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967:, the different ways in which we make sense of the world around us. That is done by employing the mental skills at one's disposal like thinking, perception, memory, awareness, reasoning, and judgment. Although cognitive processes can be only inferred and cannot be seen directly, they all have very important practical implications within a legal context.
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If one were to accept that the way people think, perceive, reason, and judge is not always perfect, it becomes easier to understand why cognitive processes and the factors influencing the processes are studied by psychologists in matters of law, one being the grave implications that this imperfection
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is someone who claimed to have witnessed an event or have hearsay information, but whose identity is being withheld from at least one party (typically the criminal defendant). The information from the confidential informant may have been used by a police officer or other official acting as a hearsay
946:
in which the eyewitness picks out a suspect from a group of people in the police station are often grossly suggestive, and they give the false impression that the witness remembered the suspect. In another study, students watched a staged crime. An hour later they looked through photos. A week later
634:
witness is one who testifies about what someone else said or wrote. In most court proceedings there are many limitations on when hearsay evidence is admissible. Such limitations do not apply to grand jury investigations, many administrative proceedings, and may not apply to declarations used in
928:
may result from such factors as faulty observation and recollection, or bias, or may involve a witness's knowingly giving false testimony. If several people witness a crime, it is possible to look for commonalities in their testimony, which are more likely to represent events as they occurred,
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is one who allegedly has specialized knowledge relevant to the matter of interest, which knowledge purportedly helps to either make sense of other evidence, including other testimony, documentary evidence or physical evidence (e.g., a fingerprint). An expert witness may or may not also be a
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is one who incriminates former accomplices in a crime who following receive either a lower sentence, immunity or also a protection of themselves or/and their family by the court. After they have provided the court with their testimony they often enter into a witness protection program.
994:, whose testimony is perceived as truthful and believable. Other witnesses may be perceived as less credible, or to have no credibility. Assessment of credibility is made of each witness, and is not affected by the number of witnesses who testify. Several factors affect witnesses'
929:
although differences are to be expected and don't of themselves indicate dishonesty. Witness identification will help investigators get an idea of what a criminal suspect looks like, but eyewitness recollection include mistaken or misleading elements.
1405:
Dowd, Rebecca; Hunter, Jill; Liddell, Belinda; McAdam, Jane; Nickerson, Angela; Bryant, Richard (11 July 2018). "Filling Gaps and
Verifying Facts: Assumptions and Credibility Assessment in the Australian Refugee Review Tribunal".
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they were asked to pick the suspect out of lineups. 8% of the people in the lineups were mistakenly identified as criminals. 20% of the innocent people whose photographs were included were mistakenly identified.
208:
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The study of witness memory has dominated the realm of investigation. As Huff and
Rattner note, the single most important factor contributing to wrongful conviction is eyewitness misidentification.
940:; others heard from a clerk who claimed to identify the defendant. In the former case, 18% percent found the defendant guilty, but in the latter case, 72% found the defendant guilty (Loftus 1988).
896:
means calling a witness, who has already given testimony in a proceeding, to give further testimony. A court may give leave to a party to recall a witness only to give evidence about a matter
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Leippe, Michael R.; Manion, Andrew P.; Romanczyk, Ann (August 1992). "Eyewitness persuasion: How and how well do fact finders judge the accuracy of adults' and children's memory reports?".
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Huff, C. Ronald; Rattner, Arye; Sagarin, Edward; MacNamara, Donal E. J. (5 September 2016). "Guilty Until Proved
Innocent: Wrongful Conviction and Public Policy".
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in a criminal case. Jurors heard a description of a robbery-murder, a prosecution argument, and then an argument for the defense. Some jurors heard only
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Witnesses are usually permitted to testify only what they experienced first-hand. In most cases, they may not testify about something they were told (
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Another study looked at 65 cases of "erroneous criminal convictions of innocent people." In 45% of the cases, eyewitness mistakes were responsible.
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is someone who, either voluntarily or under compulsion, provides testimonial evidence, either oral or written, of what they know or claim to know.
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support of an arrest or search warrant. Also some types of statements are not deemed to be hearsay and are not subject to such limitations.
64:
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Ebbesen, Ebbe B.; Rienick, Cynthia B. (1998). "Retention interval and eyewitness memory for events and personal identifying attributes".
