451:
just a few thousandths to a few millionths of a second before the main flash. The prepulse heats the gas, producing a dim, short-lived afterglow that results from free electrons and ionized particles that remain after the pulse shuts down. If the main flash is initiated before these particles can recombine, this provides a good quantity of ionized particles to be used by the main flash. This greatly decreases the rise time. It also reduces the shock wave and makes less noise during operation, vastly increasing the lifetime of the lamp. It is especially effective on very fast-discharge applications, allowing the arc to expand faster and better fill the tube. It is very often used with simmer voltage and sometimes with series triggering, but rarely used with external triggering. Prepulse techniques are most commonly used in the pumping of dye lasers, greatly increasing the
506:(IGBT) can be connected in series with both the trigger transformer and the lamp, making adjustable flash durations possible. An IGBT used for this purpose must be rated for a high pulsed-current, so as to avoid over-current damage to the semiconductor junction. This type of system is used frequently in high average-power laser systems, and can produce pulses ranging from 500 microseconds to over 20 milliseconds. It can be used with any of the triggering techniques, like external and series, and can produce square wave pulses. It can even be used with simmer voltage to produce a "modulated" continuous wave output, with repetition rates over 300 hertz. With the proper large bore, water-cooled flashtube, several kilowatts of average-power output can be obtained.
181:
of 320 W/cm). For this reason, thinner glass is often used for continuous-wave arc-lamps. Thicker materials can generally handle more impact energy from the shock wave that a short-pulsed arc can generate, so quartz as much as 1 mm thick is often used in the construction of flashtubes. The material of the envelope provides another limit for the output power; 1 mm thick fused quartz has a limit of 200 W/cm, synthetic quartz of same thickness can run up to 240 W/cm. Other glasses such as borosilicate generally have less than half the power loading capacity of quartz. Aging lamps require some derating, due to increased energy absorption in the glass due to solarization and sputtered deposits.
1227:
783:
386:
671:
are around 760 and 810 nm. Argon has many strong peaks at 670, 710, 760, 820, 860, and 920 nm. Neon has peaks around 650, 700, 850, and 880 nm. As current densities become higher, the output of continuum radiation will increase more than the spectral-line radiation at a rate 20% greater, and output center will shift toward the visual spectrum. At greybody current-densities there is only a slight difference in the spectrum emitted by various gases. At very high current-densities, all gases will begin to operate as blackbody radiators, with spectral outputs resembling a
942:
414:
207:
589:
795:, including that of the capacitor, wires, and lamp itself. Short-pulse flashes require that all inductance be minimized. This is typically done using special capacitors, the shortest wires available, or electrical-leads with a lot of surface area but thin cross-sections. For extremely fast systems, low-inductance axial-leads, such as copper tubing, plastic-core wires, or even hollowed electrodes, may be used to decrease the total-system inductance. Dye lasers need very short pulses and sometimes use axial flashtubes, which have an
397:. The high-voltage leads of the trigger-transformer are connected to the flashtube in series, (one lead to an electrode and the other to the capacitor), so that the flash travels through both the transformer and the lamp. The trigger pulse forms a spark inside the lamp, without exposing the trigger voltage to the outside of the lamp. The advantages are better insulation, more reliable triggering, and an arc that tends to develop well away from the glass, but at a much higher cost. The series-triggering transformer also acts as an
663:
655:
494:, although sometimes cheap argon is also used. The flash usually must be very short to prevent too much heat from transferring to the glass. However, because nearly all the plasma is concentrated at the surface, the lamps have very low inductance and flashes can often be shorter than a normal lamp of comparative size. The flash from a single ablative flashtube can also be more intense than multiple lamps. For these reasons, the most common use for the lamps is for the pumping of dye lasers.
917:
fracture the glass, rupturing the tube. The resulting explosion creates a loud, sonic shock-wave, and may throw shattered glass several feet. The explosion energy is calculated by multiplying the internal surface-area of the lamp, between the electrodes, with the power-loading capacity of the glass. Power loading is determined by the type and thickness of the glass, and the cooling method that is used. Power loading is measured in watts per centimeter squared. However, because the
1002:
725:
401:. This helps to control the flash duration, but prevents the circuit from being used in very fast discharge applications. The triggering can generally take place with a lower voltage at the capacitor than is required for external triggering. However, the trigger-transformer becomes part of the flash circuit, and couples the triggering-circuit to the flash energy. Therefore, because the trigger-transformer has very low impedance, the transformer, triggering-circuit, and
442:, or in extreme cases, cracking or even explosion of the lamp. However, because very short pulses often call for very high voltage and low capacitance, to keep the current density from rising too high, some microsecond flashtubes are triggered by simply "over-volting", that is, by applying a voltage to the electrodes which is much higher than the lamp's self-flash threshold, using a spark gap. Often, a combination of simmer voltage and over-volting is used.
350:
82:
745:. At any given time during the flash, the ionized atoms make up less than 1% of the plasma and produce all of the emitted light. As they recombine with their lost electrons they immediately drop back to a lower energy-state, releasing photons in the process. The methods of transferring energy occur in three separate ways, called "bound-bound", "free-bound", and "free-free" transitions.
610:
portions of the spectrum. Low current densities produce a greenish-blue flash, indicating the absence of significant yellow or orange lines. At low current-densities, most of xenon's output will be directed into the invisible IR spectral lines around 820, 900, and 1000 nm. Low current-densities for flashtubes are generally less than 1000 A/cm.
551:, causing both the resistance and voltage to decrease as the current increases. This occurs until the plasma comes into contact with the inner wall. When this happens, the voltage becomes proportional to the square root of current, and the resistance in the plasma becomes stable for the remainder of the flash. It is this value which is defined as K
990:
177:
power or continuous-wave arc lamps must have the water flow across the ends of the lamp, and across the exposed ends of the electrodes as well, so the deionized water is used to prevent a short circuit. Above 15 W/cm forced air cooling is required; liquid cooling if in a confined space. Liquid cooling is generally necessary above 30 W/cm.
1293:, specialized exposure to a xenon flash apparatus was used to burn off the outer epithelial layers of human skin as an antiseptic measure to eliminate all possible bacterial access for persons working in an extreme, ultraclean environment. (The book used the term 'ultraflash'; the movie identified the apparatus as a 'xenon flash'.)
1302:
749:
particles interact and bump into each other, and, exchanging electrons, they reverse direction. Thus, during the pulse neutral atoms are constantly ionizing and recombining, emitting a photon each time, relaying electrons from the cathode to the anode. The greater the number of ion transitions for each electron; the better the
577:
803:
usually requires lowering the capacitance as pulse duration decreases, and then raising the voltage proportionately in order to maintain a high enough energy-level. However, as pulse duration decreases, so does the "explosion energy" rating of the lamp, so the energy level must also be decreased to avoid destroying the lamp.
73:, full-spectrum white light for a very short time. A flashtube is a glass tube with an electrode at each end and is filled with a gas that, when triggered, ionizes and conducts a high-voltage pulse to make light. Flashtubes are used most in photography; they also are used in science, medicine, industry, and entertainment.
438:. The simmering spark-streamer causes the arc to develop in the exact center of the lamp, increasing the lifetime dramatically. If external triggering is used for extremely short pulses, the spark streamers may still be in contact with the glass when the full current-load passes through the tube, causing wall
279:). Generally, the higher the pressure, the greater the output efficiency. Xenon is used mostly because of its good efficiency, converting nearly 50% of electrical energy into light. Krypton, on the other hand, is only about 40% efficient, but at low currents is a better match to the absorption spectrum of
765:
Bound-bound transitions occur when the ions and neutral atoms collide, transferring an electron from the atom to the ion. This method predominates at low current-densities, and is responsible for producing the spectral-line emission. Free-bound transitions happen when an ion captures a free electron.
