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informant. Malcom allowed them to search, but denied them access to a locked cellar, arguing that they did not have the legal authority to break it open. According to customs officials, Malcom threatened to use force to prevent them from opening the door; according to Malcom and his supporters, his threat specified resisting any
211:
lawyer, James Otis. According to Reid, Malcom and Otis may have been attempting to provoke a lawsuit so that they could once again "challenge the validity of writs of assistance" in court. This was one of several incidents when a Boston merchant resisted a search with a seemingly exact knowledge of the law;
315:
unrelated to any particular suspected offence and of continuing operation, which are issued to members of the Royal
Canadian Mounted Police and other officers in the service of the Government of Canada to have effect as long as the holder continues to hold the position by virtue of which the writ was
182:
A writ of assistance was used in an incident known as the "Malcom Affair", which was described by legal scholar
William Cuddihy as "the most famous search in colonial America." The episode demonstrated a fundamental difference between the colonists' view of their rights and the official British view
323:
in a 1983 report, "n essence, they are documents that identify their holders as members of a specific class of peace officers with special powers of warrantless search and seizure." Moreover, although search warrants are subject to various common law requirements of particularity, the same was not
267:
Writs of assistance continue to have force in the United
Kingdom and may be used by customs officers to enter any building by force and search and seize anything liable to forfeiture. The officer must have reasonable grounds to suspect that goods liable for forfeiture are kept on the premises and
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On 24 September 1766, customs officials in Boston, with a deputy sheriff, searched merchant Daniel Malcom's home, which was also his place of business. They claimed the authority to do so by a writ of assistance issued to customs official
Benjamin Hallowell, and the information of a confidential
210:
Although
British officials, and some historians, described Malcom as acting in defiance of the law, the constitutional historian John Phillip Reid argued that Malcom's actions were lawful—so precisely lawful, in fact, that Reid speculated that Malcom may have been acting under the advice of his
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issued to him." Perhaps more concisely, one commentator described the legal effect of a writ of assistance as, "to all intents and purposes, a blanket warrant" which "authorizes the holder to search for particular things (e.g., controlled drugs or smuggled goods) anywhere and at any time."
183:
of imperial law. "The Malcom affair was a minor matter, a comedy of blundering revenue officers and barricaded colonials," wrote legal historian John
Phillip Reid, "but were we to dismiss it in haste we might run the risk of dismissing much of the story of the American Revolution."
127:
Among the grounds for which the colonists opposed the writs were that they were permanent and even transferable; the holder of a writ could assign it to another; any place could be searched at the whim of the holder; and searchers were not responsible for any damage they caused.
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that the goods are likely to be removed, destroyed or lost before a search warrant can be obtained and executed. Writs of assistance are valid from the date of issue and cease to be valid six months after the end of the reign of the monarch under which the order was issued.
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and the customs officials created the impression in
Britain that a riot had taken place. The incident furthered Boston's reputation in Britain as a lawless town controlled by "mobs", a reputation that would contribute to the government's decision to send troops in 1768.
43:
or a tax collector, to perform a certain task. Historically, several types of writs have been called "writs of assistance". Most often, a writ of assistance is "used to enforce an order for the possession of lands". When used to
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on 25 October 1760, all writs would expire on 25 April 1761. The crisis began on 27 December 1760 when news of King George II's death reached Boston and the people of
Massachusetts learned that all writs faced termination.
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99:
thereby generating the perception in the colonies that the colonists were being treated unfairly. John Adams was to later assert that the ensuing court battle was the "seeds of the
American Revolution."
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75:
that did not expire, allowing customs officials to search anywhere for smuggled goods without having to obtain a specific warrant. These writs became controversial when they were issued by courts in
152:
in Boston in
February 1761 and again on 16 November 1761. Otis gave the speech of his life, making references to liberty, English common law, "a man's house is his castle," and the colonists's "
319:
However, since judicial authorization was not required for any given search conducted pursuant to a writ of assistance, this characterization is somewhat misleading. Rather, as noted by the
1498:
1477:
87:, which forbids general search warrants in the United States of America. Though generally these colonial writs were no more onerous than the ones enforced in Britain, a fallacious 1760
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68:
goods. These writs were called "writs of assistance" because they called upon sheriffs, other officials, and loyal subjects to "assist" the customs official in carrying out his duties.
