840:(pressure gauge), with one end bent out in a horizontal direction to face the wind flow and the other vertical end capped. Though the Lind was not the first, it was the most practical and best known anemometer of this type. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube, it causes an increase of pressure on one side of the manometer. The wind over the open end of a vertical tube causes little change in pressure on the other side of the manometer. The resulting elevation difference in the two legs of the U tube is an indication of the wind speed. However, an accurate measurement requires that the wind speed be directly into the open end of the tube; small departures from the true direction of the wind causes large variations in the reading.
848:
though one connection would serve, but the differences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be considered. Thus, if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary room in which the doors and windows are carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 mi/h (16 km/h); and the opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely alter the registration.
774:
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combination of features means that they achieve high levels of data availability and are well suited to wind turbine control and to other uses that require small robust sensors such as battlefield meteorology. One issue with this sensor type is measurement accuracy when compared to a calibrated mechanical sensor. For many end uses, this weakness is compensated for by the sensor's longevity and the fact that it does not require recalibration once installed.
826:
864:, which is a pitot tube with two ports, pitot and static, that is normally used in measuring the airspeed of aircraft. The pitot port measures the dynamic pressure of the open mouth of a tube with pointed head facing the wind, and the static port measures the static pressure from small holes along the side on that tube. The pitot tube is connected to a tail so that it always makes the tube's head face the wind. Additionally, the tube is heated to prevent
844:
differences on which the action depends are very small, and special means are required to register them. The recorder consists of a float in a sealed chamber partially filled with water. The pipe from the straight tube is connected to the top of the sealed chamber and the pipe from the small tubes is directed into the bottom inside the float. Since the pressure difference determines the vertical position of the float this is a measure of the wind speed.
184:
apparatus, increasing drag in opposition to the torque produced by the cups and support arms, and friction on the mount point. When
Robinson first designed his anemometer, he asserted that the cups moved one-third of the speed of the wind, unaffected by cup size or arm length. This was apparently confirmed by some early independent experiments, but it was incorrect. Instead, the ratio of the speed of the wind and that of the cups, the
365:
1422:
361:, which follows the same concept, but uses two pins or strings to monitor the variation in temperature. The strings contain fine wires, but encasing the wires makes them much more durable and capable of accurately measuring air, gas, and emissions flow in pipes, ducts, and stacks. Industrial applications often contain dirt that will damage the classic hot-wire anemometer.
797:
of the spring determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or on a recorder. Instruments of this kind do not respond to light winds, are inaccurate for high wind readings, and are slow at responding to variable winds. Plate anemometers have been used to trigger high wind alarms on bridges.
33:
939:
843:
The successful metal pressure tube anemometer of
William Henry Dines in 1892 utilized the same pressure difference between the open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind and a ring of small holes in a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. Both are mounted at the same height. The pressure
196:
The three-cup anemometer developed by
Canadian John Patterson in 1926, and subsequent cup improvements by Brevoort & Joiner of the United States in 1935, led to a cupwheel design with a nearly linear response and an error of less than 3% up to 60 mph (97 km/h). Patterson found that each
183:
Theoretically, the anemometer's speed of rotation should be proportional to the wind speed because the force produced on an object is proportional to the speed of the gas or fluid flowing past it. However, in practice, other factors influence the rotational speed, including turbulence produced by the
159:
cups on horizontal arms mounted on a vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the shaft at a rate roughly proportional to the wind's speed. Therefore, counting the shaft's revolutions over a set time interval produced a value proportional to the average wind speed
851:
While the Dines anemometer had an error of only 1% at 10 mph (16 km/h), it did not respond very well to low winds due to the poor response of the flat plate vane required to turn the head into the wind. In 1918 an aerodynamic vane with eight times the torque of the flat plate overcame this
760:
Built into the cavity is an array of ultrasonic transducers, which are used to create the separate standing-wave patterns at ultrasonic frequencies. As wind passes through the cavity, a change in the wave's property occurs (phase shift). By measuring the amount of phase shift in the received signals
748:
Acoustic resonance anemometers are a more recent variant of sonic anemometer. The technology was invented by Savvas
