45:
641:, as debates surfaced over the increasing adoption of European-American culture. The Lower Towns, which comprised the majority of the population, were adopting some elements of European-American culture and lived more closely in relation to white settlers on the Georgia frontier. Many educated their children in English. Some prominent Creeks sent their sons to eastern universities for their education, and some adopted Christianity; as well as forms of European dress and houses, hence they qualified as one of the "civilized tribes". They expanded their farms, and many of the Creek elite became planters, purchasing
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starting in 1831). Second eldest daughter Kate would remain behind after marrying a full-blooded Creek named
William Cousins (1800–1876), the grandson of George Cousins (Chief of the Eufauli Tribe of Creek Indians), in August 1825 in Cusseta, Georgia. The young couple remained with Billy's extended tribal kinsmen in Clayton (Barbour County), Alabama until September 1842, when they began traveling by wagon train with three other Creek families bound for Oklahoma. A broken wagon wheel unexpectedly delayed their travels near Laurel Hill, Florida
976:. He died in December 1849 in Montgomery County, Alabama. By 1860, Rebecca Hagerty was the richest woman in Texas at the age of 45. She was the only woman who in 1860 owned more than 100 slaves, and likely the only Native American in Texas to do so. She owned three plantations: the third was in Cass County, and the total properties amounted to 12,800 acres. In 1860, her "personal wealth was reported to have been $ 85,000, and her real estate valued at $ 35,000. She was the wealthiest person in
830:
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that McIntosh receive payment for lands he was previously granted in 1821. Historians continue to argue over whether McIntosh ceded the land for personal gain, or because he believed removal was inevitable, and he was trying to achieve some security for the Creek Nation. Historians like
Michael Green believe that McIntosh sold away the tribe's birthright and future, describing the treaty as
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861:. These chiefs included Samuel and Benjamin Hawkins, mixed-race Creek sons of Stephen Hawkins, who was also of mixed race, however McIntosh was the only chief who was a member of the Creek National Council. The brothers had both been educated at Princeton. Samuel had married McIntosh's daughter Jane, and Benjamin would later marry his daughter Rebecca.
469:. Their daughter Jane married Samuel Hawkins, Kate married William Cousins, and their daughter Sallie's husband was George McLish. Around the end of the Creek War, McIntosh took a second wife, Susannah Ree (also shown as Roe/Rowe, or Coe), whose heritage is variously given as Cherokee, and full-blooded Muscogee. McIntosh and Susannah had four children:
928:, which allowed the Creeks to keep about 3 million acres (12,000 km) in Alabama. In this new treaty, the Creek received an immediate payment of $ 217,660 and a perpetual annuity of $ 20,000. The state of Georgia ignored the new treaty and worked to evict the Creeks from their lands before official removal started in the 1830s.
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was being proposed as a state scenic byway in several counties of northern
Georgia in a project by the McIntosh Trail Historic Preservation Society. The chief had improved this trail to connect the Upper and Lower Towns, and bring commerce to the area, including to his hotel at Indian Springs and the
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with a large force of 120-150 Law
Menders (the recently organized Creek police force) from towns in the ceded territory, attacked the McIntosh plantation, lighting bonfires around the buildings. Then they set McIntosh's house on fire. McIntosh, wounded by gunfire, was pulled from the burning house by
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The treaty ceded all the remaining Creek land in
Georgia (the Upper and Lower Towns) plus 3,000,000 acres in Alabama to the United States in exchange for $ 200,000 and annuities to be paid to the Creek nation. Another $ 200,000 was paid directly to McIntosh. The fifth article of the treaty stipulated
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in late April 1825. Two other signatories were executed and another, while McIntosh's son, Chilly, was shot at, but escaped unharmed. Menawa signed a treaty in 1826 that was very similar in both language and benefits, but one which the Creek
National Council had agreed to and was therefore considered
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By the 1840s, Rebecca's sisters
Delilah McIntosh, who married William Drew, and Catherine Hettie McIntosh, who married James D. Willison, were settled in Texas with their husbands and families on part of the Hawkins property. Delilah and William Drew's 2400-acre plantation, called Falonah, was near
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Chief McIntosh was actively involved in collaborating with chiefs from the Upper and Lower Towns (then primarily located in
Alabama and Georgia, respectively) through the Creek National Council in developing a centralized government that borrowed from Anglo-American traditions. They formulated laws
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The Creeks were forced to cede lands to the United States in the early 1800s. Maps mark the strips that were ceded over the years. McIntosh played a role in negotiations and cessions of 1805, 1814 (21 million acres after the Creek War), 1818 and 1821. For his role in completing the cession in 1821,
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Chief McIntosh as a leader adopted certain elements of
European-American culture. He was interested in introducing American education among the Creeks, adopted the use of chattel slavery on his plantations, and played a role in centralizing the Creek National Council over the years. As a successful
488:, as a pre-statehood Florida pioneer family. As for the rest of the McIntosh Family, once settled in Oklahoma, Chilly and his younger half-brother Daniel McIntosh would both serve as officers with the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War – with Chilly rising to the rank of Colonel.