519:
that will emit the desired spectrum, and let the lamp's resistance determine the necessary combination of voltage and capacitance to produce it. The resistance in flashtubes varies greatly, depending on pressure, shape, dead volume, current density, time, and flash duration, and therefore, is usually
485:
the glass. The bombardment ablates (vaporizes) large amounts of quartz from the inner wall. This ablation creates a sudden, violent, localized increase in the internal pressure of the lamp, increasing the efficiency of the flash to very high levels. The ablation, however, causes extensive wear to the
361:
External triggering is the most common method of operation, especially for photographic use. The electrodes are charged to a voltage high enough to respond to triggering, but below the lamp's self-flash threshold. An extremely high voltage pulse, (usually between 2000 and 150,000 volts), the "trigger
258:
caused by peak currents, which may be in excess of 1000 amperes. Electrode design is also influenced by the average power. At high levels of average power, care has to be taken to achieve sufficient cooling of the electrodes. While anode temperature is of lower importance, overheating the cathode can
180:
Thinner walls can survive higher average-power loads due to lower mechanical strain across the thickness of the material, which is caused by a temperature gradient between the hot plasma and cooling water, (e.g. 1 mm thick doped quartz has a limit of 160 W/cm, a 0.5 mm thick one has a limit
171:
The power level of the lamps is rated in watts/area, total electrical input power divided by the lamp's inner wall surface. Cooling of the electrodes and the lamp envelope is of high importance at high power levels. Air cooling is sufficient for lower average power levels. High power lamps are cooled
924:
Failure from heat is usually caused by excessively long pulse-durations, high average-power levels, or inadequate electrode-size. The longer the pulse; the more of its intense heat will be transferred to the glass. When the inner wall of the tube gets too hot while the outer wall is still cold, this
1248:". In addition, some types of charging systems can be equally deadly themselves. The trigger voltage can deliver a painful shock, usually not enough to kill, but which can often startle a person into bumping or touching something more dangerous. When a person is charged to high voltages a spark can
881:
The lifetime of a flashtube depends on both the energy level used for the lamp in proportion to its explosion energy, and on the pulse duration of the lamp. Failures can be catastrophic, causing the lamp to shatter, or they can be gradual, reducing the performance of the lamp below a usable rating.
748:
Within the plasma, positive ions accelerate toward the cathode while electrons accelerate toward the anode. Neutral atoms move toward the anode at a slower rate, filling some localized pressure differential created by the ions. At normal pressures this motion is in very short distances, because the
670:
All gases produce spectral lines which are specific to the gas, superimposed on a background of continuum radiation. With all gases, low current-densities produce mostly spectral lines, with the highest output being concentrated in the near-IR between 650 and 1000 nm. Krypton's strongest peaks
617:
emission. Spectral lines broaden and become less dominant as light is produced across the spectrum, usually peaking, or "centered", on a certain wavelength. Optimum output-efficiency in the visual range is obtained at a density that favors "greybody radiation" (an arc that produces mostly continuum
176:
through a tube in which the lamp is encased. Water-cooled lamps will generally have the glass shrunk around the electrodes, to provide a direct thermal conductor between them and the cooling water. The cooling medium should flow also across the entire length of the lamp and electrodes. High average
1157:
Because electrical arcs could be made that were much faster than mechanical-shutter speeds, early high-speed photographs were taken with an open-air, electrical-arc discharge, called spark photography, helping to remove blur from moving objects. This was typically done with the shutter locked open
633:
of 9800 kelvins (a rather sky-blue shade of white). Except in cases where intense UV light is needed, such as water decontamination, blackbody radiation is usually not desired because the arc becomes opaque, and much of the radiation from within the arc can be absorbed before reaching the surface,
489:
Ablative flashtubes need to be refilled and vacuumed to the proper pressure for each flash. Therefore, they cannot be used for very high-repetition applications. Also, this usually precludes the use of very expensive gases like krypton or xenon. The most common gas used in an ablative flashtube is
450:
Very rapid rise-times are often achieved using a prepulse technique. This method is performed by delivering a small flash through the lamp just before the main flash. This flash is of much lower energy than the main flash (typically less than 10%) and, depending on the pulse duration, is delivered
973:
At higher energy-levels, wall ablation becomes the main process of wear. The electrical arc slowly erodes the inner wall of the tube, forming microscopic cracks that give the glass a frosted appearance. The ablation releases oxygen from the glass, increasing the pressure beyond an operable level.
949:
The closer a flashtube operates to its explosion energy, the greater the risk becomes for catastrophic failure. At 50% of the explosion energy, the lamp may produce several thousand flashes before exploding. At 60% of the explosion energy, the lamp will usually fail in less than a hundred. If the
605:
their characteristic color. However, neon signs emit red light because of extremely low current-densities when compared to those seen in flashtubes, which favors spectral lines of longer wavelengths. Higher current-densities tend to favor shorter wavelengths. The light from xenon, in a neon sign,
475:
to be attached to control the gas pressure. The electrodes of the lamp are connected to a charged capacitor, and then the gas is vacuumed from the lamp. When the gas reaches a low enough pressure (often just a few torr) randomly-ionized particles are able to accelerate to velocities sufficient to
202:
applications is the "rod seal", where the rod of the electrode is wetted with another type of glass and then bonded directly to a quartz tube. This seal is very durable and capable of withstanding very high temperature and currents. The seal and the glass must have the same coefficient of thermal
701:
can be up to 30% efficient, but requires an even greater pressure-increase. At such high pressures, the voltage drop between the electrodes, formed by the spark streamer, may be greater than the capacitor voltage. These lamps often need a "boost voltage" during the trigger phase, to overcome the
1259:
Flashtubes operate at high pressures and are known to explode, producing violent shockwaves. The "explosion energy" of a flashtube (the amount of energy that will destroy it in just a few flashes) is well defined, and to avoid catastrophic failure, it is recommended that no more than 30% of the
802:
In contrast, changes in the input voltage or capacitance have no effect on discharge time, although they do have an effect on current density. As flash duration decreases, the electrical energy becomes concentrated into shorter pulses, so the current density will increase. Compensating for this
786:
An 85 joule, 3.5 microsecond flash. While the energy level is moderately low, electrical power at such a short duration is 24 million watts. With an extremely high current-density, an arc temperature of 17,000 K (30,100 °F), and output centered at 170 nm (in the far UV), the blackbody
371:
along the glass at a speed of 1 centimeter in 60 nanoseconds (170 km/s). (A trigger pulse must have a long enough duration to allow one streamer to reach the opposite electrode, or erratic triggering will result.) The triggering can be enhanced by applying the trigger pulse to a "reference
362:
pulse", is applied either directly to or very near the glass envelope. (Water-cooled flashtubes sometimes apply this pulse directly to the cooling water, and often to the housing of the unit as well, so care must be taken with this type of system.) The short, high voltage pulse creates a rising
916:
forms, traveling radially from the center of the arc and impacting the inner wall of the tube. If the energy level is low enough, a tap against the glass is all that will be heard. However, if the energy level used equals the "explosion energy" rating of the lamp, the impacting shock wave will
421:
Simmer-voltage triggering is the least common method. In this technique, the capacitor voltage is not initially applied to the electrodes, but instead, a high voltage spark streamer is maintained between the electrodes. The high current from the capacitor is delivered to the electrodes using a
1274:
Many compact cameras charge the flash capacitor immediately after power-up, and some even just by inserting the batteries. Merely inserting the battery into the camera can prime the capacitor to become dangerous or at least unpleasant for up to several days. The energy involved is also fairly
1197:
instead. The argon tubes were much more efficient, were much smaller, and could be mounted near a reflector, concentrating their output. Slowly, camera designers began to take notice of the new technology and began to accept it. Edgerton received his first major order for the strobes from the
609:
The spectrum emitted by flashtubes is far more dependent on current density than on the fill pressure or gas type. Low current-densities produce narrow spectral-line emission, against a faint background of continuous radiation. Xenon has many spectral lines in the UV, blue, green, red, and IR
970:, the flashtube is polarized, and connecting the lamp to the power source incorrectly will quickly ruin it. However, even if connected properly, the degree of sputter may vary considerably from lamp to lamp. Therefore, it is impossible to predict the lifetime accurately at low energy-levels.
