4586:
408:
496:
Despite these previous similarities to southern dialects, Yukjin has now become the most conservative mainland variety of Korean because it was not subject to many of the Early Modern phonological shifts that produced the modern mainland dialects. The Hamgyŏng dialect, which participated in these
492:
stated that while most of Hamgyŏng had a "most divergent" dialect, the Yukjin area had "no provincial speech" of its own because it had been settled by people from the southern provinces, who continued to use the standard southern dialects. In 1773, the high-ranking official Yu Ui-yang also wrote
476:
The Yukjin dialect of the six towns is further divided into an eastern variety, typified by the speech of Onsŏng and Kyŏngwŏn, and a western variety as spoken in Hoeryŏng and Chongsŏng. The eastern variety preserves more phonological archaisms. Some analyses consider the language of Kyŏnghŭng and
596:
in the 1940s. Kim Thay-kyun studied the speech of North
Hamgyong refugees in the 1980s. Research on speakers currently residing in the North Korean homeland is rare, and conducted primarily by Chinese researchers of Korean ethnicity. The dialect appears to have declined in North Korea due to
1151:'two' has one syllable, but its rising pitch indicates that it is descended from an earlier disyllabic form with high pitch on the second syllable, and some Old Korean renderings also suggest two syllables. Some Yukjin varieties have
493:
that the language of Yukjin was easier to understand than southern Hamgyŏng dialects because it was more similar to southern varieties of Korean, although he conceded that "when I first heard it, it was difficult to understand".
488:. Some of the earliest descriptions of Hamgyŏng dialects—from the seventeenth century—already noted that the speech of the Yukjin area was different from that of the rest of Hamgyŏng. The 1693 provincial gazette
2119:'cannot') intervenes between the main verb and the auxiliary, unlike in other Koreanic varieties (except other Hamgyŏng varieties) where the particle either precedes the main verb or follows the auxiliary.
1479:
of formality and politeness, which are distinguished by sentence-final suffixes. Scholars differ on which suffixes mark which speech level. Several formal-level markers have an allomorph beginning with
2289:. Nominalization was the original function of the two suffixes, being the main attested use in Old Korean, but was already rare in the Middle Korean of the early fifteenth century.
5040:
4122:
508:. Their speech was recorded in a dictionary compiled in 1874 by Mikhail Putsillo, and in materials compiled in 1904 by native speakers who were students at the
5013:
3948:
524:
2515:
through an intermediary , the same sound shift that affected central Korean dialects several centuries ago. In some words, Yukjin lacks a corresponding
473:
and peopled the six towns with immigrants from southeastern Korea. The Yukjin dialect is the distinctive
Koreanic variety spoken by their descendants.
5035:
4412:
2301:
but since lost in other dialects. Remarkably, no distinction is made between maternal and paternal relatives, unlike other Korean dialects (including
3688:
1157:
for this word, preserving the older disyllabic form. The dialect has accordingly been described as a highly conservative phonological "relic area".
5076:
527:
of the entire Korean population of the
Russian Far East, some 250,000 people. The main destinations were concentrated particularly in what is now
608:, descendants of Jurchen people who lived in the Tumen River valley, spoke Yukjin Korean despite their isolation from mainstream Korean society.
5030:
4378:
3864:
3816:
3748:
3729:
3677:
3510:
3484:
4175:
695:. The sound shift is now complete for younger speakers and the vowel has disappeared among them, although older speakers retain the vowel.
512:
Teacher's
Seminary. Larger waves of immigrants from other parts of North Hamgyŏng arrived in the area in the 1910s and 1920s, fleeing the
4371:
1715:
An innovation widespread in casual speech, this suffix is also found in non-Yukjin
Hamgyong dialects, and was previously found in the
908:
In some respects, Yukjin is more conservative than fifteenth-century Middle Korean. For example, Middle Korean had voiced fricatives
5081:
4819:
4105:
554:
1486:
after consonants, reflecting their origin as a compound of a preexisting marker and the honorific-marking verb-internal suffix
4895:
4621:
4607:
3993:
2426:
2416:
598:
339:
281:
216:
1691:"to not be", it may be omitted. This versatile suffix is also found in the Gyeongsang dialect, but only as a formal marker.