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and Grand (Neosho) rivers, setting up the
Western Creek Nation. His two sons Chillicothe and Daniel McIntosh both served as Confederate officers in the Civil War. Chilly founded the 1st Creek Mounted Volunteers (later known as the First Creek Cavalry Regiment, C.S.A.); Chilly founded the 2nd Creek
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Under its Code of 1818, the National Council had established a police force, known as Law Menders. The Council ruled that the signatories of the February 1825 treaty had to be executed for ceding the communal Creek lands, which was defined as a capital crime. This was the first known occasion when
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another Creek chief who signed the 1825 treaty, was killed during the raid. Later that day, the Law Menders found the Hawkins brothers, who were also signatories. They hanged Samuel and shot Benjamin, but he escaped. The Creek had "adopted certain Anglo-American legal concepts, ... welded them to
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as the U.S. Indian Agent to the Creek Nation. Mitchell had formerly been the governor of Georgia (1809–1813) (1815–1817), as well as holding other posts in the state. After the Creek War, the people suffered from the disruption. The U.S. provided food and supplies as part of the annuities for the
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Following his death in April 1825, Chief McIntosh's widow Eliza, younger half-brother Roley, and all but one of the chief's children would voluntarily relocate to “Indian Territory” in Eastern Oklahoma between 1826 and 1830 (prior to later federal government-forced removals via the Trail of Tears
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Early American historians attributed McIntosh's achievements and influence to his mixed race Scots/European ancestry. Since the late 20th century, historians have argued much of McIntosh's political influence stemmed more from his Creek upbringing and cultural standing, particularly his mother's
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off Florida. William Bowen bought 110 slaves for $ 25,000 and had them taken to the Indian agency in the Creek Nation in two batches: in December 1817 and January 1818. Mitchell appeared to be primarily responsible for keeping the Africans at the Creek agency, which was considered outside U.S.
782:, the U.S. Indian Supervisor in the Southeast for two decades until 1816. Hawkins was instrumental in gaining Creek cessions of land through that period, but he also supported McIntosh's efforts to bring European-American education to the territory by welcoming missionaries who set up schools.
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After the wars, European-American settlers were increasingly migrating to the interior of the Southeast from the coastal areas and encroached on the territories of the Creek and other Southeastern tribes. Cultivation of short-staple cotton, which did well in these areas, was made profitable by
407:, who became governor of Georgia when McIntosh was a prominent chief. Whites sometimes mistakenly assumed that McIntosh had centralized authority over the Creeks, but he was only one among numerous chiefs, and the central power became the Creek National Council, especially after it adopted the
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Because McIntosh led a group that negotiated and signed the Treaty of Indian Springs in February 1825, which ceded much of remaining Creek lands to the United States in violation of Creek law, for the first time the Creek National Council ordered that a Creek be executed for crimes against the
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in the Code of 1818, which protected communal tribal property and established a police force known as the Law Defenders. In an effort to protect their remaining lands, the National Council, including McIntosh, had passed legislation in 1824 making it a capital crime to alienate communal land.
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in the 1790s, which mechanized processing of the cotton. Lands were developed in the piedmont areas for large cotton plantations, stimulating a demand for African-American slaves that resulted in the forcible migration of more than one million slaves to the Deep South in the domestic trade.
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Under pressure from the United States and the state of Georgia, Chief McIntosh and some Creek chiefs had ceded land in 1821. The National Creek Council at that time considered execution of McIntosh for this breach of law but did not proceed. The United States' growing European population,
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For generations, Creek chiefs had approved their daughters' marriages to fur traders in order to strengthen their alliances and trading power with the wealthy Europeans. Through both his mother and father, McIntosh was related to numerous other influential Creek chiefs, most of whom were
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The Distinguished and Patriotic Son of Georgia whose devotion was heroic, whose friendship unselfish and whose service was valiant. Who negotiated the treaty with the Creek Indians which gave the state all lands lying west of the Flint River. Who sacrificed his life for his patriotism.
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Fraudulent by the standards of any society, concluded in violation of the expressed orders of both interested governments, riddled with bribery, chicanery and deceit, the treaty illegally acquired for Georgia and Alabama, through the offices of the United States, an enormous amount of
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land cessions, especially the 21 million acres the Creeks were forced to cede following the war. Mitchell and McIntosh were suspected of controlling some of the distribution of food and annuities for their own benefit in this period, increasing McIntosh's power among the Creeks.
477:, known as D.N. As a highly successful soldier and businessman, McIntosh's elevated social/tribal status allowed him to take a third wife, a woman named Peggy. Records conflict as to whether Peggy and McIntosh had three additional children or no children.
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territory as it was within the Creek Nation. This was prior to the expected sale of the slaves in the Mississippi Territory, then including Alabama. Too many people learned about the presence of the Africans, and Mitchell was prosecuted over the issue.
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After William's death, his younger half-brother Roley McIntosh advanced to serve as chief of the Lower Creeks until 1859, moving with them to Indian Territory in the 1830s. His first wife had died and the widower married Susannah, the widow McIntosh.
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of Georgia, a cousin of McIntosh, had promised him protection, but put pressure on him to survey lands ahead of time, as Georgia wanted to prepare for a land lottery. Under the treaty the Creeks had until late 1826 to leave the ceded territory.
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children as "the Indians". What he did not understand about the Creek culture was that the children had a closer relationship with their mother's eldest brother than with their biological father, because of the importance of the clan structure.