Kapartis and patented in 1999. Whereas conventional sonic anemometers rely on time of flight measurement, acoustic resonance sensors use resonating acoustic (ultrasonic) waves within a
205:
The three-cup anemometer was further modified by
Australian Dr. Derek Weston in 1991 to also measure wind direction. He added a tag to one cup, causing the cupwheel speed to increase and decrease as the tag moved alternately with and against the wind. Wind direction is calculated from these cyclical
926:
In order for wind speeds to be comparable from location to location, the effect of the terrain needs to be considered, especially in regard to height. Other considerations are the presence of trees, and both natural canyons and artificial canyons (urban buildings). The standard anemometer height in
796:
invented the first such mechanical anemometer; in 1663 it was re-invented by Robert Hooke. Later versions of this form consisted of a flat plate, either square or circular, which is kept normal to the wind by a wind vane. The pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The compression
386:
that is divided into two beams, with one propagated out of the anemometer. Particulates (or deliberately introduced seed material) flowing along with air molecules near where the beam exits reflect, or backscatter, the light back into a detector, where it is measured relative to the original laser
908:
In the tube anemometer the dynamic pressure is actually being measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale. If the actual air density differs from the calibration value, due to differing temperature, elevation or barometric pressure, a correction is required to obtain the
695:
Because ultrasonic anenometers have no moving parts, they need little maintenance and can be used in harsh environments. They operate over a wide range of wind speeds. They can measure rapid changes in wind speed and direction, taking many measurements each second, and so are useful in measuring
353:
Hot-wire anemometers, while extremely delicate, have extremely high frequency-response and fine spatial resolution compared to other measurement methods, and as such are almost universally employed for the detailed study of turbulent flows, or any flow in which rapid velocity fluctuations are of
1085:
847:
The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any convenient position. Two connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as
764:
Because acoustic resonance technology enables measurement within a small cavity, the sensors tend to be typically smaller in size than other ultrasonic sensors. The small size of acoustic resonance anemometers makes them physically strong and easy to heat, and therefore resistant to icing. This
917:
At airports, it is essential to have accurate wind data under all conditions, including freezing precipitation. Anemometry is also required in monitoring and controlling the operation of wind turbines, which in cold environments are prone to in-cloud icing. Icing alters the aerodynamics of an
241:
thus combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain accurate and precise wind speed and direction measurements from the same instrument. The speed of the fan is measured by a revolution counter and converted to a windspeed by an electronic chip. Hence, volumetric flow rate may be
229:
or a propeller anemometer. Unlike the
Robinson anemometer, whose axis of rotation is vertical, the vane anemometer must have its axis parallel to the direction of the wind and is therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a
892:
attached to a string. When the wind blows horizontally, it presses on and moves the ball; because ping-pong balls are very lightweight, they move easily in light winds. Measuring the angle between the string-ball apparatus and the vertical gives an estimate of the wind speed.
321:
Hot wire anemometers use a fine wire (on the order of several micrometres) electrically heated to some temperature above the ambient. Air flowing past the wire cools the wire. As the electrical resistance of most metals is dependent upon the temperature of the metal
395:
719:
and wind turbines. Monitoring wind turbines usually requires a refresh rate of wind speed measurements of 3 Hz, easily achieved by sonic anemometers. Three-dimensional sonic anemometers are widely used to measure gas emissions and ecosystem fluxes using the
699:
Their main disadvantage is the distortion of the air flow by the structure supporting the transducers, which requires a correction based upon wind tunnel measurements to minimize the effect. Rain drops or ice on the transducers can also cause inaccuracies.
368:
Drawing of a laser anemometer. The laser light is emitted (1) through the front lens (6) of the anemometer and is backscattered off the air molecules (7). The backscattered radiation (dots) re-enters the device and is reflected and directed into a detector
350:) anemometers are also used, wherein the velocity is inferred by the time length of a repeating pulse of current that brings the wire up to a specified resistance and then stops until a threshold "floor" is reached, at which time the pulse is sent again.
338:
anemometer) and CTA (constant-temperature anemometer). The voltage output from these anemometers is thus the result of some sort of circuit within the device trying to maintain the specific variable (current, voltage or temperature) constant, following
326:
is a popular choice for hot-wires), a relationship can be obtained between the resistance of the wire and the speed of the air. In most cases, they cannot be used to measure the direction of the airflow, unless coupled with a wind vane.