480:
that causes the lamp to self-flash. At such low pressures, the efficiency of the flash would normally be very low. However, because of the low pressure, the particles have room to accelerate to very high speeds, and the magnetic forces expand the arc so that the bulk of its plasma becomes
197:
foil bonded directly to the glass, which are very durable, but are limited in the amount of current that can pass through. "Solder seals" bond the glass to the electrode with a solder for a very strong mechanical seal, but are limited to low temperature operation. Most common in
514:
The electrical requirements for a flashtube can vary, depending on the desired results. The usual method is to first determine the pulse duration, the maximum amount of energy tolerable at that duration (explosion energy), and the safe amount of operating energy. Then pick a
1166:
used an open-air spark to photograph a speeding bullet, revealing the shockwaves it produced at supersonic speeds. Open-air spark systems were fairly easy to build, but were bulky, very limited in light output, and produced loud noises comparable to that of a gunshot.
818:
levels from rising too high. Quartz glass (1 millimeter thick per 1 second discharge) can usually withstand a maximum of 160 watts per square centimeter of internal surface-area. Other glasses have a much lower threshold. Extremely fast systems, with inductance below
1243:
have been reported to be lethal. The energy stored in a capacitor can remain surprisingly long after power has been disconnected. A flashtube will usually shut down before the capacitor has fully drained, and it may regain part of its charge through a process called
961:
Sputter occurs when the energy level is very low, below 15% of the explosion energy, or when the pulse duration is very long. Sputter is the vaporization of metal from the cathode, which is redeposited on the walls of the lamp, blocking the light output. Because the
366:
field, which ionizes the gas inside the tube. The capacitance of the glass couples the trigger pulse into the envelope, where it exceeds the breakdown voltage of the gas surrounding one or both of the electrodes, forming spark streamers. The streamers propagate via
542:
is determined by the internal diameter, arc length, and gas type of the lamp and, to a lesser extent, by fill pressure. The resistance in flashtubes is not constant, but quickly drops as current density increases. In 1965, John H. Goncz showed that the plasma
1206:
was the most efficient of the noble gases, producing a spectrum very close to that of daylight, and xenon flashtubes became standard in most large photography sets. It was not until the 1970s that strobe units became portable enough to use in common cameras.
629:. Spectral lines all but disappear as the continuum radiation dominates, and output center shifts toward the ultraviolet. As current densities become even higher, visually, xenon's output spectrum will begin to settle on that of a blackbody radiator with a
592:
Spectral line radiation from a xenon flashlamp. The blue-green arc is similar to what the eye sees. Although invisible to the naked eye, the digital camera is able to image the strong IR spectral lines, which appear as the deep-blue light reflected off the
950:
lamp is operated below 30% of the explosion energy the risk of catastrophic failure becomes very low. The methods of failure then become those that reduce the output efficiency and affect the ability to trigger the lamp. The processes affecting these are
292:
646:-based laser media than xenon emission, and very closely matches the narrow absorption-profile of Nd:YAG. None of xenon's spectral lines match Nd:YAG's absorption lines so, when pumping Nd:YAG with xenon, the continuum radiation must be used.
1230:
This 525 joule capacitor is one of a pair adapted for use in a ruby laser, and carries a warning of its deadly storage capacity. A resistor is connected between the terminals to prevent the capacitor retaining a dangerous charge when not in
715:
Some research has been done on mixing gases to alter the spectral output. The effect on the output spectrum is negligible, but the effect on efficiency is great. Adding a lighter gas will only reduce the efficiency of the heavier one.
1107:(PL) is a technique to decontaminate surfaces by killing microorganisms using pulses of an intense broad spectrum, rich in UV-C light. UV-C is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponding to the band between 200 and 280
1131:
728:
Krypton arc plasma. The dark space near the anode is filled with free electrons that have been stripped from neutral atoms, ionizing the atoms. The ions then speed away from the anode, colliding with neutral atoms to produce the
766:
This method produces the continuum emission, and is more prominent at higher current-densities. Some of the continuum is also produced when an electron accelerates toward an ion, called free-free transitions, producing
757:
causes free electrons to gather near the inner wall, creating an electron sheath around the plasma. This makes the area electro-negative and helps to keep it cool. The skin effect also increases inductance by inducing
637:
Due to its high-efficiency, white output, xenon is used extensively for photographic applications, despite its great expense. In lasers, spectral-line emission is usually favored, as these lines tend to better match
618:
emission, but is still mostly translucent to its own light; an effect similar to sunlight when it passes through a cloud). For xenon, greybody radiation is centered near green, and produces the right combination for
376:
between the cathode and the anode, when the internal spark streamers bridge the electrodes the capacitor will discharge through the ionized gas, heating the xenon to a high enough temperature for the emission light.
2139:
372:
plane", which may be in the form of a metal band or reflector affixed to the glass, a conductive paint, or a thin wire wrapped around the length of the lamp. If the capacitor voltage is greater than the
1267:
will transmit nearly all of the long and short wave UV, including the germicidal wavelengths, and can be a serious hazard to eyes and skin. This ultraviolet radiation can also produce large amounts of
1146:
in the 1930s as a means to take sharp photographs of moving objects. Flashtubes were mainly used for strobe lights in scientific studies, but eventually began to take the place of chemical and powder
827:(ringing) from destroying the lamp. If the pulse is allowed to ring through the lamp it will lengthen the flash, so the diode traps the ringing, allowing the lamp to shut down at the correct time.
658:
Spectral outputs of various gases at the current density where visual output nearly equals IR. Krypton has very few spectral lines in the near-IR, so most energy is directed into two main peaks.
685:. Impedance, being defined as the resistance required to change energy into work, is higher for heavier gases, and as such, the heavier gases are much more efficient than the lighter ones.
1312:
Frame 2: The trigger pulse ionizes the gas, glowing with a faint, blue light. Spark streamers form from each electrode, moving toward each other along the inner surface of the glass tube.
1158:
while in a dark or dimly lit room, to avoid overexposing the film, and a method of timing the flash to the event to be photographed. The earliest known use of spark photography began with
861:
are particularly susceptible to this spontaneous ignition when exposed to the light from a flashtube. Similar effects may be exploited for use in aesthetic or medical procedures known as
733:
As the current pulse travels through the tube, it ionizes the atoms, causing them to jump to higher energy-levels. Three types of particles are found within the arc plasma, consisting of
1178:, instead of an open-air discharge, to produce the light. He was able to achieve a flash duration of 10 microseconds, and was able to photograph the moving motor as if "frozen in time."
296:
295:
1082:
light. Proper selection of both the filler gas and current density is crucial, so that the maximum radiated output-energy is concentrated in the bands that are the best absorbed by the
834:
of the glass. Pulses that are too long can vaporize large amounts of metal from the cathode, while overheating the glass will cause it to crack lengthwise. For continuous operation the
297:
799:
with a large outer diameter, ring-shaped electrodes, and a hollow inner core, allowing both lower inductance and a dye cell to be placed like an axle through the center of the lamp.
642:
of the lasing media. Krypton is also occasionally used. At low current-densities, krypton's spectral-line output in the near-IR range is better matched to the absorption profile of
1051:
it is used in "light box" devices to light-activate the hardening of various restorative and auxiliary light-curing resins (for example: Megaflash mini, Uni XS and other devices).
929:
can cause the lamp to crack. Similarly, if the electrodes are not of a sufficient diameter to handle the peak currents they may produce too much resistance, rapidly heating up and
1009:
As the duration of the flash that is emitted by a xenon flashtube can be accurately controlled, and due to the high intensity of the light, xenon flashtubes are commonly used as
283:. A major factor affecting efficiency is the amount of gas behind the electrodes, or the "dead volume". A higher dead volume leads to a lower pressure increase during operation.
978:." Above 30%, the ablation may cause enough wear to rupture the lamp. However, at energy levels greater than 15%, the lifetime can be calculated with a fair degree of accuracy.
471:
Ablative flashtubes are triggered by under-pressurizing. Ablative flashtubes are typically constructed using quartz tubing and one or both electrodes hollowed out, allowing a
2339:
417:
An externally triggered, 3.5 microsecond flash. The flash fully discharges before the arc can move away from the glass and fill the tube, causing excessive wear to the lamp.
2136:
2170:
294:
2767:
1324:
Frame 6: Fully heated, resistance and voltage stabilize into an arc and the full current load rushes through the tube, causing the xenon to emit a burst of light.