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In addition, Mitchell was implicated in the African importation case, in which illegal African slaves were held at the Creek Agency on their sovereign land, for sale in the Mississippi Territory. This was tried in Admiralty Court as
614:("Acorn Bluff") in present-day Carroll County, and Indian Springs, in present-day Butts County His plantation of Acorn Bluff was at the eastern terminus of the McIntosh Road, where the chief developed a ferry operation across the
622:, a tributary of the Chattahoochee located adjacent to the McIntosh estate, is named after the plantation. He owned numerous black slaves to cultivate cotton as a commodity crop on his plantations. He also built a resort hotel at
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of the Upper Towns in the period of the Creek Wars. The Red Sticks were allied with the British and so he and McIntosh, who was with the Lower Towns and allied with the Americans, were opposed to each other during the conflict.
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several attackers, then one of the men stabbed him in the heart. Other Creeks shot him more than fifty times. Chilly McIntosh, the chief's oldest son, had also been sentenced to die, but he escaped by diving through a window.
968:, on the territory's eastern border, where they developed the Refuge plantation. Their son William died young, and they had two daughters, Louisa and Anna. Benjamin Hawkins died in 1836 in Texas, killed near Nagodoches.
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William McIntosh's wives asked for a suit of clothes for his burial, but the killers insisted on throwing the naked corpse into an unmarked grave. His burial site and part of his plantation have been preserved as the
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Daughter Catherine "Kate" McIntosh and her husband Eufauli Creek Billy Cousins became a pre-statehood Florida pioneer family after settling in the sparsely-populated Northwestern Florida Panhandle in September 1842.
821:, who had previously served as an Alabama Congressman. That year, the Creeks agreed to another land cession in order to raise money for needed food and supplies, as conditions were still difficult for them.
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As soon as the Creek National Council learned of this, they protested to Washington, but the U.S. Senate had already ratified the treaty. Initially Washington officials tried to carry it out. Governor
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by then-Major General Jackson and enjoyed the full emoluments, such as pay and allowances for subsistence, forage and servants, as officers of the same flag officer rank in the United States Army.
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and helped capture the fort. When the Americans shot a heated cannonball into the fort, it struck the magazine and set off a huge explosion. Most of the people within the fort died immediately.
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merchant and gentleman farmer, he owned more than one hundred black slaves and two plantations where he grew cotton and raised livestock. He also operated two ferries, an inn, and a tavern.
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205:. Daughter Kate and her family became pre-statehood pioneers of the Florida Panhandle. Daughters Rebecca and Delilah moved to East Texas with their husbands, developing plantations there.
444:–1824), also born to the Wind Clan. Both McIntosh and Weatherford became well established as Creek chiefs and wealthy planters, but Weatherford was aligned with the traditionalist
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that Creek women were matriarchs and had control of children "when connected with a white man." Hawkins further observed that even wealthy traders were nearly as "inattentive" to their
353:, had worked with the Creek to recruit them as military allies to the British. The senior McIntosh's mother was Margaret "Mary" McGillivray, believed to have been a sister of the Scot
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Members of the National Council, including Menawa, went to Washington to protest the 1825 treaty. The U.S. government rejected the 1825 treaty as fraudulent, and negotiated the 1826
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the Council ordered execution of men for a crime against the centralized Nation. The Council assigned chief Menawa, of a ceded township in the Upper Towns, to carry out the sentence.
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Mounted Volunteers (later known as the Second Creek Cavalry Regiment, CSA). Both brothers later became Baptist ministers in the Indian Territory. Eight McIntosh men served with the
484:. Kate and Billy found their new Northwestern Florida Panhandle surroundings akin to their native homelands and decided to stay--ultimately settling in modern-day Mossy Head in
1655:
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in modern-day Oklahoma prior to forced federal government removals via the Trail of Tears, which began in 1831. Two of Chief McIntosh's sons, Chilly & Daniel, served as
2823:
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2076:(Norman, Okla., 1954). This book introduced the idea of the Creek War as a civil war within an Indian nation (rather than a war between the Creek and the United States).
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married again after her first husband died young, and by 1860 was the wealthiest woman in Texas, owning three plantations with a total of 12,800 acres and 120 slaves.
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Led by his son Chilly, McIntosh's family and other Creeks voluntarily moved to Indian Territory from 1826 to 1830, where they settled at the forks of the Arkansas,
2803:
2008:
749:, and a few Seminole warriors, led by an African-American former Colonial Marine named Garçon. Among the African-Americans were members of the disbanded British
322:(or "White Warrior") was born in the Lower Creek Town of Coweta in present-day Georgia to Scottish-American soldier William McIntosh and to Senoya (also spelled
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ferry at the terminus. By 2011 the Trail had received preliminary approval for its alignment, with the Three Rivers Commission due to review its corridor plan.
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of the Upper Towns erupted into open conflict. McIntosh and other Lower Creeks allied with United States forces against the Red Sticks after 1813, during the
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town and commander of a mounted police force. He became a large-scale planter, built and managed a successful inn, and operated a commercial ferry business.
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B.J. McIntosh wrote a screenplay about William McIntosh in 2014. Matt Collins is marketing the work through his company, Brit Nicholas Entertainment.