710:
Measurements from pairs of transducers can be combined to yield a measurement of velocity in 1-, 2-, or 3-dimensional flow. Two-dimensional (wind speed and wind direction) sonic anemometers are used in applications such as
126:(1872–1956) developed a three-cup anemometer, which was improved by Brevoort and Joiner in 1935. In 1991, Derek Weston added the ability to measure wind direction. In 1994, Andreas Pflitsch developed the sonic anemometer.
918:
anemometer and may entirely block it from operating. Therefore, anemometers used in these applications must be internally heated. Both cup anemometers and sonic anemometers are presently available with heated versions.
636:
1258:
The habit of making weather observations regularly and systematically was encouraged by the Royal
Society, and as early as 1663 Hooke presented to the Society his paper titled 'A method for making a history of the
188:, depends on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and can have a value between two and a little over three. Once the error was discovered, all previous experiments involving anemometers had to be repeated.
559:
in air (which varies according to temperature, pressure and humidity) sound pulses are sent in both directions and the wind velocity is calculated using the forward and reverse times of flight:
245:
In cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in ventilating shafts of mines and buildings, wind vanes known as air meters are employed, and give satisfactory results.
1447:
197:
cup produced maximum torque when it was at 45° to the wind flow. The three-cup anemometer also had a more constant torque and responded more quickly to gusts than the four-cup anemometer.
909:
actual wind speed. Approximately 1.5% (1.6% above 6,000 feet) should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft (5% for each kilometer) above sea-level.
473:
1868:
428:
The time that a sonic pulse takes to travel from one transducer to its pair is inversely proportionate to the speed of sound in air plus the wind velocity in the same direction:
114:
The anemometer has changed little since its development in the 15th century. Alberti is said to have invented it around 1450. In the ensuing centuries numerous others, including
176:
of .38 on the spherical side and 1.42 on the hollow side, more force is generated on the cup that presenting its hollow side to the wind. Because of this asymmetrical force,
1596:
1054:
172:
With a four-cup anemometer, the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it, and is blowing on the back of the opposing cup. Since a hollow hemisphere has a
1172:
Giebhardt, Jochen (December 20, 2010). "Chapter 11: Wind turbine condition monitoring systems and techniques". In
Dalsgaard Sørensen, John; N Sørensen, Jens (eds.).
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formation on the tube. There are two lines from the tube down to the devices to measure the difference in pressure of the two lines. The measurement devices can be
792:
These are the first modern anemometers. They consist of a flat plate suspended from the top so that the wind deflects the plate. In 1450, the
Italian art architect
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663:
266:
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by each transducer, and then by mathematically processing the data, the sensor is able to provide an accurate horizontal measurement of wind speed and direction.
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This type of anemometer is mostly used for middle-school level instruction, which most students make on their own, but a similar device was also flown on the
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for measuring wind speed in the laser light, which is used to calculate the speed of the particles, and therefore the air around the anemometer.
140:
1589:
1475:
Meteorological
Instruments, W.E. Knowles Middleton and Athelstan F. Spilhaus, Third Edition revised, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1953
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1565:
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Since the speed of sound varies with temperature, and is virtually stable with pressure change, ultrasonic anemometers are also used as
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1181:
1050:
969:
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Modern tube anemometers use the same principle as in the Dines anemometer, but using a different design. The implementation uses a
410:
1883:
314:
1873:
1196:
Kapartis, Savvas (1999) "Anemometer employing standing wave normal to fluid flow and travelling wave normal to standing wave"
1863:
1606:
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is the wind velocity. In other words, the faster the wind is blowing, the faster the sound pulse travels. To correct for the
123:
773:
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122:(1792–1882) improved the design by using four hemispherical cups and mechanical wheels. In 1926, Canadian meteorologist
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77:
60:
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813:
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to measure wind velocity. They measure wind speed based on the time of flight of sonic pulses between pairs of
210:
1478:
Invention of the Meteorological Instruments, W. E. Knowles Middleton, The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1969
1413:
1388:
1101:
809:
Tube anemometer invented by William Henry Dines. The movable part (right) is mounted on the fixed part (left).