301:
This is a high-speed video of a xenon flashtube captured at over 44,000 frames per second. The single flash pulse in slow motion reveals a charged gas oscillation.
1641:
104:, and electrodes to carry electric current to the gas. Additionally, a high voltage power source is necessary to energize the gas as a trigger event. A charged
1024:
in the 1930s. Because they can generate bright, attention-getting flashes with a relatively small, continuous input of electrical power, they are also used in
254:
away from the glass and to control temperature. Flashtubes usually have a cathode with a flattened radius, to reduce the incidence of hot spots and decrease
455:. However, it has also been shown to increase the efficiency of other lasers with longer fluorescence lifetimes (allowing longer pulses), such as Nd:YAG or
1555:
1185:'s efficiency was limited by the coolest part of the lamp, causing them to perform better when very hot but poorly when cold. Edgerton decided to try a
921:
level increases as the flash duration decreases, the explosion energy must then be decreased in direct proportion to the square root of discharge time.
814:) will increase in inverse proportion to a decrease in discharge time. Therefore, energy must be decreased along with the pulse duration, to keep the
1174:. Wanting to photograph the motion of a motor in vivid detail, without blur, Edgerton decided to improve the process of spark photography by using a
830:
The limits to long pulse durations are the number of transferred electrons to the anode, sputter caused by ion bombardment at the cathode, and the
712:
present form chemical reactions with the electrodes, and themselves, causing premature wear and the need to adjust the pressure for each flash.
168:
is used as the envelope; it is the most expensive of the materials, but it is not susceptible to solarization and its cutoff is at 160 nm.
160:-doped quartz; it does not suffer from solarization and has higher efficiency, as part of the absorbed ultraviolet is reradiated as visible via
2163:
1524:
1260:
explosion energy be used. Flashtubes should be shielded behind glass or in a reflector cavity. If not, eye and ear protection should be worn.
580:
Xenon, operated as a 'neon light,' consists of a collection of mostly spectral lines, missing much of the continuum radiation needed for good
210:
Flashtubes of various sizes for laser pumping. The top three are xenon flashtubes. The last one is a krypton arc lamp, (shown for comparison).
1445:
1171:
857:
The flash that emanates from a xenon flashtube may be so intense that it can ignite flammable materials within a short distance of the tube.
1275:
significant; a 330 microfarad capacitor charged to 300 volts (common ballpark values found in cameras) stores almost 15 joules of energy.
1226:
538:
is used to calculate the amount of input voltage and capacitance needed to emit a desired spectrum, by controlling the current density. K
148:, damage to laser rods, degradation of plastics, or other detrimental effects. In these cases, a doped fused silica is used. Doping with
2877:
1673:
1005:
A flashtube (lower half of image) with a length of 12.5 feet (380 cm), (12 foot (372 cm) arc length), for substrate annealing.
293:
981:
When operated below 30% of the explosion energy, flashtube lifetime is generally between a few million to tens of millions of flashes.
2632:
945:
Flashtube cathodes, showing early signs of wear. The tube on the left shows sputter, while the tube on the right shows wall ablation.
547:
in flashtubes is inversely proportional to the square root of current density. As the arc develops, the lamp experiences a period of
2156:
1138:
of a bullet in supersonic flight was taken at the
Edgerton Center (Strobe Alley, MIT), using a discharge from a high-speed flashtube
1033:
503:
42:
1101:. In total about 1 to 1.5% of the electrical power fed into the flashtubes is turned into useful laser light for this application.
2317:
666:
Argon flashlamp spectral line radiation. The texture of the table diffracts the light, allowing the camera to image the IR lines.
193:
protrude into each end of the tube, and are sealed to the glass using a few different methods. "Ribbon seals" use thin strips of
1461:
Holzrichter, J. F.; Schawlow, A. L. (February 1969). "Design and analysis of flashlamp systems for pumping organic dye lasers".
787:
radiation is so intense that it has no problem penetrating the extremely dark, shade 10 welding lens which the camera is behind.
782:
3175:
3072:
2810:
2677:
385:
132:, which may be straight, or bent into a number of different shapes, including helical, "U" shape, and circular (to surround a
2902:
2687:
1263:
Flashtubes produce very intense flashes, often faster than the eye can register, and may not appear as bright as they are.
2897:
2697:
2604:
434:
systems, typically those that discharge in the microsecond regime, such as used in high-speed, stop-motion photography or
3198:
3067:
2228:
941:
402:
413:
389:
A ruby laser head, assembled and disassembled, revealing pumping cavity, the ruby rod, and two water-cooled flashtubes.
2959:
2727:
1648:
1290:
1098:
206:
1755:"Near-infrared sensitized photocathodes and film sensitivities for typical xenon-lamp radiation and related subjects"
1411:
1315:
Frame 3: Spark streamers connect and move away from the glass, and a plasma tunnel forms allowing current to surge.
588:
3203:
1835:
Emmett, J. L.; Schawlow, A. L.; Weinberg, E. H. (September 1964). "Direct measurement of xenon flashtube opacity".
1029:
994:
559:
do not take into account the dead volume, which leads to a lower pressure increase. Therefore, any calculation of K
3079:
3047:
2640:
2627:
2223:
1321:
Frame 5: As resistance decreases voltage drops and current fills the tube, heating the xenon to a plasma state.
3140:
2355:
2329:
614:
806:
The amount of power loading the glass can handle is the major mechanical limit. Even if the amount of energy (
753:
will be, so longer tubes or higher pressures both help increase the efficiency of the lamp. During the pulse,
1218:, a new demand for flashtubes began for use in lasers, and new interest was taken in the study of the lamps.
3000:
2672:
2284:
1025:
662:
456:
66:
1181:
His colleague's interest in the new flash apparatus soon provoked
Edgerton to improve upon the design. The
697:
can be as good as 40% efficient, but requires up to a 70% increase in pressure over xenon to achieve this.
2757:
2682:
1017:
153:
1593:
Levy, Y.; Neumann, G.; Treves, D. (1 August 1977). "Ablative flashlamps for high peak power dye lasers".
1189:
instead, feeling that it would not be as temperature dependent as mercury, and, in 1930, he employed the
1093:
Xenon flashtubes have been used to produce an intense flash of white light, some of which is absorbed by
3170:
1343:
1245:
796:
750:
654:
452:
322:
2006:
724:
267:
Depending on the size, type, and application of the flashtube, gas fill pressures may range from a few
246:-alloyed tungsten, and are often machined to provide extra surface area to cope with power loading. DC
144:'). In some applications, the emission of ultraviolet light is undesired, whether due to production of
2882:
2385:
1897:
1844:
1801:
1602:
1470:
1285:
1249:
933:. If the electrodes heat much faster than the glass, the lamp may crack or even shatter at the ends.
926:
890:
862:
831:
626:
521:
1001:
156:; it is often used in medical and sun-ray lamps and some non-laser lamps. A better alternative is a
3010:
2936:
2931:
2914:
2909:
2869:
2334:
2312:
2042:
1888:
Dishington, R. H.; Hook, W. R.; Hilberg, R. P. (1974). "Flashlamp discharge and laser efficiency".
1531:
1338:
1075:
997:
laser were some of the largest in commercial production, operating at 30 kJ input energy per pulse.
870:
548:
427:
314:
223:
173:
90:
70:
1104:
393:
Series triggering is more common in high powered, water-cooled flashtubes, such as those found in
3160:
2832:
2617:
2560:
2552:
1870:
1754:
1494:
1112:
902:
477:
109:
108:
is usually used to supply energy for the flash, so as to allow very speedy delivery of very high
708:, in the form of air, has been used in flashtubes in home made dye lasers, but the nitrogen and
152:
can provide different cutoff wavelengths on the ultraviolet side, but the material suffers from
1090:, as krypton emission in near infrared is better matched to the absorption spectrum of Nd:YAG.
2702:
2650:
2622:
2542:
2380:
2368:
2324:
2252:
2198:
2043:"Image Hosting, Image Share, Upload Images - PicBG.net - Photos, Pictures, Wallpapers, Albums"
1913:
1817:
1618:
1549:
1486:
1441:
1175:
1147:
930:
835:
630:
341:
state, where electrical resistance becomes very low. There are several methods of triggering.