846:, put pressure on the federal government to take more Indian land. The federal government continued to try to persuade or force the Creeks and other
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757:," and worried that the autonomy of the blacks would encourage their own slaves to escape or rebel. McIntosh fought with the United States in the
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1314:
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980:, where her plantation Refuge was located. Most of her personal wealth was attributed to the value of the 102 people she held in bondage."
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1685:
1238:, Rebecca McIntosh Hawkins Hagerty Papers, (1823–1901), 1974, 1991, Center for American History, The University of Texas at Austin
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kinship system, through which property and hereditary positions were passed, his mother's status determined that of White Warrior.
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to newly freed African-Americans in the area. It was occupied by about 300 African-American men, women, and children, 20 renegade
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2085:(Philadelphia, 1819). This short book includes an example of the praise heaped on McIntosh during his lifetime by white admirers.
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the Refuge. The widow Rebecca McIntosh Hawkins married Spire M. Hagerty, who held land and slaves on his Phoenix plantation in
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tribes to cede the remainder of their lands in exchange for payments and land west of the Mississippi River in what was called
681:, marking the defeat in 1814 of the Red Sticks and the end of the Creek War. McIntosh was appointed a brigadier general of the
678:
566:
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465:"), Jane, Kate, Sallie, and Louis. Their first-born was a son, named Chilly McIntosh (1800–1895), born near Georgia, in
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After the War of 1812, the British withdrew and turned over the fort that later became known as The Negro Fort on the lower
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1961:
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357:, a wealthy fur trader and planter in Georgia. After the Revolutionary War, Captain McIntosh moved from the frontier to
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802:(1819–1820) because it was in violation of the U.S. law, effective 1808, to end the international African slave trade.
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2002:
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461:. Married around McIntosh's twenty-fifth birthday, he and Eliza's marriage produced five children: Chillicothe (aka "
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Nation. It sentenced him and other signatories to death. McIntosh was executed by his long-time political nemesis
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In 1921, McIntosh's grave was marked by a boulder with a bronze tablet placed by the William McIntosh Chapter,
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626:, hoping to attract more travelers along the improved road. Parts of this route are still referred to as the
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2158:(Montgomery, 1859). Includes an admiring portrait of McIntosh's generalship by one who served under him.
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Chief McIntosh's first wife was Eliza Hawkins, although she has often erroneously been conflated with
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1738:
The Debates and Proceedings in the Congress of the United States. Sixteenth Congress – First Session.
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1001:
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726:. Enslaved African-Americans from Georgia also escaped and took refuge in Spanish Florida, where the
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He used his influence to improve a Creek trail connecting the Upper and Lower Towns, that ran from
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1909:
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1100:
From Georgia Tragedy To Oklahoma Frontier: A Biography of Scots Creek Indian Chief Chilly McIntosh
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their own concepts of political independence and used them to serve decidedly Creek purposes."
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The privateer "Commodore" Aury had taken the Africans as a prize from a Spanish ship bound for
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331:
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A New Order of Things: Property, Power, and the Transformation of the Creek Indians, 1733–1816
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1861:"The Rise and Fall of William McIntosh: Authority and Identity on the Early American Frontier"
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William Gilmore Simms, wrote a poem about William McIntosh, "The Broken Arrow," published in
630:, or the McIntosh Trail. It passes through several northern counties in Alabama and Georgia.
403:; and he was influential in both Creek and European-American society. One of his cousins was
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American agents awarded McIntosh 1,000 acres of land at Indian Springs and 640 acres on the
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in the Southeast and then as Superintendent of Indian Affairs in the territory south of the
368:
194:
2200:
1790:
Royce Gordon Shingleton, "David Brydie Mitchell and the African Importation Case of 1820,"
1091:(2002), a novel featuring McIntosh's daughter Jane McIntosh Hawkins; this is not a history.
421:, of Creek mothers and white fathers, who were valued as husbands. The most prominent were
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2012:
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917:. The grave is located near a replica of McIntosh's home in McIntosh Reserve Park near
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58 (3) (July 1973): 327–340. (McIntosh and Mitchell's activities as slave smugglers).
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2019:
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58 (3) (July 1973): 327-340, accessed 14 February 2012 – via JSTOR
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between the turn of the 19th-century and his execution in 1825. He was a chief of
2105:
Bert Hodges, "Notes on the History of the Creek Nation and Some of Its Leaders,"
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1993:
1211:
Charles A. Steger, "Rebecca McIntosh Hawkins Hagerty: The Richest Woman in Texas"
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1716:
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1974:
W. Winston Skinner, "Descendent writes screenplay about Chief William McIntosh"
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2118:(Boston, 1991). An interesting take on the Creek War as a religious struggle.