1563:
with an apparently identical function, which is no longer widely in use by North Korean speakers. Contracted forms such as
4405:
4170:
819:
535:. There are small Korean communities scattered throughout Central Asia maintaining forms of Korean known collectively as
5086:
4269:
4213:
3924:
3893:
2305:) which distinguish maternal uncles, aunts, and grandparents from paternal ones. This may reflect weaker influence from
513:
5066:
4900:
2495:
868:
preservation of Middle Korean alternative noun stems that appear when followed by a vowel-initial suffix, e.g. Yukjin
572:
Consequently, the dialect's current speakers are scattered between the traditional Tumen River homeland, now part of
4259:
4858:
3887:
3857:
3475:
Brown, Lucien; Yeon, Jaehoon (2015), "Varieties of contemporary Korean", in Brown, Lucien; Yeon, Jaehoon (eds.),
1502:-marking sentence-final suffixes which have been identified by Chinese, Korean, and Western researchers include:
5071:
4765:
4729:
4398:
3918:
1634:
1576:
4885:
4868:
4140:
3988:
3954:
3936:
921:
5045:
5023:
4872:
3912:
2533:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2508:
1909:
1905:
1238:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1137:
1119:
1101:
1084:
1066:
1048:
1026:
1008:
990:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
917:
913:
909:
783:
771:
754:
740:
735:
731:
726:
716:
711:
707:
703:
661:
657:
653:
649:
420:
4890:
295:
230:
2389:
1942:
An unusual marker restricted to mothers speaking to their children, attested from Koryo-saram sources.
3694:[On the aspects of the realization of vowel harmony in the Yukjin dialect of North Hamgyong],
2076:
730:. Vowel harmony is in the process of change among younger speakers in China, with all stems ending in
4954:
4944:
4237:
3850:
1664:
1476:
1222:
3573:
3543:
500:
In response to poor harvests in the 1860s, Yukjin speakers began emigrating to the southern part of
4853:
4696:
4650:
4279:
4130:
4017:
3626:
2467:
562:
481:
4229:
549:
The
Japanese annexation of Korea also triggered migration from northern parts of Korea to eastern
5008:
4824:
4779:
4673:
4438:
4112:
3942:
1539:
798:
589:
459:
357:
99:
3720:(2013), "Northeastern and Central Asia: 'Altaic' linguistic history", in Bellwood, Peter (ed.),
1817:, apparently without any semantic difference. It may combine with a preceding past tense marker
1609:. It is not currently widely used in North Korea outside the town of Hoeryŏng. Variants such as
744:
variant of the suffix as well. These are new divergences between Yukjin and the Seoul standard.
539:, but their language is under severe pressure from local languages and Gyeonggi (Seoul) Korean.
786:. In non-Soviet dialects, is obligatory intervocally, while and may both be used otherwise.
4969:
4934:
4929:
4488:
4451:
4429:
4327:
4302:
3812:
3744:
3725:
3673:
3506:
3480:
2449:
1305:
1192:
665:
593:
557:. Linguists in China divide the Korean varieties spoken in Northeast China into Northwestern (
470:
391:
that formed in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The dialect is under pressure from the
353:
4923:
4701:
4668:
4508:
4135:
3802:
3779:
3703:
3604:
3588:
3558:
3522:
2393:
2320:
1960:
1904:
Found in
Standard Korean as an informal imperative marker. In modern North Korean dialects,
1535:
1499:
617:
505:
480:
Yukjin is divergent from the dialect prevalent in the rest of Hamgyŏng
Province, called the
396:
392:
4992:
4949:
4939:
4797:
4706:
4655:
4633:
4555:
4473:
4421:
3717:
2324:
1716:
1543:
1255:
1203:
558:
485:
384:
380:
369:
349:
319:
104:
91:
1633:
have been attested. The marker is rare among speakers outside North Korea. The suffix is
447:
778:
intervocally and otherwise in most other Korean dialects—is always realized as or the
4914:
4809:
4678:
4498:
4493:
4478:
4145:
4067:
3998:
3900:
2507:
There is an ongoing sound shift in Yukjin dialects in which some cases of intervocalic
2286:
779:
573:
501:
462:
443:
144:
3739:
Yeon, Jaehoon (2012), "Korean dialects: a general survey", in
Tranter, Nicolas (ed.),
5060:
4977:
4787:
4518:
4483:
4446:
4292:
4287:
2310:
2302:
2298:
1434:
1402:
1351:
1186:
753:
is usually realized as its typically North Korean value, . It is realized as before
699:
645:
565:) and Northeastern (Yukjin) groups. The latter are spoken in the easternmost part of
365:
132:
1241:. Unlike all other currently spoken Koreanic varieties, Yukjin lacks the nominative
671:
For some speakers, there is an additional vowel, transcribed , intermediate between
4959:
4880:
4739:
4342:
4317:
4205:
4150:
1423:, phonetically , may have been reanalyzed as a sequence of two nominative markers (
794:
775:
621:
388:
497:
shifts, now resembles the southern dialects to a greater extent than does Yukjin.