333:
will form between the electrodes, allowing the capacitor to discharge. The sudden surge of
272:
164:. Its cutoff is at about 380 nm. Conversely, when ultraviolet is called for, a synthetic
2985:
2919:
2849:
2800:
2351:
2240:
2235:
1905:
1860:
1852:
1809:
1610:
1478:
1190:
1159:
1041:
858:
824:
820:
639:
486:
lamp, weakening the glass, and they typically need replacement after a very short lifetime.
338:
334:
149:
2089:
By
Frederick Su - SPIE -- The International Society for Optical Engineering 1990 Page 43-55
3145:
3104:
3062:
3057:
2892:
2712:
2489:
2218:
2193:
2143:
1211:
1143:
1119:
1021:
581:
516:
1111:. Pulsed light works with xenon lamps that can produce flashes several times per second.
1901:
1848:
1805:
1606:
1474:
3208:
3033:
2924:
2815:
2779:
2752:
2722:
2589:
2361:
2208:
2203:
1931:
1482:
1358:
1239:, with currents high enough to be deadly. Under certain conditions, shocks as low as 1
771:
767:
330:
3192:
3114:
2844:
2747:
2742:
2664:
2565:
2472:
2450:
2276:
2257:
2213:
2007:"We Have Ignition! Carbon Nanotubes Ignite When Exposed to Flash - News & Events"
1874:
1348:
1333:
1083:
1079:
1071:
1063:
865:(IPL) treatments. IPL can be used for treatments such as hair removal and destroying
738:
598:
476:
begin ejecting electrons from the cathode as they impact its surface, resulting in a
363:
235:
219:
199:
1498:
405:(SCR) must be able to handle very high peak-currents, often in excess of 1500 amps.
349:
3124:
3020:
3015:
2990:
2980:
2941:
2762:
2717:
2445:
2410:
2346:
2304:
2289:
2245:
2060:
1353:
1264:
1253:
1236:
1182:
1087:
1013:
918:
823:(0.8 microhenries), usually require a shunt diode across the capacitor, to prevent
815:
759:
373:
310:
280:
251:
161:
125:
121:
1062:) and short pulse widths, flashtubes are also ideally suited as light sources for
1571:
By Sylvie A. J. Druet, T. S. Moss, Jean-Pierre E. Taran -- Elsevier 1983 Page 213
3165:
3119:
2995:
2854:
2774:
2582:
2577:
2537:
2509:
2504:
2435:
2430:
2415:
2294:
1792:
Oliver, J. R.; Barnes, F. S. (May 1969). "A Comparison of Rare-Gas
Flashlamps".
1135:
1059:
1010:
843:
839:
754:
678:
Heavier gases exhibit higher resistance, and therefore, have a higher value for
544:
472:
368:
137:
133:
30:"Flashlamp" redirects here. For a handheld electric torch for illumination, see
1753:
Gebel, Radames K. H.; Mestwerdt, Hermann R.; Hayslett, Roy R. (November 1971).
791:
The only real electrical-limit to how short a pulse can be is the total-system
81:
3109:
2975:
2970:
2859:
2822:
2805:
2737:
2732:
2707:
2402:
1318:
Frame 4: Capacitor current begins to run away, heating the surrounding xenon.
1215:
1163:
1151:
1086:; e.g. krypton flashtubes are more suitable than xenon flashtubes for pumping
1055:
913:
910:
792:
672:
435:
354:
268:
242:
are usually made from pure tungsten, or, when good machinability is required,
194:
141:
46:
35:
31:
1821:
1813:
3155:
3052:
3005:
2570:
2499:
2479:
2087:
Technology of our times: people and innovation in optics and optoelectronics
1970:
1865:
1711:
1186:
1108:
1094:
1048:
989:
906:
643:
602:
482:
431:
423:
318:
306:
247:
243:
190:
105:
97:
2112:
1917:
1622:
625:
Current densities that are very high, approaching 4000 A/cm, tend to favor
17:
1490:
774:, and causes a shift toward the blue and ultraviolet end of the spectrum.
2887:
2827:
2532:
2524:
2494:
2455:
2420:
2390:
2373:
2179:
1909:
1614:
955:
851:
734:
705:
460:
439:
398:
215:
1301:
41:
2839:
2784:
2484:
2462:
2024:
963:
951:
838:
is the limit. Discharge durations for common flashtubes range from 0.1
811:
694:
326:
255:
227:
1856:
1130:
555:. However, as the arc develops the gas expands, and calculations for K
531:, which is expressed as ohms per the square root of amps (ohms(amps).
2467:
2425:
975:
894:
866:
807:
709:
686:
394:
231:
165:
157:
1996:
By Walter
Koechner, Michael Bass - Springer-Verlag 2003 Page 189-190
1743:
By Walter
Koechner, Michael Bass - Springer-Verlag 2003 Page 191-193
622:
light. Greybody radiation is produced at densities above 2400 A/cm.
238:; the structure of cathode has to be tailored for the application.
3150:
2514:
2440:
1300:
1268:
1240:
1225:
1203:
1199:
1194:
1129:
1067:
1000:
988:
967:
940:
905:
of the glass envelope can occur. Flashtubes produce an electrical
847:
781:
723:
698:
661:
653:
619:
597:
As with all ionized gases, xenon flashtubes emit light in various
587:
576:
575:
412:
384:
348:
290:
239:
205:
145:
129:
101:
93:
80:
2101:
By John T. Blackmore - University of
California Press 1972 Page x
1170:
In 1927, Harold
Edgerton built his first flash unit while at the
1959:
By Walter
Koechner, Michael Bass – Springer-Verlag 2003 Page 190
898:
850:. Flash duration can be carefully controlled with the use of an
742:
690:
276:
2152:
1989:
1987:
1736:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1728:
120:
The glass envelope is most commonly a thin tube, often made of
770:
radiation. Bremsstrahlung radiation increases with increasing
491:
1054:
Due to their high intensity and relative brightness at short
325:, and the lamp will not conduct electricity until the gas is
2148:
34:. For electrically ignited burning luminescent powder, see
1583:
by D. Bryce-Smith -- The
Chemical Society 1979 Page 93--94
1271:, which can be harmful to people, animals, and equipment.
214:
For low electrode wear the electrodes are usually made of
250:
often have a cathode with a sharp tip, to help keep the
901:. When too much energy is used for the pulse duration,
430:. This type of triggering is used mainly in very fast
305:
The electrodes of the lamp are usually connected to a
1514:
By D. Bryce-Smith -- The Chemical Press 1979 Page 94
524:. The most common symbol used for lamp impedance is
3133:
3088:
3029:
2952:
2868:
2793:
2663:
2603:
2551:
2523:
2401:
2303:
2275:
2266:
2186:
810:) that is used remains constant, electrical power (
1712:"General Xenon Flash and Strobe Design Guidelines"
909:contained in a glass tube. As the arc develops, a
230:are often made from porous tungsten filled with a
693:are far too light to produce an efficient flash.
993:The 6 foot (180 cm) flashtubes used on the
313:(generally between 250 and 5000 volts), using a
1202:company in 1940. Afterward, he discovered that
846:, and can have repetition rates of hundreds of
1636:
1634:
1632:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1394:
563:is merely an approximation of lamp impedance.
2164:
2082:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2074:
1392:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1374:
357:and cameras are usually externally triggered.
8:
1936:Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology
1018:very high-speed or "stop-motion" photography
321:. The gas, however, exhibits extremely high
974:This causes triggering problems, known as "
259:greatly reduce the lamp's life expectancy.
2272:
2171:
2157:
2149:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1569:Progress in Quantum Electronics - Volume 7
1463:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
613:Higher current-densities begin to produce
2137:Emission spectra of different flash lamps
2099:Ernst Mach; his work, life, and influence
1864:
1787:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1777:
1775:
601:. This is the same phenomenon that gives
1674:"Application Notes – Discharge Circuits"
893:can occur from two separate mechanisms:
459:, by creating pulses with almost square
40:
1370:
1554:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1547:
1412:"High Performance Flash and Arc Lamps"
1193:company to construct some lamps using
1118:A recent application of flashlamps is
2113:"Xenon Strobe and Flash Safety Hints"
1254:delivering the high capacitor current
1172:Massachusetts Institute of Technology
1074:where they can be stimulated to emit
271:to hundreds of kilopascals (0.01–4.0
7:
1256:without actually touching anything.