300:
and other federal officers, on a mandatory basis, for enforcement purposes. The notion of a writ of assistance in Canadian statute dates back at least to 1847, when a statute of the
256:
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also contained a particularity requirement that outlawed the use of writs of assistance (and all general search warrants) by the federal government. Later, the Fourth Amendment was
1148:
702:
664:
946:
R.S.C 1985, c. C-40, s. 132; R.S.C. 1985, c. E-12; R.S.C. 1985, c. F-27, s. 37(1)(a); R.S.C. 1985, c. N-1, s. 10(1)(a). See Criminal Law Amendment, 1985, R.S.C. 1985 C-19, ss.
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was passed providing for writs of assistance in customs enforcement; a statute of Nova Scotia referred to such a writ in 1834, while a New Brunswick statute dated to 1846.
248:
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The officials left and returned with a specific search warrant, only to find that Malcom had locked his house. A crowd supportive of Malcom had gathered around the house;
84:
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The court ruled against the merchants. However, Otis's arguments were published in the colonies, and stirred widespread support for colonial rights. As a young lawyer
1141:
163:
observed the case in the packed courtroom. Moved by Otis's performance and legal arguments, he later declared that "Then and there the child Independence was born".
79:
between 1755 and 1760 (then mirroring like writs having previously been issued, and being enforced, in the motherland by Britain's Exchequer Court), especially the
148:
A countersuit was filed by a British customs agent Paxton, and together these are known as "Paxton's case". Otis argued the famous writs of assistance case at the
1066:
Clancy, Thomas K., "The Importance of James Otis," 82 Miss. L.J. 487 (2013), discussing significance of Otis's argument for development of the Fourth Amendment.
247:
used in period cases to refer to an express requirement that the target of a search warrant must be "particularly" described in detail. Several years later, the
120:, smuggling had become common. However, officers could not search a person's property without giving a reason. Colonists protested that the writs violated their
227:
Uncertainty about the legality of writs of assistance issued by colonial superior courts prompted Parliament to affirm that such writs were legal in the 1767
231:. However, most colonial courts refused to issue general writs, and the Malcom case was apparently the last time a writ of assistance was issued in Boston.
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In a pamphlet published in 1765, Otis expanded his argument that the general writs violated the British unwritten constitution hearkening back to the
337:
838:
726:
622:
Josiah Quincy Reports of Cases...In the Superior Court of Judicature...Between 1761 and 1772, at 479–482 and in Appendix (Samuel Quincy, 1865)
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insisted that this was a peaceful gathering of about 50 curious onlookers, mostly boys. No violence occurred, but reports written by Governor
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All writs of assistance expired six months after the death of the king, at which time new writs had to be obtained. With the death of
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1003:
988:
588:
553:
529:
215:, a prominent merchant and well-known smuggler, would act in a similar manner when customs officials attempted to search his ship
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in their constitutions when they established independent governments in 1776; the phrase "particularity requirement" is the legal
203:
252:
195:
1421:
297:
199:
80:
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112:
and the creation of the United States of America. In 1760, Great Britain began to enforce some of the provisions of the
795:"Time to Recodify Criminal Law and Rise above Law and Order Expediency: Lessons from the Manitoba Warriors Prosecution"
1188:
328:
144:
Within three weeks, the writs were challenged by a group of 63 Boston merchants represented by fiery Boston attorney
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132:
1409:
1284:
1171:
1503:
1166:
320:
149:
745:"Persistence and Variability of DNA: Penile Washings and Intimate Bodily Examinations in Sex-Related Offences"
239:
In response to the much-hated general writs, several of the colonies included a particularity requirement for
1105:
Dickerson, Oliver M. "Writs of Assistance as a Cause of the American Revolution". In Richard B. Morris, ed.,
1397:
1088:
308:
876:
1518:
1403:
1109:(1939), 40–75. Argues that the writs did not play a major role in the coming of the American Revolution.