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37:
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103:
1446:. Instruments and Observing Methods. Vol. 81. World Meteorological Organization. pp. 19–26.
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The first designs of anemometers that measure the pressure were divided into plate and tube classes.
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118:(1635–1703), developed their own versions, with some mistakenly credited as its inventor. In 1846,
1230:
1019:
740:
1563:
The Rotorvane Anemometer. Measuring both wind speed and direction using a tagged three-cup sensor
1128:
152:
752:
330:
Several ways of implementing this exist, and hot-wire devices can be further classified as CCA (
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836:'s anemometer of 1775 consisted of a vertically mounted glass U tube containing a liquid
1404:
1288:
1272:
1174:
Wind Energy Systems: Optimising design and construction for safe and reliable operation
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102:. The earliest known description of an anemometer was by Italian architect and author
1852:
1832:
1817:
1722:
1215:
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The pointed head is the pitot port. The small holes are connected to the static port.
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1444:
Initial Guidance to Obtain Representative Meteorological Observations At Urban Sites
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changes in speed, while wind speed is determined from the average cupwheel speed.
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1152:
Sonic Anemometers (Centre for Atmospheric Science - The University of Manchester)
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45:
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Description of the development and the construction of an ultrasonic anemometer
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1002:, a simple high-visibility indicator of approximate wind speed and direction
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17:
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631:{\displaystyle v={\frac {1}{2}}L({\frac {1}{t_{1}}}-{\frac {1}{t_{2}}})}
234:
or some other contrivance to fulfill the same purpose must be employed.
1657:
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1536:
1531:
Animation Showing Sonic Principle of Operation (Time of Flight Theory)
966:, ancient device for measuring or predicting wind direction or weather
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177:
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for a wide range of speeds. This type of instrument is also called a
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32:
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small purpose-built cavity in order to perform their measurement.
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31:
1510:
1087:
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 2, Part 1, Slice 1
221:
One of the other forms of mechanical velocity anemometer is the
1578:
36:
A hemispherical-cup anemometer of the type invented in 1846 by
209:
Three-cup anemometers are currently the industry standard for
387:
beam. When the particles are in great motion, they produce a
147:
A simple type of anemometer was invented in 1845 by Rev. Dr.
180:
is generated on the anemometer's axis, causing it to spin.
417:
Ultrasonic anemometers, first developed in the 1950s, use
1414:
10.1175/1520-0426(2001)018<1457:AIIC>2.0.CO;2
357:
An industrial version of the fine-wire anemometer is the
1387:
Makkonen, Lasse; Lehtonen, Pertti; Helle, Lauri (2001).
888:
A common anemometer for basic use is constructed from a
1344:"Instrumentation: Pitot Tube Static Anemometer, Part 2"
1318:"Instrumentation: Pitot Tube Static Anemometer, Part 1"
960:, for the ancient origin of the name of this technology
382:, laser Doppler anemometers use a beam of light from a
1542:
Principle of Operation: Acoustic Resonance measurement
1277:
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
671:
644:
565:
541:
521:
501:
481:
434:
398:
Fixed mounted 2D ultrasonic anemometer with 3 paths.
1501:. Vol. 2 (9th ed.). 1878. pp. 24–26.
821:. The pitot tube static anemometer is on the right.
684:
657:
630:
547:
527:
507:
487:
467:
303:Hand-held digital anemometer or Byram anenometer.
242:calculated if the cross-sectional area is known.
1231:"A Method for making a History of the Weather"
780:clubhouse tour, burgee, and wind gauge on roof
1590:
1393:Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology
8:
1869:Meteorological instrumentation and equipment
1607:meteorological equipment and instrumentation
1521:. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). pp. 2–3.
1346:. Mt. Washington Observatory. Archived from
1320:. Mt. Washington Observatory. Archived from
1553:Thermopedia, "Anemometers (pulsed thermal)"
1218:- Istituto e Museo di Storia della Scienza.
1131:. United States Patent and Trademark Office
90: 'measure') is a device that measures
1597:
1583:
1575:
1548:Thermopedia, "Anemometers (laser doppler)"
1235:The History of the Royal Society of London
1412:
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363:
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247:
1254:"History of the Meteorological Office"
1214:. Scientific itineraries in Tuscany.