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Lakatos, I. (1970). Falsification and the methodology of scientific research programmes. In: Lakatos, I. & Musgrave, A. E. (eds.),
1021:, a credible witness is one "whose credibility commends itself to the presiding magistrate ... the trustworthiness" of whom is good.
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Roediger III, H. L. (2001). Reconstructive Memory, Psychology of. IN: Smelser, N. J. & Baltes, P. B. (eds.) International
1037:, a credible witness to a Will means a witness who is not incapacitated by mental deficiency, conflict of interest, or crime.
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may be used by the side that called the witness but usually only to contradict specific testimony from the cross-examination.
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by another party if the second party's testimony contradicts evidence given by the original witness on direct examination.
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Read, J. D. (2001). Eyewitness Memory: Psychological
Aspects. IN: Smelser, N. J. & Baltes, P. B. (eds.) International
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Although informally a witness includes whoever perceived the event, in law, a witness is different from an informant. A
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Credible witnesses must be used to give meaning or existence to certain types of legal documents. For example, in most
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Newcombe, Peter A.; Bransgrove, Jennifer (July 2007). "Perceptions of witness credibility: Variations across age".
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368:
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Johnson, M. K. (2001). False
Memories, Psychology of. IN: Smelser, N. J. & Baltes, P. B. (eds.) International
912:). That restriction does not apply to expert witnesses, but they may testify only in the area of their expertise.
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617:, touch). That perception might be either with the unaided human sense or with the aid of an instrument, such as
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percipient witness, as in a doctor or may or may not have treated the victim of an accident or crime.
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Wong, Anna (2020). "Looks Can Be
Deceiving: The Irrelevance of Demeanour in Witness Assessments".
1140:"Good practices for the protection of witnesses in criminal proceedings involving organized crime"
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is a legal document that commands a person to appear at a proceeding. It is used to compel the
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Tenney, Elizabeth R.; MacCoun, Robert J.; Spellman, Barbara A.; Hastie, Reid (January 2007).
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The formal study of eyewitness memory is usually undertaken within the broader category of
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testifies about the personality of a defendant if it helps to solve the crime in question.
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513:, before a deposition officer, or in a variety of other legal proceedings. A
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Thompson C P, Herrmann D, Read J D, Bruce D, Payne D G, Toglia, M P (1998).
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The people's law dictionary : taking the mystery out of legal language
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A witness might be compelled to provide testimony in court, before a grand
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Although eyewitness testimony is often assumed to be more reliable than
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882:. The opposing side then may ask their own questions in what is called
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Convicting the
Innocent: Sixty-Five Actual Errors of Criminal Justice
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1685:. Cambridge, MA: Harward University Press. (Original edition: 1979).
1460:"Calibration Trumps Confidence as a Basis for Witness Credibility"
1171:"Witness protection and anonymity | The Crown Prosecution Service"
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565:, it is compulsory to comply with the subpoena and either take an
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1611:(3rd ed.). London: Butterworths. 1988. pp. 373–374.
1347:"NCJRS Abstract - National Criminal Justice Reference Service"
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Victims and witnesses of crime (Directgov, England and Wales)
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One study involved an experiment, in which subjects acted as
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is a person who acts as a witness, including through giving
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Adult
Eyewitness Testimony: Current Trends and Developments
1297:"University of Nebraska Center for Great Plains Studies"
803:
1718:
Eyewitness Memory: Theoretical and
Applied Perspective
1654:
Understanding
History: A Primer of Historical Method
1711:
Identification Evidence: A Psychological Evaluation
1678:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 59–89.
601:) is one with knowledge obtained through their own
1697:Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences
1690:Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences
1669:Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences
953:effects in which the presence of a weapon impairs
677:is one whose identity is kept secret by the court.
1253:Loftus, Belinda; Coppock, Christopher (1988).
27:Person who can attest to the reality of a fact
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1601:
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971:can have within the criminal justice system.
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8:
1709:Shepherd J W, Ellis H D, Davies G M (1982).
1692:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. (pp. 5217–5221).
1671:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. (pp. 5254–5259).
1559:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
1532:Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology
755:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
714:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1505:Lehman, Jeffrey; Phelps, Shirelle (2005).
957:for surrounding details is also an issue.