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668:
362:
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659:
292:
153:
121:
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claimed that this "mob" numbered 300 or more people and was hostile to the customs officers, while
109:
1240:
301:
286:
61:
824:
816:
108:
General writs of assistance played an important role in the increasing tensions that led to the
60:. In the area of customs, writs of assistance date from Colonial times. They were issued by the
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1267:
1206:
603:
Infamous Scribblers: The Founding Fathers and the Rowdy Beginnings of American Journalism,
113:
76:
1069:
Cuddihy, William J. "'A Man's House is His Castle': New Light on an Old Case", review of
722:
498:
Court files Suffolk vol. 572 March 1765 no 100.5156 Application merchants 19 January 1761
1016:
Parker, G. E. "The Extraordinary Power to Search and Seize and the Writ of Assistance."
1513:
1352:
1342:
1331:
1294:
1273:
709:
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312:
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Statutory writs of assistance were described by the Exchequer Court of Canada (now the
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72:
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49:
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1056:. The only full-length book on Paxton's case, it reprints many original documents.
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244:
171:
167:
117:
1390:
160:
1255:
414:
406:
65:
511:, pp 328–9, Charles C. Little and James Brown, Boston, Massachusetts, 1847.
409:. c. 19, s. 1) though the first mention of the phrase was in the follow-up
1229:
774:
Trasewick, E. W. (1962–1963). "Search Warrants and Writs of Assistance".
485:
These facts are established by many sources including Thomas Hutchinson,
296:—provided that writs of assistance were to be granted to officers of the
45:
429:
424:
p.11 (footnote 16), (Kindle Edition). See also George Elliott Howard,
1358:
40:
633:
Unreasonable Searches and Seizures: Rights and Liberties under the Law
892:
760:
583:
The Words We Live By, p 158, Hyperion, New York, New York, 2003.
572:
pp 46–7, Little, Brown & Company, Boston, Massachusetts, 1943.
83:. Controversy over these general writs of assistance inspired the
36:
983:. Ottawa, Ontario: Minister of Supply and Services Canada, 1983.
865:, 2 Ex CR 645, 1965 CarswellNat 337 (Exchequer Court) at para 2.
341:. Statutory writs of assistance were repealed in Canada in 1985.
32:
1137:
794:
744:
1031:. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1979.
981:
Police Powers — Search and Seizure in Criminal Law Enforcement
91:
article asserted the writs issued in the motherland "...were
1084:
The Fourth Amendment: Origins and Original Meaning, 602–1791
1119:
Wolkins George G. "Daniel Malcom and Writs of Assistance".
931:
378:(Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam, -Webster, 1996), 538.
605:
pp 141–2, 201, Public Affairs, New York, New York, 2006.
71:
In general, customs writs of assistance served as general
1112:
Frese, Joseph. "James Otis and the Writs of Assistance".
331:
declared statutory writs of assistance to be contrary to
648:,12 – 32, 57 – 59, 135–36n32; Knollenberg, "Growth", 215
401:
Enactments of the British Parliament beginning with the
1011:
Documentary Source Book of American History, 1606–1913
1126:
Wolkins George G. "Writs of Assistance in England".
1431:
1341:
1316:
1283:
1239:
1199:
1025:In a Rebellious Spirit: The Argument of Facts, the
434:
Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society
430:George G Wolkins "Writs of Assistance in England."
324:evidently true for statutory writs of assistance.
249:Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution
85:Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution
39:instructing a law enforcement official, such as a
1499:British laws relating to the American Revolution
1048:Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978.
276:Until 1985, four federal statutes in Canada—the
170:. Any law in violation of the constitution or "
1029:Riot, and the Coming of the American Revolution
1020:1, no. 6 (April 1963): 688–728. Via HeinOnline.
548:, pp 21–23, Viking, New York, New York, 2005.
389:"Writ of Assistance Law & Legal Definition"
815:Parker, "Extraordinary Power," 709–10, citing
487:The History of the Colony of Massachusetts Bay
1149:
996:Growth of the American Revolution, 1766–1775.
116:by granting customs officers these writs. In
8:
1128:Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings
1121:Massachusetts Historical Society Proceedings
937:, 48 OR (2d) 643, 1984 CanLII 2156 (Ont CA).
524:p 158, Hyperion, New York, New York, 2003.
359:"Amendment IV: Writs of Assistance 1761–72"
259:, and writs of assistance were proscribed.