515:is the distance between transducers,
275:propeller anemometer incorporating a
7:
1108:from the original on 10 October 2006
1035:Sighard Hoerner's Fluid Dynamic Drag
724:method when used with fast-response
468:{\displaystyle t={\frac {L}{(c+v)}}}
98:. It is a common instrument used in
1537:Collection of historical anemometer
291:Hand-held low-speed vane anemometer
27:Instrument for measuring wind speed
665:is the forward time of flight and
25:
1558:Thermopedia, "Anemometers (vane)"
1102:"Hot-wire Anemometer explanation"
1051:World Meteorological Organization
970:Automated airport weather station
927:open rural terrain is 10 meters.
904:Effect of density on measurements
535:is the speed of sound in air and
1420:
1389:"Anemometry in Icing Conditions"
1038:, 1965, pp. 3–17, Figure 32
937:
296:
284:
265:
253:
1453:from the original on 2022-10-09
400:Central spike keeps birds away.
1437:"3.5 Wind speed and direction"
1256:. Cambridge University Press.
1176:. Elsevier. pp. 329–349.
1127:Iten, Paul D. (29 June 1976).
736:Acoustic resonance anemometers
625:
585:
459:
447:
1:
856:Pitot tube static anemometers
744:Acoustic resonance anemometer
715:, ship navigation, aviation,
696:turbulent air flow patterns.
819:Mount Washington Observatory
756:Acoustic resonance principle
1212:"Windvanes and anemometers"
1022:. Logic Energy. 2012-06-18.
1020:"History of the Anemometer"
225:. It may be described as a
149:John Thomas Romney Robinson
38:John Thomas Romney Robinson
1900:
1129:"Laser Doppler Anemometer"
980:Particle image velocimetry
884:Ping-pong ball anemometers
76:
59:
1613:
380:laser Doppler velocimetry
374:Laser Doppler anemometers
73: 'wind' and
1374:20 February 2012 at the
1273:"Anemometer Comparisons"
413:3D ultrasonic anemometer
260:Vane style of anemometer
211:wind resource assessment
201:Three cup wind direction
143:Cup anemometer animation
1884:15th-century inventions
1688:Ice accretion indicator
1518:Encyclopædia Britannica
1498:Encyclopædia Britannica
1369:"The Telltale project."
1229:Hooke, Robert (1746) .
495:is the time of flight,
155:. It consisted of four
1874:Navigational equipment
1728:Present weather sensor
1084:Various (2018-01-01).
990:Wind power forecasting
830:
822:
810:
781:
757:
745:
726:infrared gas analyzers
686:
659:
632:
549:
529:
509:
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419:ultrasonic sound waves
414:
405:Ultrasonic anemometers
401:
370:
348:pulse-width modulation
318:
213:studies and practice.
144:
120:Thomas Romney Robinson
41:
1864:Measuring instruments
1297:10.1002/qj.4970188303
1271:Dines, W. H. (1892).
1199:U.S. patent 5,877,416
985:Savonius wind turbine
975:Night of the Big Wind
828:
816:
808:
794:Leon Battista Alberti
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685:{\displaystyle t_{2}}
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658:{\displaystyle t_{1}}
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142:
106:(1404–1472) in 1450.
104:Leon Battista Alberti
35:
1653:Dark adaptor goggles
1507:Dines, William Henry
1435:Oke, Tim R. (2006).
1090:. Prabhat Prakashan.
874:pressure transducers
778:Britannia Yacht Club
769:Pressure anemometers
669:
642:
563:
539:
519:
499:
479:
432:
309:Hot-wire anemometers
130:Velocity anemometers
1405:2001JAtOT..18.1457M
1289:1892QJRMS..18..165D
922:Instrument location
898:Phoenix Mars Lander
346:Additionally, PWM (
1859:Italian inventions
1698:Lightning detector
1568:2019-09-10 at the
1533:– Gill Instruments
1512:"Anemometer"
1492:"Anemometer"
831:
823:
811:
782:
758:
746:
732:-based analyzers.
682:
655:
628:
545:
525:
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485:
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402:
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359:thermal flow meter
334:anemometer), CVA (
319:
153:Armagh Observatory
145:
42:
1846:
1845:
1788:Thermo-hygrograph
1778:Sunshine recorder
1643:Ceiling projector
1544:– FT Technologies
1252:Walker, Malcolm.