1016:. Xenon flashtubes are also used in
172:with a liquid, typically by flowing
1994:Solid-state lasers: a graduate text
1957:Solid-state lasers: a graduate text
1794:IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics
1741:Solid-state lasers: a graduate text
1642:"Interrupting xenon flash current?"
1305:Helical xenon flashtube being fired
309:, which is charged to a relatively
1483:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1969.tb43155.x
1097:that produces the laser power for
1044:, and other similar applications.
1034:fire alarm notification appliances
702:extremely high trigger-impedance.
329:. Once ionized, or "triggered", a
49:as white light. (Animated version
25:
504:insulated-gate bipolar transistor
45:Helical xenon flashtube emitting
2688:Parabolic aluminized reflector
778:Intensity and duration of flash
2633:Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide
1969:Goldwasser, Samuel M. (2008).
1142:The flashtube was invented by
50:
1:
634:impairing output efficiency.
481:concentrated at the surface,
1436:Edgerton, Harold E. (1979).
606:likewise is rather violet.
498:Variable pulse width control
403:silicon controlled rectifier
222:of any metal, to handle the
112:when the lamp is triggered.
96:tube which is filled with a
2878:Automotive light bulb types
2728:Intelligent street lighting
1469:(3 Second Confer): 703–14.
1309:Frame 1: The tube is dark.
1154:in mainstream photography.
1099:inertial confinement fusion
337:quickly heats the gas to a
69:with an extremely intense,
3225:
2641:Hydrargyrum quartz iodide
2594:
1681:www.lightingassociates.org
1030:emergency vehicle lighting
995:National Ignition Facility
966:is more emissive than the
675:star, centered in the UV.
234:compound, which gives low
29:
3080:Stage lighting instrument
1020:, which was pioneered by
409:Simmer-voltage triggering
353:Xenon flashtubes used on
3141:Battlefield illumination
2898:high-intensity discharge
2330:Electrochemiluminescence
1814:10.1109/JQE.1969.1075765
739:positively ionized atoms
275:or tens to thousands of
218:, which has the highest
85:U-shaped xenon flashtube
3001:Electroluminescent wire
1762:Ohio Journal of Science
1438:Electronic Flash Strobe
1291:the 1971 motion picture
1026:aircraft warning lights
762:in the central plasma.
650:Krypton and other gases
510:Electrical requirements
263:Gases and fill pressure
89:The lamp consists of a
67:electrostatic discharge
27:Incoherent light source
2683:Multifaceted reflector
2061:"Main Page - Top Wiki"
1306:
1235:Flashtubes operate at
1232:
1162:around 1850. In 1886,
1139:
1006:
998:
946:
788:
730:
667:
659:
594:
585:
418:
390:
358:
302:
211:
86:
54:
3073:ellipsoidal reflector
2678:Ellipsoidal reflector
2362:Fluorescent induction
2340:field-induced polymer
1344:List of light sources
1304:
1246:dielectric absorption
1229:
1176:mercury-arc rectifier
1133:
1115:use pulsed UV light.
1042:anticollision beacons
1004:
992:
944:
832:temperature gradients
797:annular cross section
785:
751:conversion efficiency
727:
665:
657:
591:
579:
453:conversion efficiency
416:
388:
352:
300:
209:
84:
44:
2910:Rear position lights
2883:Daytime running lamp
2811:Mechanically powered
2698:Aviation obstruction
1932:"Lamp-pumped Lasers"
1910:10.1364/AO.13.002300
1615:10.1364/AO.16.002293
1286:The Andromeda Strain
1058:(extending into the
927:temperature gradient
891:Catastrophic failure
886:Catastrophic failure
863:intense pulsed light
627:black-body radiation
185:Electrodes and seals
3199:Gas discharge lamps
2318:Electron-stimulated
1902:1974ApOpt..13.2300D
1849:1964JAP....35.2601E
1806:1969IJQE....5..232O
1607:1977ApOpt..16.2293L
1475:1969NYASA.168..703H
1339:Flash (photography)
1113:Disinfection robots
958:of the inner wall.
931:thermally expanding
549:negative resistance
467:Ablative flashtubes
446:Prepulse techniques
345:External triggering
315:step up transformer
224:thermionic emission
91:hermetically sealed
3161:Luminous gemstones
2335:Electroluminescent
2313:Cathodoluminescent
2142:2009-05-20 at the
2025:"NIF Technologies"
1307:
1233:
1140:
1007:
999:
947:
903:structural failure
789:
731:
668:
660:
595:
586:
478:Townsend avalanche
419:
391:
359:
303:
212:
110:electrical current
87:
55:
47:greybody radiation
3204:Flash photography
3186:
3185:
2703:Balanced-arm lamp
2659:
2658:
2543:Yablochkov candle
2411:Acetylene/Carbide
2381:Radioluminescence
2253:Luminous efficacy
2199:Color temperature
1971:"Sam's Laser FAQ"
1896:(10): 2300–2312.
1857:10.1063/1.1713807
1447:978-0-262-55008-6
1283:In the 1969 book
631:color temperature
457:titanium sapphire
381:Series triggering
298:
16:(Redirected from
3216:
2986:Christmas lights
2920:Safety reflector
2915:Reversing lights
2850:Navigation light
2801:Bicycle lighting
2691:
2644:
2636:
2610:
2369:Photoluminescent
2352:Fluorescent lamp
2325:Chemiluminescent
2273:
2241:Bi-pin lamp base
2236:Lightbulb socket
2173:
2166:
2159:
2150:
2124:
2123:
2121:
2119:
2111:Klipstein, Don.
2108:
2102:
2096:
2090:
2084:
2069:
2068:
2057:
2051:
2050:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2003:
1997:
1991:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1966:
1960:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1928:
1922:
1921:
1885:
1879:
1878:
1868:
1866:2060/19650025655
1832:
1826:
1825:
1789:
1770:
1769:
1759:
1750:
1744:
1738:
1723:
1722:
1720:
1718:
1710:Klipstein, Don.
1707:
1692:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1678:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1661:
1659:
1653:
1647:. Archived from
1646:
1638:
1627:
1626:
1601:(8): 2293–2296.
