801:
800:
796:
788:
785:
777:
766:
763:
759:
756:
752:
749:
745:
742:
738:
735: –
734:
730:
729:Find sources:
723:
719:
713:
712:
707:This section
705:
701:
696:
695:
689:
687:
685:
680:
671:
669:
667:
663:
659:
655:
647:
645:
643:
639:
635:
627:
625:
623:
619:
615:
610:
606:
598:
593:
590:
587:
583:
579:
578:
577:
573:
568:
566:
562:
561:atomic energy
554:
552:
550:
544:
536:
534:
532:
527:
523:
520:
514:
510:
507:
504:
502:
498:
497:
496:
494:
493:cryptanalysis
490:
486:
481:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
450:
445:
443:
438:
436:
435:cryptanalytic
431:
425:
423:
420:
409:
406:
398:
387:
384:
380:
377:
373:
370:
366:
363:
359:
356: –
355:
351:
350:Find sources:
344:
340:
334:
333:
328:This section
326:
322:
317:
316:
310:
308:
306:
302:
297:
294:
290:
286:
277:
275:
272:
267:
262:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
231:
229:
224:
220:
219:cryptanalysis
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
186:
183:
175:
172:November 2021
165:
161:
157:
151:
150:
145:This article
143:
134:
133:
124:
121:
113:
110:December 2007
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
3088:Cryptography
2841:File systems
2751:Private Disk
2047:Block cipher
1892:Key schedule
1882:Key exchange
1872:Kleptography
1835:Cryptosystem
1784:Cryptography
1696:. Retrieved
1662:
1658:
1629:
1625:
1583:
1579:
1548:
1534:
1524:
1518:
1493:
1482:. Retrieved
1480:(in Russian)
1477:
1468:
1457:. Retrieved
1455:(in Russian)
1452:
1443:
1432:. Retrieved
1430:(in Russian)
1427:
1418:
1407:. Retrieved
1405:(in Russian)
1402:
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711:verification
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531:cryptosystem
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2761:Sentry 2020
2706:DriveSentry
2626:Google Allo
2232:Thunderbird
2035:Mathematics
2026:Mix network
1313:Murphy 2020
1272:, Microsoft
1126:bis.doc.gov
1028:Almost all
1017:The 40-bit
847:version 1.3
499:generating
470:Lotus Notes
466:key lengths
449:brute force
2947:NordLocker
2891:Tahoe-LAFS
2881:Rubberhose
2821:RetroShare
2696:Cryptoloop
2691:CrossCrypt
2671:Comparison
2641:TextSecure
2599:ChatSecure
2561:RetroShare
2551:Bitmessage
2490:strongSwan
2276:ChatSecure
2187:Claws Mail
2177:Apple Mail
1986:Ciphertext
1956:Decryption
1951:Encryption
1912:Ransomware
1484:2020-09-21
1459:2020-09-21
1434:2020-09-21
1409:2020-09-21
1383:2011-02-14
1243:Vagle 2015
1228:Vagle 2015
1201:Vagle 2015
1092:Vagle 2015
1077:Vagle 2015
1065:References
920:newspapers
845:protocol (
744:newspapers
634:key escrow
609:small arms
541:See also:
506:encrypting
501:randomness
419:encryption
365:newspapers
278:Background
266:algorithms
255:public key
251:key length
156:improve it
80:newspapers
2788:Anonymity
2778:VeraCrypt
2766:TrueCrypt
2756:Scramdisk
2721:FileVault
2686:BitLocker
2681:BestCrypt
2594:Cryptocat
2500:WireGuard
2402:MatrixSSL
2372:BoringSSL
2334:SecureCRT
2296:Profanity
2271:Centericq
2182:Autocrypt
1976:Plaintext
1681:0001-0782
1646:2365-0931
1610:1473-7795
1478:bankir.ru
1023:DVD-Video
950:July 2023
774:June 2023
654:Five Eyes
648:Five Eyes
642:backdoors
422:algorithm
395:June 2023
211:breakable
160:verifying
3082:Category
3057:Category
2963:CrypTool
2937:Tresorit
2866:eCryptfs
2826:Ricochet
2726:FreeOTFE
2716:eCryptfs
2701:dm-crypt
2646:WhatsApp
2523:Linphone
2475:Openswan
2442:TeamNote
2427:SChannel
2417:mbed TLS
2397:LibreSSL
2382:cryptlib
2314:Dropbear
2227:Sylpheed
2192:Enigmail
2115:Category
2021:Kademlia
1981:Codetext
1924:(CSPRNG)
1708:See also
1698:27 March
851:Internet
690:Examples
592:dual-use
454:Blowfish
305:Colossus
3067:Commons
2986:BusKill
2981:USBKill
2932:Freenet
2816:Vidalia
2771:History
2746:PGPDisk
2652:SimpleX
2611:Session
2606:Proteus
2480:OpenVPN
2470:Hamachi
2447:wolfSSL
2437:stunnel
2412:OpenSSL
2344:wolfSSH
2324:OpenSSH
2266:BitlBee
2212:Outlook
2207:Kontact
2201:Gpg4win
1791:General
1507:Sources
1135:24 June
934:scholar
807:OpenPGP
758:scholar
379:scholar
154:Please
94:scholar
3039:S/MIME
2886:StegFS
2796:GNUnet
2636:Signal
2584:Matrix
2432:SSLeay
2387:GnuTLS
2339:WinSCP
2291:Kopete
2242:Secure
1902:Keygen
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271:nonces
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2911:Tails
2856:EncFS
2831:Wickr
2589:OMEMO
2556:Briar
2533:Zfone
2518:Jitsi
2422:BSAFE
2377:Botan
2329:PuTTY
2286:Jitsi
2281:climm
2261:Adium
1932:(PRN)
1693:(PDF)
1622:(PDF)
1047:Notes
1005:SHA-1
941:JSTOR
927:books
819:SHA-2
811:GnuPG
765:JSTOR
751:books
430:idiom
386:JSTOR
372:books
101:JSTOR
87:books
2876:PEFS
2871:LUKS
2846:List
2741:LUKS
2736:geli
2731:GBDE
2528:Jami
2510:ZRTP
2495:Tinc
2392:JSSE
1700:2024
1677:ISSN
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1606:ISSN
1561:ISBN
1527:(1).
1137:2023
1010:The
1003:and
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976:The
913:news
866:Weak
824:The
737:news
652:The
508:data
460:are
456:and
358:news
291:and
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2861:EFS
2811:Tor
2801:I2P
2711:E4M
2576:DRA
2566:Tox
2543:P2P
2457:VPN
2407:NSS
2319:lsh
2306:SSH
2253:OTR
2222:PGP
2217:p≡p
2197:GPG
1667:doi
1634:doi
1596:hdl
1588:doi
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1012:RC4
1001:MD5
993:SSL
978:DES
896:by
843:TLS
826:AES
815:FSF
803:PGP
720:by
555:USA
487:or
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458:RC5
341:by
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293:RSA
239:key
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