2297:
The basic Yukjin lexicon is unusually archaic, preserving many forms attested in
375:
Yukjin speakers currently live not only in the Tumen River homeland, now part of
4688:
4642:
4615:
4601:
4347:
4337:
4332:
4322:
4297:
4100:
3930:
3873:
3708:
2306:
1769:
1347:
721:
585:
581:
455:
435:
376:
361:
60:
4585:
683:. This vowel represents an intermediate stage in a diachronic sound shift from
553:, and more Koreans were forcibly transferred there in the 1930s as part of the
4846:
4503:
4461:
4307:
4245:
4039:
3906:
3826:
Zhao, Xi 赵习; Xuan, Dewu 宣德五 (1986), "Cháoxiǎnyǔ liùzhènhuà de fāngyán tèdiǎn"
1741:
641:
631:
605:
532:
528:
451:
127:
82:
17:
1146:
887:
881:
4841:
4747:
4264:
4221:
4053:
3983:
2345:
2270:
1740:
Found throughout Korean dialects as a declarative marker and attested since
1242:
1171:
764:
550:
543:
536:
477:
Puryŏng to belong to the mainstream
Hamgyong dialect rather than to Yukjin.
164:
3648:
592:; and people from the Yukjin region who have fled to South Korea since the
439:
3807:
5018:
4032:
1579:
differently depending on the mood. Younger speakers in China tend to use
925:
3611:[The phonology and phonological history of the Yukjin dialect],
407:
364:. Its phonology and lexicon are unusually conservative, preserving many
4982:
4836:
4312:
4025:
3784:
3593:
3563:
2397:
1362:
768:
78:
1768:
An interrogative marker unique to Yukjin. The second vowel is usually
286:
221:
4814:
4364:
4090:
4060:
3689:"Hambuk Yukjin bang'eon-ui moeum johwa silhyeon yangsang-e daehayeo"
2392:. Among remaining speakers in the post-Soviet states, there are many
2313:
1125:
1095:
1072:
1036:
1014:
978:
520:
466:
249:
184:
151:
3766:
Kwak, Chung-gu (2007), "Jung-ang-asia golyeomal-ui jalyowa yeongu"
4831:
4757:
4721:
4390:
4046:
3529:[Study on sentence-final suffixes in the Yukjin dialect],
2236:
2178:
1575:
are also found, and have a more casual connotation. The suffix is
797:
otherwise found only in other Hamgyong varieties and the southern
789:
Many features of Middle Korean survive in the dialect, including:
577:
566:
509:
406:
329:
265:
200:
3655:[The northeastern dialects and Korean language studies],
4987:
920:, which have disappeared in most modern dialects. Evidence from
702:
system in which only a verb stem whose final (or only) vowel is
4394:
3846:
3770:[Data and research on Korean dialect in Central Asia],
3503:
Language Atlas of China (2nd edition): Minority language volume
1841:. Found throughout Korean dialects as an interrogative marker.
3842:
2536:
is already complete in the earliest attested form of the word.
3633:[The archaic characteristics of the Yukjin lexicon],
1237:
are the new underlying forms for most forms originally with
3801:(in German), Universitätsverlag Göttingen, pp. 67–77,
3793:
Pak, Nelly (2020), "Koreaner in Kasachstan und ihr Dialekt
3496:
Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Shǎoshù mínzú yǔyán juǎn
2969:
2967:
2690:
2688:
2686:
616:
The Ryukjin dialect has eight vowels, corresponding to the
1233:. For most Koryo-saram speakers, the umlauted forms with
300:
235:
2107:
Highly unusually, the Yukjin negative particle (such as
399:, as well as local Chinese and Central Asian languages.