1590:
1584:
1578:
1572:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1553:
1545:
1543:
1542:
1536:
1530:. Archived from
1529:
1521:
1515:
1509:
1503:
1502:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1424:
1422:
1416:
1408:
1191:General Electric
1160:Henry Fox Talbot
859:Carbon nanotubes
825:current reversal
821:critical damping
720:Light production
640:absorption lines
502:In addition, an
335:electric current
299:
150:titanium dioxide
21:
3224:
3223:
3219:
3218:
3217:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3189:
3188:
3187:
3182:
3146:Bioluminescence
3129:
3098:
3084:
3041:
3025:
2964:
2948:
2864:
2789:
2713:Emergency light
2689:
2655:
2642:
2634:
2608:
2606:
2599:
2547:
2519:
2490:Magnesium torch
2397:
2299:
2268:
2262:
2219:Light pollution
2194:Accent lighting
2182:
2177:
2144:Wayback Machine
2133:
2128:
2127:
2117:
2115:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2097:
2093:
2085:
2072:
2059:
2058:
2054:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2023:
2022:
2018:
2005:
2004:
2000:
1992:
1985:
1975:
1973:
1968:
1967:
1963:
1955:
1951:
1941:
1939:
1930:
1929:
1925:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1834:
1833:
1829:
1791:
1790:
1773:
1757:
1752:
1751:
1747:
1739:
1726:
1716:
1714:
1709:
1708:
1695:
1685:
1683:
1676:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1657:
1655:
1651:
1644:
1640:
1639:
1630:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1579:
1575:
1567:
1563:
1546:
1540:
1538:
1534:
1527:
1525:"Archived copy"
1523:
1522:
1518:
1510:
1506:
1460:
1459:
1455:
1448:
1435:
1434:
1430:
1420:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1409:
1372:
1367:
1330:
1299:
1281:
1279:Popular culture
1224:
1212:Theodore Maiman
1210:In 1960, after
1144:Harold Edgerton
1128:
1120:photonic curing
1022:Harold Edgerton
987:
939:
937:Gradual failure
888:
879:
780:
722:
683:
652:
582:color rendering
574:
569:
567:Output spectrum
562:
558:
554:
541:
537:
529:
520:referred to as
517:current density
512:
500:
469:
448:
411:
383:
347:
291:
289:
265:
187:
174:deionized water
136:for shadowless
118:
116:Glass envelopes
79:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3222:
3220:
3212:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3191:
3190:
3184:
3183:
3181:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3148:
3143:
3137:
3135:
3134:Related topics
3131:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3101:
3099:
3097:
3096:
3093:
3089:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3082:
3077:
3076:
3075:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3044:
3042:
3040:
3039:
3036:
3030:
3027:
3026:
3024:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2973:
2967:
2965:
2963:
2962:
2957:
2953:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2946:
2945:
2944:
2934:
2929:
2928:
2927:
2925:retroreflector
2917:
2912:
2907:
2906:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2885:
2880:
2874:
2872:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2836:
2835:
2825:
2820:
2819:
2818:
2813:
2803:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2790:
2788:
2787:
2782:
2780:Track lighting
2777:
2772:
2771:
2770:
2760:
2755:
2753:Recessed light
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2723:Gooseneck lamp
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2694:
2693:
2685:
2680:
2669:
2667:
2661:
2660:
2657:
2656:
2654:
2653:
2648:
2647:
2646:
2638:
2630:
2620:
2614:
2612:
2605:High-intensity
2601:
2600:
2598:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2586:
2585:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2563:
2557:
2555:
2549:
2548:
2546:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2529:
2527:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2470:
2460:
2459:
2458:
2448:
2443:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2407:
2405:
2399:
2398:
2396:
2395:
2394:
2393:
2383:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2374:Laser headlamp
2366:
2365:
2364:
2359:
2344:
2343:
2342:
2332:
2327:
2322:
2321:
2320:
2309:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2298:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2281:
2279:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2249:
2248:
2243:
2233:
2232:
2231:
2226:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2204:Electric light
2201:
2196:
2190:
2188:
2184:
2183:
2178:
2176:
2175:
2168:
2161:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2132:
2131:External links
2129:
2126:
2125:
2103:
2091:
2070:
2052:
2034:
2016:
1998:
1983:
1961:
1949:
1938:. RP Photonics
1923:
1890:Applied Optics
1880:
1827:
1771:
1745:
1724:
1693:
1665:
1628:
1595:Applied Optics
1585:
1581:Photochemistry
1573:
1561:
1516:
1512:Photochemistry
1504:
1453:
1446:
1428:
1369:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1361:
1359:Xenon arc lamp
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1329:
1326:
1298:
1295:
1280:
1277:
1223:
1220:
1127:
1124:
1072:excited states
986:
983:
938:
935:
887:
884:
878:
875:
779:
776:
772:energy density
768:bremsstrahlung
741:, and neutral
721:
718:
681:
651:
648:
599:spectral lines
573:
570:
568:
565:
560:
556:
552:
539:
535:
527:
511:
508:
499:
496:
468:
465:
447:
444:
410:
407:
382:
379:
346:
343:
288:
285:
264:
261:
226:of electrons.
186:
183:
117:
114:
78:
75:
65:) produces an
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3221:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3177:
3174:
3173:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3142:
3139:
3138:
3136:
3132:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3115:Infrared lamp
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3094:
3091:
3090:
3087:
3081:
3078:
3074:
3071:
3070:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3045:
3043:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3031:
3028:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2961:
2958:
2955:
2954:
2951:
2943:
2940:
2939:
2938:
2935:
2933:
2930:
2926:
2923:
2922:
2921:
2918:
2916:
2913:
2911:
2908:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2890:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2871:
2867:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2845:Laser pointer
2843:
2841:
2838:
2834:
2831:
2830:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2808:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2796:
2792:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2769:
2766:
2765:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2748:Pendant light
2746:
2744:
2743:Neon lighting
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2692:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2674:
2671:
2670:
2668:
2666:
2662:
2652:
2649:
2645:
2639:
2637:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2625:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2618:Mercury-vapor
2616:
2615:
2613:
2611:
2602:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2579:
2576:
2572:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2561:Deuterium arc
2559:
2558:
2556:
2554:
2553:Gas discharge
2550:
2544:
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2530:
2528:
2526:
2522:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2508:
2506:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2488:
2486:
2483:
2481:
2478:
2474:
2471:
2469:
2466:
2465:
2464:
2461:
2457:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2449:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2400:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2375:
2372:
2371:
2370:
2367:
2363:
2360:
2357:
2353:
2350:
2349:
2348:
2345:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2319:
2316:
2315:
2314:
2311:
2310:
2308:
2306:
2302:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2286:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2271:
2265:
2259:
2258:Task lighting
2256:
2254:
2251:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2238:
2237:
2234:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2214:Light fixture
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2191:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2174:
2169:
2167:
2162:
2160:
2155:
2154:
2151:
2145:
2141:
2138:
2135:
2134:
2130:
2114:
2107:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2066:
2065:en.topwiki.nl
2062:
2056:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2038:
2035:
2030:
2026:
2020:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2002:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1972:
1965:
1962:
1958:
1953:
1950:
1937:
1933:
1927:
1924:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1884:
1881:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1837:J. Appl. Phys
1831:
1828:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1788:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1776:
1772:
1767:
1763:
1756:
1749:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1725:
1713:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1682:
1675:
1669:
1666:
1654:on 2011-07-17
1650:
1643:
1637:
1635:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1589:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1562:
1557:
1551:
1537:on 2013-10-04
1533:
1526:
1520:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1505:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1457:
1454:
1449:
1443:
1440:. MIT Press.
1439:
1432:
1429:
1417:. PerkinElmer
1413:
1407:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1364:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1349:Strobe beacon
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1334:Air-gap flash
1332:
1331:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1310:
1303:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1287:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1257:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1242:
1238:
1237:high voltages
1228:
1221:
1219:
1217:
1214:invented the
1213:
1208:
1205:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1179:
1177:
1173:
1168:
1165:
1161:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1137:
1132:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1116:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1089:
1088:Nd:YAG lasers
1085:
1084:lasing medium
1081:
1080:monochromatic
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1014:strobe lights
1012:
1003:
996:
991:
984:
982:
979:
977:
971:
969:
965:
959:
957:
953:
943:
936:
934:
932:
928:
922:
920:
915:
912:
908:
904:
900:
896:
892:
885:
883:
876:
874:
872:
868:
864:
860:
855:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
828:
826:
822:
817:
813:
809:
804:
800:
798:
794:
784:
777:
775:
773:
769:
763:
761:
760:eddy currents
756:
752:
746:
744:
740:
736:
726:
719:
717:
713:
711:
707:
703:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
676:
674:
664:
656:
649:
647:
645:
641:
635:
632:
628:
623:
621:
616:
611:
607:
604:
600:
590:
583:
578:
571:
566:
564:
550:
546:
532:
530:
523:
518:
509:
507:
505:
497:
495:
493:
487:
484:
479:
474:
466:
464:
462:
458:
454:
445:
443:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
415:
408:
406:
404:
400:
396:
387:
380:
378:
375:
370:
365:
364:electrostatic
356:
351:
344:
342:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
286:
284:
282:
281:Nd:YAG lasers
278:
274:
270:
262:
260:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
236:work function
233:
229:
225:
221:
220:melting point
217:
208:
204:
201:
200:laser pumping
196:
192:
184:
182:
178:
175:
169:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
115:
113:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
92:
83:
76:
74:
72:
68:
64:
60:
52:
48:
43:
37:
33:
19:
3021:Strobe light
3016:Plasma globe
2991:Crackle tube
2981:Bubble light
2942:trafficators
2937:Turn signals
2763:Street light
2718:Gas lighting
2651:Sodium vapor
2623:Metal-halide
2525:Electric arc
2277:Incandescent
2246:Edison screw
2116:. Retrieved
2106:
2098:
2094:
2086:
2064:
2055:
2046:
2037:
2029:www.llnl.gov
2028:
2019:
2011:news.rpi.edu
2010:
2001:
1993:
1974:. Retrieved
1964:
1956:
1952:
1940:. Retrieved
1935:
1926:
1893:
1889:
1883:
1840:
1836:
1830:
1800:(5): 232–7.