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472:
98:
1713:. Aberdeen University Press, Aberdeen, UK
1609:Words and phrases legally defined, Vol. 1
828:Learn how and when to remove this message
775:Learn how and when to remove this message
87:Learn how and when to remove this message
866:In a court proceeding, a witness may be
50:This article includes a list of general
1706:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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573:to testify truthfully under penalty of
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1702:Ross D F, Read J D, Toglia M P (1994)
1638:. New York: Fordham University Press.
1509:. Detroit: Thomson/Gale. p. 407.
1683:Eyewitness Testimony. Revised edition
1676:Criticism and the Growth of Knowledge
870:(requested to testify) by either the
7:
1408:International Journal of Refugee Law
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1107:
753:adding citations to reliable sources
585:witness to obtain a search warrant.
1699:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 12844–12849.
1507:West's Encyclopedia of American Law
1009:, a credible witness is one who is
56:it lacks sufficient corresponding
25:
1025:Witnessing of wills and documents
695:This section has multiple issues.
525:. Usually, it can be issued by a
1476:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01847.x
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41:
1075:(a word which originally meant
703:or discuss these issues on the
1656:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
1634:Garraghan, Gilbert J. (1946).
1088:United States Marshals Service
1:
1681:Loftus, Elizabeth F. (1996).
1313:10.1080/2052546.1977.11908818
1220:Journal of Applied Psychology
1636:A Guide to Historical Method
1544:10.1016/j.appdev.2007.04.003
394:Declaration against interest
262:Self-authenticating document
1437:. New York, NY: MJF Books.
1384:10.1177/0011128786032004007
1053:Eyewitness (disambiguation)
509:, before an administrative
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1571:10.1037/0022-3514.63.2.181
1232:10.1037/0021-9010.83.5.745
29:
1307:(75): 50. February 1977.
1058:Eyewitness identification
926:eyewitness identification
272:Hague Evidence Convention
161:Eyewitness identification
1433:Hill, Gerald N. (2002).
1031:common law jurisdictions
859:as a witness during the
399:Present sense impression
209:Public policy exclusions
32:Witness (disambiguation)
1372:Crime & Delinquency
1047:Courthouse facility dog
938:circumstantial evidence
922:circumstantial evidence
71:more precise citations.
1720:. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
1586:Criminal Law Quarterly
863:
582:confidential informant
176:Consciousness of guilt
1736:Child Witness Project
1464:Psychological Science
1301:Plains Anthropologist
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325:Recorded recollection
888:redirect examination
749:improve this section
359:in United States law
30:For other uses, see
1420:10.1093/ijrl/eey017
1336:by Borchard, pg 367
1255:"Bridging the Gulf"
965:cognitive processes
894:Recalling a witness
555:criminal proceeding
199:Laying a foundation
1741:2013-10-12 at the
1151:. 2008. p. 19
1093:Witness protection
880:direct examination
864:
802:. You can help by
521:of a witness in a
455:trusts and estates
335:Dead Man's Statute
300:Direct examination
257:Best evidence rule
1731:Eyewitness memory
1650:Gottschalk, Louis
1063:Eyewitness memory
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416:Implied assertion
379:Dying declaration
374:Excited utterance
320:Proffer agreement
305:Cross-examination
118:Types of evidence
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978:Credibility
916:Reliability
872:prosecution
853: [
623:stethoscope
543:civil trial
364:Confessions
315:Impeachment
204:Materiality
151:Inculpatory
146:Exculpatory
131:Documentary
69:introducing
1757:Categories
1356:2018-04-16
1204:2022-11-05
1180:2020-12-14
1155:21 October
1125:2020-10-22
1099:References
1003:common law
700:improve it
619:microscope
599:eyewitness
595:percipient
561:. In many
557:, or by a
547:prosecutor
545:or by the
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426:common law
405:Res gestae
290:Competence
214:Spoliation
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1275:0263-9475
1068:Informant
988:testimony
904:Testimony
736:does not
706:talk page
539:defendant
535:plaintiff
519:testimony
295:Privilege
281:Witnesses
219:Character
185:Relevance
126:Testimony
18:Witnesses
1739:Archived
1652:(1950).
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1041:See also
515:subpoena
511:tribunal
446:Property
436:Contract
310:Redirect
103:Evidence
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1015:hearsay
910:hearsay
898:adduced
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874:or the
757:removed
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1279:JSTOR
1259:Circa
1143:(PDF)
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