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W. Winston Skinner, "McIntosh descendant pens story about chief's son Chilly"
1405:
1358:
395:
McIntosh was considered a skilled orator and politician. He became a wealthy
2425:
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2096:
Michael D. Green, "William McIntosh: The Evolution of a Creek National Idea"
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married Benjamin Hawkins in the Western Creek Nation in 1831. Benjamin knew
892:
658:
2215:
1236:"A Guide to the Rebecca McIntosh Hawkins Hagerty Papers: Biographical Note"
1192:, University of Nebraska Press, 1985, pp. 96-97, accessed 14 September 2011
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The boy was also named after his father, who was connected to a prominent
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during the late 18th century, when they formed a new tribe, known as the
426:
417:
380:
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661:(1813–1814), when tensions between the Lower Creeks and the traditional
247: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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2136:
1789:
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669:. The Red Sticks were allied with the British, as both wanted to limit
526: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
193:
The vast majority of Chief McIntosh's descendants voluntarily moved to
2073:
The Southern Indians: The Story of the Civilized Tribes before Removal
1996:
The Politics of Indian Removal: Creek Government and Society in Crisis
1189:
The Politics of Indian Removal: Creek Government and Society in Crisis
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2420:
2363:
2284:
1686:"Using Primary Sources in the Classroom: Creek Indian War, 1813–1814"
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1302:
Black, White, and Indian: Race and the Unmaking of an American Family
182:
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Creeks and Southerners: Biculturalism on the Early American Frontier
1803:
1145:
Creeks and Southerners: Biculturalism on the Early American Frontier
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gained his status and place among the Creek from his mother's clan.
1400:(2). Nacogdoches, Texas: East Texas Historical Association: 18–32.
1390:"Myth, Reality, and Anomaly: The Complex World of Rebecca Hagerty"
1087:
Billie Jane McIntosh, a 3x great-granddaughter of McIntosh, wrote
828:
361:
to settle. There, he married a paternal cousin, Barbara McIntosh.
2137:"David Brydie Mitchell and the African Importation Case of 1820,"
857:
On February 12, 1825, McIntosh and eight other chiefs signed the
2243:
1452:(1st ed.). Atlanta, Georgia: Cherokee Publishing Company.
714:
Remnants of Creek as well as other American Indian tribes plus
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came to office, in November 1817 his administration appointed
495:
334:, which was prominent in the Creek Nation. As the Creek had a
216:
161:(White Warrior), was one of the most prominent chiefs of the
2015:, Birmingham: University of Alabama Press, 1998, text online
633:
The Creek Nation struggled with internal tensions after the
2037:
Mixed Blood Indians: Racial Construction in the Early South
1964:, Trail of the Trail, March 2011, accessed 20 November 2014
383:, and knew them well. He commented in letters to President
2155:
Woodward's Reminiscences of the Creek, or Muscogee Indians
1656:"McIntosh Trail scenic byway project moving along quickly"
778:
Like other prominent chiefs, McIntosh worked closely with
649:
in a manner similar to their European-American neighbors.
190:
a legitimate treaty according to contemporary Creek law.
2082:
A Summary Geography of Alabama, One of the United States
1518:"A Guide to the Rebecca McIntosh Hawkins Hagerty Papers"
809:, where Spain continued slavery. He transported them to
753:. Georgia slaveholders and the U.S. Army called it the "
673:
in the Southeast. McIntosh fought in support of General
1999:, Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1982
2195:"William McIntosh - McIntosh Reserve, Carroll Co., GA"
2122:
John Bartlett Meserve, "The MacIntoshes" [sic]
2115:
Sacred Revolt: The Muskogees' Struggle for a New World
1246:
1244:
2047:, Rootsweb ©, adapted with permission of the author.
1074:
The Book of My Lady: A Melange. By a Bachelor Knight
1020:
To the Memory and Honor of General William McIntosh
2717:
2656:
2518:
2482:
2444:
2397:
2308:
2277:
1215:
Texas State Genealogical Society Quarterly, Stirpes
157:(c. 1775 – April 30, 1825), also commonly known as
138:
119:
107:
99:
91:
77:
57:
28:
1512:
1510:
1068:. was published in her 1827 collection of poetry.
2834:Native American people from Georgia (U.S. state)
2018:"McIntosh, William, Jr." in Hoxie, Frederick E.
1688:. Alabama Department of Archives. Archived from
1383:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1252:"American History: Creek Chief William McIntosh"
895:leader and long-time McIntosh political nemesis
817:President Monroe replaced Mitchell in 1821 with
1441:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1330:
1328:
1326:
1018:
177:system, and to other aspects of Creek culture.
2102:ed. James C. Klotter (Wilmington, Del., 2003).
2005:McIntosh and Weatherford, Creek Indian Leaders
1749:Meserve (1932), "The MacIntoshes", pp. 314–315
1624:Georgia Place-Names: Their History and Origins
800:Miguel de Castro v. Ninety-five African Negros
774:Annuities and African importation case of 1820
730:offered them freedom and land in exchange for
2255:
8:
1937:"Colonel Daniel Newnan McIntosh (1822–1896)"
1816:"Native Lands: Native Americans and Georgia"
1575:"Native Lands: Native Americans and Georgia"
1138:
1136:
1134:
2208:Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography
2065:Chief William McIntosh: A Man of Two Worlds
1980:, 16 August 2014, accessed 16 November 2014
1449:Chief William McIntosh: A Man of Two Worlds
1217:, September 2007, accessed 17 November 2014
765:Formation of a centralized Creek government
2262:
2248:
2240:
2024:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996.