2792:
2790:
223:
Yukjin bangeon / Ryukjin bangeon / Yeoseot goeul saturi
3394:
3392:
3104:
3102:
2954:
2952:
2927:
2925:
2729:
2727:
2453:
484:, and generally more closely aligned with the western
3574:"Archaisms and Innovations in Soviet Korean dialects"
3319:
3317:
3315:
3290:
3288:
3286:
3284:
3259:
3257:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3176:
3174:
3172:
3170:
3157:
3155:
3153:
2559:
2557:
1655:
Most commonly neutral, but found in all speech levels
237:
Yukchin pangŏn / Ryukchin pangŏn / Yŏsŏt koŭl sat'uri
2661:
2659:
2617:
2615:
2613:
2611:
2435:
2420:
2383:
2377:
2366:
2360:
2349:
2339:
2333:
2280:
2274:
2264:
2114:
2108:
2091:
2085:
2069:
2048:
2032:
2026:
2020:
2014:
2003:
1987:
1981:
1975:
1969:
1953:
1935:
1919:
1913:
1894:
1878:
1872:
1866:
1852:
1836:
1830:
1824:
1818:
1812:
1801:
1785:
1779:
1773:
1755:
1730:
1702:
1686:
1680:
1674:
1668:
1658:
1648:
1628:
1622:
1616:
1610:
1604:
1596:
1580:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1528:
1493:
1487:
1481:
1475:
Most analyses of the verbal paradigm identify three
1460:
1454:
1445:
1439:
1424:
1418:
1410:
1393:
1387:
1381:
1372:
1366:
1356:
1338:
1332:
1324:
1317:
1310:
1295:
1289:
1280:
1274:
1267:
1260:
1245:
1216:
1208:
1152:
1131:
1113:
1078:
1060:
1042:
1020:
1002:
984:
899:
893:
875:
869:
861:
855:
849:
841:
835:
829:
823:
810:
804:
758:
748:
690:
684:
678:
672:
635:
625:
429:
343:
5001:
4968:
4913:
4867:
4796:
4778:
4756:
4738:
4720:
4687:
4641:
4632:
4614:
4600:
4593:
4554:
4540:
4517:
4460:
4437:
4428:
4356:
4278:
4198:
4185:
4163:
4121:
4080:
4016:
3977:
3964:
3880:
2646:
2644:
2642:
2586:
2584:
294:
280:
264:
248:
243:
229:
215:
199:
183:
178:
162:
157:
141:
120:
88:
74:
66:
56:
34:
3799:Korean Diaspora – Central Asia, Siberia and Beyond
3647:
3627:"Yukjin bang'eon eohwi-ui janjae-jeok seonggyeok"
3625:
3603:
3521:
3494:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) (2012),
584:; Korean communities in parts of Northeast China;
3830:[Features of the Korean Yukjin dialect],
1429:) which was then reduced to a single nominative.
2338:'to breed an animal', from the Manchu verb stem
1865:Etymologically formed from the versatile suffix
1778:is also found. Younger speakers in China prefer
656:in the first syllable of a word, Yukjin shifted
5041:North–South differences in the Korean language
3797:", in Reckel, Johannes; Schatz, Merle (eds.),
767:. In the post-Soviet varieties of Yukjin, the
4406:
3858:
940:in voiced environments. Yukjin often retains
465:until the early fifteenth century, when King
8:
3523:"Yukjin bang'eon-ui jonggyeol-eomi yeon'gu"
2471:
2430:
2372:
2355:
2328:
2063:
2042:
1997:
1947:
1929:
1888:
1846:
1795:
1749:
1724:
1696:
1642:
1590:
1522:
1107:
1054:
996:
424:
333:
323:
271:
255:
206:
190:
714:can take a suffix beginning with the vowel
546:speakers use the Ryukjin language/dialect.
434:'six garrisons' refers to the six towns of
5014:International Circle of Korean Linguistics
4802:
4638:
4597:
4434:
4413:
4399:
4391:
4195:
4118:
4013:
3974:
3949:Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union
3865:
3851:
3843:
3605:"Yukjin bang'eon-ui eumseong-gwa eumunsa"
2388:'id.' There are also a few loanwords from
924:suggests that these consonants arose from
458:. The area of these towns belonged to the
31:
5036:National Institute of the Korean Language
3806:
3783:
3707:
3592:
3562:
3347:
3093:
3045:
3021:
3009:
2997:
2973:
2868:
2856:
2694:
2633:
1551:The etymologically more transparent form
1250:, found after a vowel in other dialects.