1156:
1142:
1134:
426:Preliminaries of the revolution, 1763–1775
1191:, and other legal issues relating to the
1018:University of British Columbia Law Review
723:"Customs and Excise Management Act 1979"
540:
538:
465:. New York: Basic Books. pp. 3–40.
174:" which underlay it, he said, was void.
631:Otis H. Stephens and Richard A. Glenn,
564:
562:
350:
338:Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
782:: 341 – via WestlawNext Canada.
738:
736:
64:to help customs officials search for
7:
570:Origins of the American Revolution,
376:Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Law
1107:The Era of the American Revolution
839:"'No-Knock' Writs Issue in Canada"
25:
979:Law Reform Commission of Canada.
918:Law Reform Commission of Canada,
905:Law Reform Commission of Canada,
1473:
1472:
1165:
1460:Taxation without representation
877:"Writs of Assistance in Canada"
805:(1): 103–04 – via CanLII.
546:The Unknown American Revolution
321:Law Reform Commission of Canada
52:, such a writ is also called a
837:Walz, Jay (6 September 1970).
489:(3 vols. 1764–1828; 1765–1828)
1:
1381:Administration of Justice Act
1077:7, no. 1 (March 1979), 64–69.
1045:The Writs of Assistance Case.
817:10 & 11 Vic. c. 31, s. 69
298:Royal Canadian Mounted Police
81:Province of Massachusetts Bay
1376:Massachusetts Government Act
1071:The Writs of Assistance Case
1013:. New York: Macmillan, 1920.
998:New York: Free Press, 1975.
1075:Reviews in American History
255:against the states via the
1545:
1251:Royal Proclamation of 1763
743:Burchill, John W. (2019).
122:rights as British subjects
1524:Law of the United Kingdom
1468:
1410:Proclamation of Rebellion
1182:
461:Amar, Akhil Reed (2021).
1422:Taxation of Colonies Act
685:Writs of Assistance Case
449:Writs of Assistance Case
1398:Conciliatory Resolution
1089:Oxford University Press
994:Knollenberg, Bernhard.
875:Faulkner, John (1971).
436:, vol. 66, pp. 357-364.
422:The Words That Made Us,
329:Ontario Court of Appeal
1406:(March and April 1775)
1325:ministries (1766–1770)
863:Re Writs of Assistance
776:Criminal Law Quarterly
509:The American Loyalists
463:The Words That Made Us
31:is a written order (a
1114:New England Quarterly
922:, section 90 (p. 37).
909:, section 84 (p. 35).
635:(ABC-CLIO, 2006), 39.
522:The Words We Live By,
417:. c. 11, s. 4). See:
363:University of Chicago
263:In the United Kingdom
223:End of colonial writs
1439:Rights of Englishmen
1081:Cuddihy, William J.
1023:Reid, John Phillip.
1009:MacDonald, William.
821:4 Wm. IV c. 50, s. 6
799:Manitoba Law Journal
793:Stuart, Don (2000).
749:Manitoba Law Journal
660:Maryland v. Garrison
293:Narcotic Control Act
257:Fourteenth Amendment
154:rights as Englishmen
139:
1285:Rockingham ministry
1193:American Revolution
1185:Royal Proclamations
1176:American Revolution
1116:30 (1957): 496–508.
763:– via CanLII.
110:American Revolution
104:In colonial America
54:writ of restitution
18:Writs of assistance
1444:Writ of assistance
1432:Other legal issues
1241:Grenville ministry
1189:Acts of Parliament
1130:66 (1941), 357–64.
881:Alberta Law Review
843:The New York Times
825:9 Vic. c. 2, s. 13
507:Sabine, Lorenzo.
428:(1906), p.73, and
391:. U.S. Legal, Inc.
302:Province of Canada
287:Food and Drugs Act
62:Court of Exchequer
58:writ of possession
29:writ of assistance
1486:
1485:
1098:978-0-19-536719-5
1054:978-0-520-03349-8
727:National Archives
698:Stanford v. Texas
646:Rebellious Spirit
611:978-1-58648-334-0
568:Miller, John C.
420:Akhil Reed Amar,
311:) as "in effect,
16:(Redirected from
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1404:Restraining Acts
1174:relating to the
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1123:58 (1924), 5–87.
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