1773:10 (1932): 310-25, accessed 4 October 2011
1761:
1759:
1757:
1755:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1491:Civil War on the Western Border, 1854–1865
1278:
1276:
1274:
25:
2824:Deaths by firearm in Georgia (U.S. state)
2045:Carole E. Scott, "Chief William McIntosh"
1649:
1647:
1528:Dolph Briscoe Center for American History
1335:Meserve, John Bartlett (September 1932).
586:Learn how and when to remove this message
307:Learn how and when to remove this message
2701:Oklahoma Tax Commission v. United States
1837:
1835:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1600:
1598:
1596:
1594:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1015:in October 1921. The inscription states:
825:Treaty of Indian Springs (February 1825)
657:Internal Creek tensions resulted in the
2819:People murdered in Georgia (U.S. state)
1962:"McIntosh Trail to become scenic byway"
1630:. Macon, GA: Winship Press. p. 1.
1564:6 April 2009, accessed 16 November 2014
1182:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1121:
1119:
1115:
113:(2) Susannah Ree (or Roe, Rowe, or Coe)
2021:Encyclopedia of North American Indians
964:, and in 1833 he and Rebecca moved to
2804:Native Americans of the Seminole Wars
2100:The Human Tradition in the Old South,
1420:from the original on November 2, 2018
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1223:
854:(present-day Oklahoma and Arkansas.)
7:
1910:"Second Treaty of Washington (1826)"
1493:. U of Nebraska Press. p. 219.
1388:McArthur, Judith N. (October 1986).
1143:Andrew K. Frank (15 November 2018).
524:adding citations to reliable sources
245:adding citations to reliable sources
2809:American people of Scottish descent
2041:, University of Georgia Press, 2003
371:, first appointed as United States
1487:"Slaveholding Indians Declare War"
1094:Billie Jane McIntosh also wrote a
68:Coweta, Creek Nation (present-day
14:
2829:1825 murders in the United States
1908:Snyder, Christina (3 June 2011).
473:, Catherine Hettie, Delilah, and
173:prominent Wind Clan in the Creek
21:William McIntosh (disambiguation)
2728:Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas
2173:Encyclopedia of American Indians
1147:. University of Nebraska Press.
1060:
500:
221:
43:
2814:Murdered Native American people
2608:Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)
1041:In the early 21st century, the
511:needs additional citations for
232:needs additional citations for
2510:College of the Muscogee Nation
1767:The MacIntoshes" [sic]
1715:. ngeorgia.com. Archived from
998:in Georgia is named after him.
425:(1750–1793), the son of
1:
2733:Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town
2669:Treaty of Fort Jackson (1814)
2613:Prospect Bluff Historic Sites
2374:Prospect Bluff Historic Sites
1713:"North Georgia Creek History"
1654:Jeff Bishop (27 April 2009).
1523:University of Texas at Austin
1394:East Texas Historical Journal
1089:Ah-ko-kee, American Sovereign
438:
379:, lived among the Creeks and
2753:Poarch Band of Creek Indians
2738:Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana
2553:(predecessor to Lower Towns)
1865:Georgia Historical Quarterly
1740:Washington 1855, cols. 1543.
610:. He owned two plantations,
345:family. Captain McIntosh, a
2719:Federally recognized tribes
2685:Treaty of Washington (1826)
2003:Griffith, Jr., Benjamin W.
1621:Krakow, Kenneth K. (1975).
1611:, accessed 21 November 2014
1351:Oklahoma Historical Society
52:, 1838 by Charles Bird King
2855:
2674:Treaty of Nicolls' Outpost
2271:Muscogee Creek Confederacy
2051:"Captain William McIntosh"
677:and state militias in the
643:enslaved African-Americans
635:American Revolutionary War
429:, a Wind Clan mother, and
18:
2664:Treaty of New York (1790)
2202:"McIntosh, William"
1859:Frank, Andrew K. (2002).
1125:Hoxie, Frederick (1996),
1051:References in other media
1030:William McIntosh Chapter
835:Indian Springs State Park
751:Corps of Colonial Marines
42:
36:
35:
2758:Thlopthlocco Tribal Town
2680:Treaty of Moultrie Creek
2140:Journal of Negro History
1793:Journal of Negro History
1765:John Bartlett Meserve, "
1609:New Georgia Encyclopedia
1474:McIntosh and Weatherford
1446:Chapman, George (1988).
1284:McIntosh and Weatherford
1266:McIntosh and Weatherford
1098:about Jane's brother in
1036:Jackson, Georgia, 1921."
988:Park was established in
859:Treaty of Indian Springs
683:United States Volunteers
679:Battle of Horseshoe Bend
213:Early life and education
2839:People of the Creek War
2794:Native American leaders
2748:Muscogee (Creek) Nation
2190:Encyclopedia of Alabama
1914:Encyclopedia of Alabama
1847:Encyclopedia of Alabama
1797:(subscription required)
1349:(3). Norman, Oklahoma:
1307:Oxford University Press
1254:. Electricscotland.com.
1006:Peachtree City, Georgia
915:Carroll County, Georgia
891:On April 30, 1825, the
103:Carroll County, Georgia
85:Carroll County, Georgia
2643:Creek National Capitol
2603:Kimbell-James Massacre
2562:Leon-Jefferson culture
2126:Chronicles of Oklahoma
2107:Chronicles of Oklahoma
2092:(Lincoln, Neb., 2005).