3722:The Global Prehistory of Human Migration
3649:"Dongbuk bang'eon-gwa gugeo-gukmun-hak"
2121:
1504:
1300:is sometimes realized as a single tap .
1169:
956:Correspondences with lenited consonants
954:
698:Like Seoul Korean, Yukjin has a limited
356:spoken in the historic Yukjin region of
288:Ryukjineo / Yukjineo / Yeoseot goeul mal
2553:
2490:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2482:
2409:
1557:is also found. There is a related form
5031:List of English words of Korean origin
4379:Sen-bong (Avangard: Koreyskiy Kolkhoz)
3668:Lee, Iksop; Ramsey, S. Robert (2000),
3505:], Beijing: The Commercial Press,
2090:, but does not take an allomorph with
1667:consonants. In verb stems ending with
372:classified it as a distinct language.
3724:, Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 197–203,
2575:
2498:, the standard for Korean linguistics
1498:after a verb stem ending in a vowel.
454:, all located south of a bend of the
302:Ryukchinŏ / Yukchinŏ / Yŏsŏt koŭl mal
7:
3458:
3446:
3434:
3422:
3410:
3398:
3383:
3371:
3359:
3236:
3132:
3120:
3108:
3081:
3069:
3057:
3033:
2985:
2958:
2943:
2931:
2916:
2904:
2892:
2880:
2844:
2832:
2808:
2781:
2769:
2757:
2745:
2733:
2718:
2706:
2677:
2665:
2650:
2621:
2602:
2563:
1829:, and with the retrospective marker
1288:Cognate to Middle and Modern Korean
644:. Unlike in Seoul Korean, where the
3335:
3323:
3306:
3294:
3275:
3263:
3248:
3224:
3212:
3200:
3188:
3161:
3144:
2820:
2796:
2590:
2382:'goose-catching snare' from Manchu
1637:differently depending on the mood.
1603:More formal and less intimate than
757:, and the consonant-glide sequence
597:extensive state enforcement of the
4372:Koryo Saram: The Unreliable People
3544:"An introduction to Soviet Korean"
3477:The Handbook of Korean Linguistics
1585:, the Standard Korean equivalent.
1145:Similarly, the Middle Korean word
782:, except when followed by another
734:and multisyllabic stems ending in
25:
4106:Korean Cultural Center, Ussuriysk
2344:'to copulate ' with the Koreanic
1294:, with the final liquid dropped.
27:Divergent northern Korean dialect
4584:
4176:Kazakhstan–Korea Friendship Park
3741:The Languages of Japan and Korea
2252:quickly cannot move.out-come-DEC
2194:quickly move.out cannot come-DEC
1772:, but the non-nasalized variant
1685:"to be" and the negative copula
1679:, including the positive copula
1407:nominative marker generally used
555:Japanese occupation of Manchuria
469:conquered the area into Korea's
3743:, Routledge, pp. 168–185,
2058:Also found in Standard Korean.
2025:. Etymologically a compound of
1980:. Etymologically a compound of
1871:, this suffix is also found as
1191:After rounded vowel (Sometimes
1174:markers in Koryo-mar varieties
763:is also realized as the single
5077:Korean language in North Korea
3994:North Korean standard language
3646:——— (2018),
3624:——— (2015),
3572:——— (1992),
2327:. This includes the verb stem
1784:, loaned from Standard Korean
1406:
1221:to be dropped and also causes
599:North Korean standard language
334:
324:
272:
256:
207:
191:
1:
4171:Karatal Korean History Center
880:"in the tree" (Middle Korean
4270:Korean Theatre of Kazakhstan
3925:Korean Northern Army Command
3894:Korean independence movement
3084:, pp. 123–128, 132–139.