1797:
1793:
1765:
1761:
1748:
1740:
1715:. Retrieved
1684:. Retrieved
1680:
1668:
1656:. Retrieved
1649:the original
1598:
1594:
1588:
1580:
1576:
1568:
1564:
1539:. Retrieved
1532:the original
1519:
1511:
1507:
1466:
1462:
1456:
1437:
1431:
1419:. Retrieved
1354:Strobe light
1323:
1320:
1317:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1284:
1282:
1273:
1265:Quartz glass
1262:
1258:
1234:
1209:
1183:mercury lamp
1180:
1169:
1156:
1141:
1117:
1105:Pulsed light
1103:
1092:
1053:
1046:
1040:), aircraft
1038:horn strobes
1037:
1011:photographic
1008:
985:Applications
980:
972:
960:
948:
923:
919:pulsed-power
889:
880:
856:
844:milliseconds
829:
816:pulsed power
805:
801:
790:
764:
747:
732:
714:
704:
679:
677:
669:
636:
624:
612:
608:
596:
533:
525:
513:
501:
488:
470:
449:
420:
392:
374:voltage drop
360:
311:high voltage
304:
266:
213:
188:
179:
170:
162:fluorescence
154:solarization
142:ring flashes
126:borosilicate
122:fused quartz
119:
88:
77:Construction
62:
58:
56:
3166:Signal lamp
3120:Stroboscope
2996:DJ lighting
2932:Stop lights
2903:sealed beam
2855:Searchlight
2595:Xenon flash
2538:Klieg light
2386:Solid-state
2347:Fluorescent
2305:Luminescent
1843:(9): 2601.
1152:flash lamps
1136:shadowgraph
1066:atoms in a
1060:ultraviolet
1056:wavelengths
842:to tens of
840:microsecond
755:skin effect
545:resistivity
473:vacuum pump
369:capacitance
355:smartphones
273:atmospheres
269:kilopascals
203:expansion.
138:photography
134:camera lens
18:Xenon flash
3193:Categories
3110:Grow light
3105:Germicidal
3095:Scientific
3092:Industrial
3048:Floodlight
3034:Theatrical
2976:Blacklight
2971:Aroma lamp
2960:Decorative
2870:Automotive
2860:Solar lamp
2823:Glow stick
2806:Flashlight
2738:Nightlight
2733:Light tube
2708:Chandelier
2665:Stationary
2607:discharge
2533:Carbon arc
2403:Combustion
2269:generation
2267:Methods of
1541:2013-10-03
1365:References
1231:operation.
1216:ruby laser
1164:Ernst Mach
1148:flashbulbs
914:shock-wave
911:supersonic
793:inductance
673:blue giant
603:neon signs
483:bombarding
436:dye lasers
323:resistance
195:molybdenum
191:electrodes
100:, usually
71:incoherent
36:flash-lamp
32:flashlight
3176:Reflected
3156:Light art
3068:Spotlight
3053:Footlight
3038:Cinematic
3006:Lava lamp
2768:in the US
2673:Reflector
2590:Xenon arc
2571:Neon lamp
2500:Rushlight
2480:Limelight
2229:Hong Kong
2047:picbg.net
1875:120396003
1822:0018-9197
1768:(6): 343.
1297:Animation
1187:noble gas
1049:dentistry
907:arc flash
735:electrons
644:neodymium
615:continuum
522:impedance
461:waveforms
432:rise time
428:spark gap
424:thyristor
319:rectifier
307:capacitor
287:Operation
248:arc lamps
244:lanthanum
106:capacitor
98:noble gas
63:flashlamp
59:flashtube
2888:Headlamp
2828:Headlamp
2816:Tactical
2794:Portable
2775:Torchère
2456:Petromax
2451:Kerosene
2421:Campfire
2391:LED lamp
2187:Concepts
2180:Lighting
2140:Archived
1918:20134680
1623:20168911
1550:cite web
1499:34719312
1328:See also
1095:Nd:glass
1076:coherent
956:ablation
877:Lifetime
852:inductor
706:Nitrogen
440:ablation
399:inductor
228:Cathodes
216:tungsten
3171:Sources
3125:Tanning
3011:Marquee
2956:Display
2840:Lantern
2833:outdoor
2785:Troffer
2628:ceramic
2485:Luchina
2463:Lantern
2356:compact
2354: (
2290:Halogen
2285:Regular
1898:Bibcode
1845:Bibcode
1802:Bibcode
1603:Bibcode
1491:5273396
1471:Bibcode
1126:History
1064:pumping
964:cathode
952:sputter
867:lesions
836:cooling
812:wattage
695:Krypton
327:ionized
256:sputter
2893:hidden
2758:Sconce
2583:Sulfur
2578:Plasma
2510:Tilley
2505:Safety
2468:Fanous
2431:Carcel
2426:Candle
2416:Argand
2295:Nernst
2224:Hawaii
1916:
1873:
1820:
1621:
1497:
1489:
1444:
1222:Safety
976:jitter
895:energy
808:joules
729:light.
710:oxygen
687:Helium
593:table.
395:lasers
339:plasma
317:and a
240:Anodes
232:barium
166:quartz
158:cerium
51:below.
3209:Xenon
3151:Laser
3063:Scoop
2690:(PAR)
2643:(HQI)
2635:(HMI)
2609:(HID)
2515:Torch
2473:Paper
2441:Flare
2209:Glare
2118:3 Feb
1976:3 Feb
1942:3 Feb
1871:S2CID
1758:(PDF)
1717:3 Feb
1686:3 Feb
1677:(PDF)
1658:3 Feb
1652:(PDF)
1645:(PDF)
1535:(PDF)
1528:(PDF)
1495:S2CID
1421:1 Jul
1415:(PDF)
1269:ozone
1241:joule
1204:xenon
1200:Kodak
1195:argon
1134:This
1068:laser
968:anode
871:moles
848:hertz
743:atoms
699:Argon
620:white
572:Xenon
426:or a
331:spark
146:ozone
130:Pyrex
102:xenon
94:glass
3058:Gobo
2566:Neon
2436:Diya
2120:2009
1978:2009
1944:2009
1914:PMID
1818:ISSN
1719:2009
1688:2009
1660:2009
1619:PMID
1556:link
1487:PMID
1442:ISBN
1423:2013
1289:and
1250:jump
1150:and
954:and
899:heat
897:and
691:neon
689:and
277:torr
189:The
2495:Oil
2446:Gas
1906:doi
1861:hdl
1853:doi
1810:doi
1611:doi
1479:doi
1467:168
1070:to
1047:In
869:or
492:air
252:arc
128:or
3195::
2073:^
2063:.
2045:.
2027:.
2009:.
1986:^
1934:.
1912:.
1904:.
1894:13
1892:.
1869:.
1859:.
1851:.
1841:35
1839:.
1816:.
1808:.
1796:.
1774:^
1766:71
1764:.
1760:.
1727:^
1696:^
1679:.
1631:^
1617:.
1609:.
1599:16
1597:.
1552:}}
1548:{{
1493:.
1485:.
1477:.
1465:.
1373:^
1252:,
1122:.
1109:nm
1078:,
1032:,
1028:,
873:.
854:.
737:,
463:.
140:—'
124:,
57:A
2358:)
2172:e
2165:t
2158:v
2122:.
2067:.
2049:.
2031:.
2013:.
1980:.
1946:.
1920:.
1908::
1900::
1877:.
1863::
1855::
1847::
1824:.
1812::
1804::
1798:5
1721:.
1690:.
1662:.
1625:.
1613::
1605::
1558:)
1544:.
1501:.
1481::
1473::
1450:.
1425:.
1244:"
1036:(
682:o
680:K
584:.
561:o
557:o
553:o
540:o
536:o
534:K
528:o
526:K
61:(
53:)
38:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