1055:"Vane anemometer"
862:pitot-static tube
788:Plate anemometers
623:
603:
580:
548:{\displaystyle v}
528:{\displaystyle c}
508:{\displaystyle L}
488:{\displaystyle t}
463:
186:anemometer factor
16:(Redirected from
1891:
1828:Whole sky camera
1773:Stevenson screen
1678:Heat flux sensor
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1061:. Archived from
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947:
945:Geography portal
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801:Tube anemometers
713:weather stations
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336:constant voltage
332:constant current
300:
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249:Vane anemometers
217:Vane anemometers
174:drag coefficient
100:weather stations
87:
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63:
21:
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1808:Weather balloon
1803:Transmissometer
1768:Sounding rocket
1713:Pan evaporation
1638:Ceiling balloon
1609:
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1570:Wayback Machine
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1350:on 14 July 2014
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913:Effect of icing
906:
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878:chart recorders
858:
817:Instruments at
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722:eddy covariance
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317:Hot-wire sensor
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239:vane anemometer
223:vane anemometer
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135:Cup anemometers
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717:weather buoys
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692:the reverse.
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54:Ancient Greek
51:
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1823:Weather vane
1813:Weather buoy
1703:Nephelometer
1617:
1605:Earth-based
1516:
1496:
1455:. Retrieved
1443:
1430:
1396:
1392:
1382:
1364:
1352:. Retrieved
1348:the original
1338:
1326:. Retrieved
1322:the original
1312:
1300:. Retrieved
1280:
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1257:
1247:
1234:
1224:
1206:
1192:
1173:
1167:
1156:, retrieved
1151:
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1135:18 September
1133:. Retrieved
1122:
1112:18 September
1110:. Retrieved
1096:
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1079:
1067:. Retrieved
1063:the original
1058:
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164:anemometer.
161:
146:
116:Robert Hooke
113:
84:
81:
74:
67:
64:
57:
49:
43:
29:
1793:Thermometer
1783:Tethersonde
1763:Solarimeter
1753:Snow pillow
1718:Pyranometer
1663:Disdrometer
1399:(9): 1457.
1283:(83): 168.
1158:29 February
423:transducers
46:meteorology
1879:Wind power
1853:Categories
1798:Tide gauge
1743:Snow gauge
1738:Rain gauge
1733:Radiosonde
1708:Nephoscope
1683:Hygrometer
1673:Field mill
1648:Ceilometer
1618:Anemometer
1469:References
1457:4 February
1104:. eFunda.
964:Anemoscope
870:manometers
834:James Lind
354:interest.
162:rotational
92:wind speed
52:(from
50:anemometer
18:Wind meter
1748:Snowboard
1668:Dropsonde
1633:Barometer
1628:Barograph
1623:Atmometer
852:problem.
838:manometer
606:−
341:Ohm's law
277:wind vane
232:wind vane
192:Three cup
96:direction
1838:Windsock
1566:Archived
1509:(1911).
1448:Archived
1372:Archived
1259:weather'
1106:Archived
1059:Eumetcal
1000:Windsock
995:Wind run
931:See also
866:rime ice
324:tungsten
273:Helicoid
227:windmill
168:Four cup
1658:Dewcell
1401:Bibcode
1354:14 July
1328:14 July
1302:14 July
1285:Bibcode
1069:6 April
110:History
1180:
958:Anemoi
638:where
475:where
178:torque
85:métron
78:μέτρον
68:ánemos
61:άνεμος
1758:SODAR
1693:Lidar
1451:(PDF)
1440:(PDF)
1237:. By
1007:Notes
730:laser
384:laser
369:(12).
56:
48:, an
1459:2013
1356:2014
1330:2014
1304:2014
1178:ISBN
1160:2024
1137:2006
1114:2006
1071:2014
94:and
1409:doi
1293:doi
728:or
378:In
151:of
44:In
1855::
1515:.
1495:.
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1407:.
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237:A
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483:t
460:)
457:v
454:+
451:c
448:(
444:L
439:=
436:t
322:(
88:)
82:(
71:)
65:(
40:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