2384:
2373:
2367:
2365:'wicker basket' from Manchu
2356:
2340:
2329:
1492:, which takes the allomorph
1147:
888:
882:
514:Japanese annexation of Korea
40:Yukchin / Ryukjin / Ryukchin
3709:10.15822/skllr.2019.47.4.67
3479:, Wiley, pp. 459–476,
2532:Reconstructed; the loss of
2436:
2421:
2378:
2361:
2350:
2334:
2319:There are a few loans from
2281:
2275:
2269:'to be like', the normally
2265:
2231:
2218:
2207:
2173:
2160:
2149:
2138:
2115:
2109:
2092:
2086:
2070:
2049:
2033:
2027:
2021:
2015:
2004:
1988:
1982:
1976:
1970:
1954:
1936:
1920:
1914:
1895:
1879:
1873:
1867:
1853:
1837:
1831:
1825:
1819:
1813:
1802:
1786:
1780:
1774:
1756:
1731:
1703:
1687:
1681:
1675:
1669:
1659:
1649:
1629:
1623:
1617:
1611:
1605:
1597:
1581:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1553:
1529:
1494:
1488:
1482:
1461:
1455:
1453:Cognate to Standard Korean
1446:
1440:
1425:
1419:
1411:
1394:
1388:
1382:
1380:Cognate to Standard Korean
1373:
1367:
1357:
1339:
1333:
1331:Cognate to Standard Korean
1325:
1318:
1311:
1296:
1290:
1281:
1275:
1268:
1261:
1246:
1217:
1209:
1153:
1132:
1114:
1079:
1061:
1043:
1021:
1003:
985:
900:
894:
876:
870:
862:
856:
850:
842:
836:
830:
824:
811:
805:
759:
749:
720:. Other verb stems take an
691:
685:
679:
673:
636:
626:
430:
344:
301:
287:
236:
222:
5103:
4820:Consonant and vowel tables
4260:All Nations Baptist Church
2454:
2263:When followed by the verb
1215:The marker causes a final
1126:
1096:
1073:
1037:
1015:
979:
815:, preserved only in Yukjin
630:(standard Seoul ) is more
393:Gyeonggi ("Seoul") dialect
4859:Transcription into Korean
4805:
4582:
3888:Korea under Japanese rule
2472:
2431:
2255:' can't come out quickly'
2197:' can't come out quickly'
2127:
2124:
2064:
2043:
1998:
1959:
1948:
1930:
1912:. In Onsŏng, the variant
1900:
1889:
1858:
1847:
1796:
1761:
1750:
1725:
1708:
1697:
1643:
1591:
1547:
1534:
1523:
1507:
1438:
1355:
1207:
1108:
1055:
997:
747:In Yukjin, the consonant
652:almost always shifted to
425:
308:
174:
44:
39:
5082:Languages of North Korea
3919:Korean Independence Army
3827:
3767:
3691:咸北 六鎮方言의 母音調和 實現 樣相에 대하여
3690:
3650:
3628:
3606:
3524:
3498:
3203:, pp. 111, 116–117.
2084:Pronounced similarly to
1918:is common; in Hoeryŏng,
1100: *nwuWey
848:preservation of initial
803:the distinction between
403:History and distribution
4886:Cyrillization of Korean
4141:Gwangju Koryoin Village
3989:Cyrillization of Korean
3955:August faction incident
3602:Kwak, Chung-gu (2012),
3542:King, J. R. P. (1987),
3520:Kim, Seo-hyung (2003),
2519:form for Middle Korean
2096:even after a consonant
1986:and the aforementioned
1811:It also takes the form
922:internal reconstruction
624:. In Yukjin, the vowel
415:) in northeastern Korea
192:육진 방언, 륙진 방언, 여섯 고을 사투리
5046:Sino-Korean vocabulary
5024:List of Konglish terms
4669:Gyeonggi/Seoul dialect
4560:(19th century–present)
3913:Korean Socialist Party
2494:Korean forms given in
2309:norms promoted by the
2228:
2215:
2204:
2170:
2157:
2146:
2135:
724:suffix beginning with
416:
3808:10.17875/gup2020-1307
3687:Piao, Meihui (2019),
3348:Lee & Ramsey 2000
3094:Lee & Ramsey 2000
3046:Lee & Ramsey 2000
3022:Lee & Ramsey 2000
3010:Lee & Ramsey 2000
2998:Lee & Ramsey 2000
2974:Lee & Ramsey 2000
2869:Lee & Ramsey 2000
2857:Lee & Ramsey 2000
2695:Brown & Yeon 2015
2634:Lee & Ramsey 2000
2417:South Korean Standard
2390:Northeastern Mandarin
410:
3937:Sinhanch'on Incident
3657:Gaesin Eomun Yeon'gu
3499:中国语言地图集(第2版):少数民族语言卷
3024:, p. 350, n. 6.
3012:, pp. 284, 320.