1820:Atlanta History Center
1771:Chronicles of Oklahoma
1579:Atlanta History Center
1530:. 1991. Archived from
1485:Monaghan, Jay (1955).
1342:Chronicles of Oklahoma
1305:. New York, New York:
1084:(1991), romance novel.
1082:Clouds across the Moon
1038:
974:Harrison County, Texas
872:
838:
486:Walton County, Florida
453:Marriages and children
2799:Muscogee slave owners
2648:Crazy Snake Rebellion
2551:Apalachicola Province
2526:Mississippian culture
2407:(Francis the Prophet)
2179:registration required
2079:Ebenezer H. Cummins,
1080:Betty Collins Jones,
1077:(Philadelphia, 1833).
902:Etommee Tustunnuggee,
867:
832:
791:David Brydie Mitchell
423:Alexander McGillivray
185:and a large force of
143:Alexander McGillivray
2743:Kialegee Tribal Town
2593:Battle of Burnt Corn
2495:Four Mothers Society
2152:Thomas S. Woodward,
1002:McIntosh High School
966:Marion County, Texas
926:Treaty of Washington
842:particularly in the
701:'s invention of the
520:improve this article
241:improve this article
201:officers during the
19:For other uses, see
2500:Green Corn Ceremony
2436:William Weatherford
1916:. Auburn University
1008:is named after him.
996:Chief McIntosh Lake
990:Whitesburg, Georgia
616:Chattahoochee River
608:Chattahoochee River
435:William Weatherford
431:Lachlan McGillivray
355:Lachlan McGillivray
330:), a member of the
147:William Weatherford
92:Cause of death
2690:Indian Removal Act
2628:Indian Removal Act
2618:Battle of Ocheesee
2598:Fort Mims Massacre
2186:"William McIntosh"
2169:"William McIntosh"
2149:(Cambridge, 1999).
2128:10 (1932): 310–25.
2011:2016-03-04 at the
1994:Green, Michael D.
1605:"William McIntosh"
1534:on 7 December 2017
1187:Michael D. Green,
1096:biographical novel
839:
759:First Seminole War
743:Apalachicola River
710:First Seminole War
671:American expansion
604:Talladega, Alabama
535:"William McIntosh"
459:Elizabeth Grierson
320:Tustunnuggee Hutke
256:"William McIntosh"
203:American Civil War
159:Tustunnuggee Hutke
37:Tustunnuggee Hutke
2766:
2765:
2695:Treaty of Cusseta
2638:Creek War of 1836
2589:(Creek civil war)
2572:State of Muskogee
2474:Mikasuki-Hitchiti
2278:Four mother towns
2233:historical marker
2227:historical marker
2088:Andrew K. Frank,
2030:978-0-585-07764-2
1526:. Austin, Texas:
1472:Griffith (1998),
1337:"The MacIntoshes"
1316:978-0-19-517631-5
1282:Griffith (1998),
1264:Griffith (1998),
653:Role in Creek War
596:
595:
588:
570:
351:Revolutionary War
343:Savannah, Georgia
317:
316:
309:
291:
152:
151:
111:(1) Eliza Hawkins
2846:
2657:Politics and law
2567:Battle of Taliwa
2411:William McIntosh
2340:(four locations)
2310:Groups and towns
2264:
2257:
2250:
2241:
2216:William McIntosh
2212:
2204:
2182:
2109:43 (1965): 9–18.
2070:R.S. Cotterill,
2067:(Atlanta, 1988).
2063:George Chapman,
1981:
1971:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1939:. Archived from
1935:Wise, Donald A.
1932:
1926:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1905:
1899:
1898:Langguth, p. 49.
1896:
1890:
1889:Langguth, p. 48.
1887:
1881:
1880:
1878:
1876:
1856:
1850:
1843:William McIntosh
1839:
1830:
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1719:on 15 March 2012
1708:
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1701:
1699:
1697:
1692:on 15 April 2012
1682:
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1673:
1671:
1662:. Archived from
1651:
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986:McIntosh Reserve
958:Rebecca McIntosh
949:during the war.
947:Confederate Army
911:McIntosh Reserve
852:Indian Territory
785:After President
780:Benjamin Hawkins
718:had migrated to
612:Lockchau Talofau
591:
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385:Thomas Jefferson
369:Benjamin Hawkins
312:
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195:Indian Territory
155:William McIntosh
50:William McIntosh
47:
30:William McIntosh
26:
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2848:
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2769:
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2767:
2762:
2713:
2708:Sharp v. Murphy
2652:
2577:Forbes purchase
2546:Long Swamp Site
2514:
2478:
2440:
2393:
2304:
2273:
2268:
2237:
2199:
2176:
2165:
2145:Claudio Saunt,
2060:
2058:Further reading
2013:Wayback Machine
1990:
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1066:Chilly M'Intosh
1057:Lydia Sigourney
1053:
934:
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827:
776:
767:
720:Spanish Florida
716:fugitive slaves
712:
655:
637:and during the
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2721:(20th century)
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2225:McIntosh House
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2163:External links
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2039:(Google eBook)
2035:Theda Perdue,
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2016:
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1989:
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1711:Larry Worthy.
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1297:Saunt, Claudio
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1154:978-0803268418
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1043:McIntosh Trail
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675:Andrew Jackson
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536:
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531:Find sources:
525:
521:
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514:
509:This section
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257:
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246:
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230:This section
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34:
27:
22:
2779:1770s births
2706:
2699:
2676:(unratified)
2531:Pisgah phase
2410:
2323:Apalachicola
2236:
2220:Find a Grave
2206:
2189:
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2154:
2146:
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2053:, Floripedia
2036:
2020:
2004:
1995:
1978:Times-Herald
1977:
1969:
1957:
1945:. Retrieved
1941:the original
1930:
1918:. Retrieved
1913:
1903:
1894:
1885:
1873:. Retrieved
1868:
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1846:
1823:. Retrieved
1819:
1810:
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1733:
1721:. Retrieved
1717:the original
1706:
1694:. Retrieved
1690:the original
1680:
1668:. Retrieved
1664:the original
1660:Times-Herald
1659:
1623:
1616:
1608:
1582:. Retrieved
1578:
1569:
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1536:. Retrieved
1532:the original
1521:
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1424:September 4,
1422:. Retrieved
1397:
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1364:September 4,
1362:. Retrieved
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876:George Troup
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848:Southeastern
840:
819:John Crowell
816:
807:Havana, Cuba
804:
799:
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787:James Monroe
784:
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695:
687:
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632:
611:
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556:
549:
542:
530:
518:Please help
513:verification
510:
479:
456:
416:
413:
409:Code of 1818
405:George Troup
394:
373:Indian agent
364:
363:
340:
327:
323:
319:
318:
303:
294:
284:
277:
270:
263:
251:
239:Please help
234:verification
231:
192:
179:
171:
163:Creek Nation
158:
154:
153:
49:
2784:1825 deaths
2505:Stomp dance
2389:Tribal town
2300:Tukabatchee
1947:January 22,
1670:19 November
1538:5 September
1353:: 310–325.
1286:, pp. 10–11
1127:pp. 367-369
1027:Erected by
962:Sam Houston
833:Exhibit at
736:Catholicism
699:Eli Whitney
667:War of 1812
647:plantations
645:to work on
639:War of 1812
620:Acorn Creek
442: 1780
401:slaveholder
349:during the
336:matrilineal
199:Confederate
187:Law Menders
175:matrilineal
2789:Innkeepers
2773:Categories
2582:Red Sticks
2541:Moundville
2384:Tallapoosa
2349:Miccosukee
2133:Shingleton
1988:References
1825:2021-09-20
1584:2021-09-20
1414:8091852129
919:Whitesburg
755:Negro Fort
732:converting
703:cotton gin
663:Red Sticks
576:April 2017
546:newspapers
446:Red Sticks
389:mixed-race
377:Ohio River
267:newspapers
134:(notables)
2459:Apalachee
2446:Languages
2426:Neamathla
2328:Coushatta
1406:0424-1444
1359:0009-6024
1033:D. A. R.
956:Daughter
942:Verdigris
893:Red Stick
844:Northeast
659:Creek War
606:, to the
332:Wind Clan
139:Relatives
115:(3) Peggy
108:Spouse(s)
95:Execution
2490:Religion
2379:Sabacola
2369:Okfuskee
2359:Muscogee
2354:Muklassa
2344:Hitchiti
2338:Fowltown
2009:Archived
1920:7 August
1418:Archived
1299:(2005).
1059:'s poem
724:Seminole
427:Sehoy II
381:Choctaws
359:Savannah
347:Loyalist
120:Children
2519:History
2483:Culture
2469:Koasati
2454:Alabama
2431:Osceola
2398:Leaders
2333:Eufaula
2318:Alabama
2295:Kasihta
2211:. 1900.
1849:. 2013.
1723:5 April
1696:5 April
897:Menawa,
747:Choctaw
560:scholar
471:Rebecca
397:planter
281:scholar
207:Rebecca
128:Rebecca
72:, U.S.)
70:Georgia
65:c. 1775
62:William
2557:Chiaha
2536:Etowah
2421:Menawa
2364:Okchai
2290:Coweta
2285:Abihka
2028:
1875:18 May
1634:
1497:
1456:
1412:
1404:
1357:
1313:
1268:, p. 3
1151:
1102:(2008)
932:Legacy
837:Museum
562:
555:
548:
541:
533:
492:Career
475:Daniel
467:Coweta
463:Chilly
433:; and
324:Senoia
283:
276:
269:
262:
254:
183:Menawa
167:Coweta
2098:, in
1628:(PDF)
1110:Notes
883:Death
870:land.
567:JSTOR
553:books
418:métis
328:Senoy
288:JSTOR
274:books
2026:ISBN
1949:2014
1922:2011
1877:2016
1725:2012
1698:2012
1672:2014
1632:ISBN
1540:2022
1495:ISBN
1454:ISBN
1426:2022
1410:OCLC
1402:ISSN
1366:2022
1355:ISSN
1311:ISBN
1149:ISBN
984:The
539:news
399:and
326:and
260:news
78:Died
58:Born
2218:at
1871:(1)
1800:doi
1013:DAR
1004:in
913:in
734:to
522:by
243:by
126:,
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23:.
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