2455:咸鏡一道鄕音最別 而唯北道九官無鄕音 。
1908:may be nasalized to
542:About 10 percent of
282:Revised Romanization
217:Revised Romanization
5087:Koryo-saram culture
4651:Chungcheong dialect
4541:Early modern Korean
4131:Central Asia Street
3670:The Korean Language
3437:, pp. 203–206.
3425:, pp. 201–203.
3386:, pp. 189–190.
3251:, pp. 108–109.
3227:, pp. 110–111.
3123:, pp. 207–209.
3060:, pp. 126–128.
3048:, pp. 320–321.
3036:, pp. 137–140.
2946:, pp. 141–142.
2919:, pp. 129–131.
2883:, pp. 143–144.
2871:, pp. 328–329.
2835:, pp. 206–208.
2748:, pp. 179–180.
2721:, pp. 239–241.
2709:, pp. 233–234.
2605:, pp. 236–238.
2468:Early Modern Korean
1444:for inanimates and
1175:
957:
588:communities in the
411:The six garrisons (
5067:Koreanic languages
5009:Koreanic languages
4780:Koreanic languages
4674:Gyeongsang dialect
3943:Free City Incident
3461:, p. 215–216.
2323:or its descendant
1663:is used after non-
1170:
955:
799:Gyeongsang dialect
590:post-Soviet states
561:), North-central (
525:forced resettlment
417:
379:, but also in the
358:northeastern Korea
348:) is a variety of
5054:
5053:
4909:
4908:
4891:McCune-Reischauer
4774:
4773:
4660:Yeongdong dialect
4628:
4627:
4580:
4579:
4561:
4545:
4544:(17–18th century)
4524:
4523:(10–16th century)
4467:
4388:
4387:
4328:Tatyana Bakalchuk
4255:
4254:
4159:
4158:
4076:
4075:
4006:
4005:
3818:978-3-86395-451-2
3768:중앙아시아 고려말의 자료와 연구
3750:978-0-415-46287-7
3731:978-1-118-97059-1
3679:978-0-7914-4831-1
3581:Language Research
3551:Language Research
3512:978-7-100-07053-9
3486:978-1-118-35491-9
3374:, pp. 16–17.
2895:, pp. 83–84.
2799:, pp. 96–97.
2772:, pp. 77–78.
2496:Yale Romanization
2473:처엄으로 드르니 알기 어렵더라.
2450:Classical Chinese
2261:
2260:
2100:
2099:
2013:Also attested as
1968:Also attested as
1468:
1467:
1193:labial consonants
1143:
1142:
774:—realized as the
666:labial consonants
640:(Seoul ) is more
594:division of Korea
471:Hamgyong Province
460:Tungusic-speaking
354:Koreanic language
312:
311:
296:McCune–Reischauer
257:륙진어, 육진어, 여섯 고을 말
231:McCune–Reischauer
51:Yeoseot goeul mal
16:(Redirected from
5094:
4803:
4702:Hwanghae dialect
4697:Hamgyŏng dialect
4663:Yeongseo dialect
4639:
4598:
4588:
4559:
4543:
4522:
4466:(?–10th century)
4465:
4435:
4415:
4408:
4401:
4392:
4196:
4136:Ttaetgol Village
4119:
4014:
3975:
3867:
3860:
3853:
3844:
3839:
3822:
3810:
3789:
3787:
3754:
3735:
3718:Vovin, Alexander
3713:
3711:
3683:
3664:
3654:
3642:
3632:
3620:
3610:
3598:
3596:
3578:
3568:
3566:
3548:
3538:
3528:
3516:
3490:
3462:
3456:
3450:
3444:
3438:
3432:
3426:
3420:
3414:
3408:
3402:
3396:
3387:
3381:
3375:
3369:
3363:
3357:
3351:
3345:
3339:
3333:
3327:
3321:
3310:
3304:
3298:
3292:
3279:
3273:
3267:
3261:
3252:
3246:
3240:
3234:
3228:
3222:
3216:
3210:
3204:
3198:
3192:
3186:
3165:
3159:
3148:
3142:
3136:
3130:
3124:
3118:
3112:
3106:
3097:
3091:
3085:
3079:
3073:
3067:
3061:
3055:
3049:
3043:
3037:
3031:
3025:
3019:
3013:
3007:
3001:
2995:
2989:
2983:
2977:
2971:
2962:
2956:
2947:
2941:
2935:
2929:
2920:
2914:
2908:
2902:
2896:
2890:
2884:
2878:
2872:
2866:
2860:
2854:
2848:
2842:
2836:
2830:
2824:
2818:
2812:
2806:
2800:
2794:
2785:
2779:
2773:
2767:
2761:
2755:
2749:
2743:
2737:
2731:
2722:
2716:
2710:
2704:
2698:
2692:
2681:
2675:
2669:
2663:
2654:
2648:
2637:
2631:
2625:
2619:
2606:
2600:
2594:
2588:
2579:
2573:
2567:
2561:
2537:
2535:
2530:
2524:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2505:
2499:
2492:
2477:
2475:
2474:
2465:
2459:
2457:
2456:
2447:
2441:
2439:
2434:
2433:
2424:
2414:
2387:
2381:
2376:
2375:
2370:
2364:
2359:
2358:
2353:
2343:
2337:
2332:
2331:
2284:
2278:
2273:verbal suffixes
2268:
2238:
2180:
2122:
2118:
2112:
2095:
2089:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2052:
2046:
2045:
2036:
2030:
2024:
2018:
2007:
2001:
2000:
1991:
1985:
1979:
1973:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1923:
1917:
1911:
1907:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1882:
1876:
1870:
1856:
1850:
1849:
1840:
1834:
1828:
1822:
1816:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1706:
1700:
1699:
1690:
1684:
1678:
1672:
1662:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1632:
1626:
1620:
1614:
1608:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1584:
1574:
1568:
1562:
1556:
1532:
1526:
1525:
1505:
1497:
1491:
1485:
1464:
1458:
1449:
1443:
1428:
1422:
1414:
1397:
1391:
1385:
1376:
1370:
1360:
1342:
1337:, Middle Korean
1336:
1328:
1321:
1314:
1299:
1293:
1284:
1278:
1271:
1264:
1249:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1212:
1176:
1156:
1150:
1139:
1135:
1129:
1128:
1121:
1117:
1111:
1110:
1103:
1099:
1098:
1086:
1082:
1076:
1075:
1068:
1064:
1058:
1057:
1050:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1028:
1024:
1018:
1017:
1010:
1006:
1000:
999:
992:
988:
982:
981:
958:
952:in these words:
951:
947:
943:
939:
935:
931:
919:
915:
911:
903:
897:
891:
885:
879:
873:
865:
859:
853:
845:
839:
833:
827:
814:
808:
785:
773:
762:
756:
752:
742:
737:
733:
728:
718:
713:
709:
705:
694:
688:
682:
676:
663:
659:
655:
651:
639:
629:
506:Russian Far East
482:Hamgyŏng dialect
433:
428:
427:
397:prestige dialect
347:
337:
336:
327:
326:
304:
290:
275:
274:
259:
258:
244:Ryukjin language
239:
225:
210:
209:
194:
193:
167:
147:
94:
32:
21:
5102:
5101:
5097:
5096:
5095:
5093:
5092:
5091:
5072:Korean dialects
5057:
5056:
5055:
5050:
4997:
4993:Yongbieocheonga
4964:
4905:
4863:
4792:
4770:
4766:Zainichi Korean
4752:
4734:
4716:
4707:Pyongan dialect
4683:
4656:Gangwon dialect
4624:
4610:
4589:
4576:
4558:
4550:
4542:
4536:
4521:
4513:
4464:
4456:
4424:
4422:Korean language
4419:
4389:
4384:
4352:
4274:
4251:
4194:
4181:
4155:
4117:
4072:
4012:
4002:
3973:
3960:
3876:
3871:
3829:
3825:
3819:
3792:
3769:
3765:
3762:
3760:Further reading
3757:
3751:
3738:
3732:
3716:
3692:
3686:
3680:
3667:
3652:
3645:
3630:
3629:육진방언 어휘의 잔재적 성격
3623:
3608:
3601:
3576:
3571:
3546:
3541:
3526:
3519:
3513:
3500:
3493:
3487:
3474:
3470:
3465:
3457:
3453:
3445:
3441:
3433:
3429:
3421:
3417:
3409:
3405:
3397:
3390:
3382:
3378:
3370:
3366:
3358:
3354:
3346:
3342:
3334:
3330:
3322:
3313:
3305:
3301:
3293:
3282:
3274:
3270:
3262:
3255:
3247:
3243:
3235:
3231:
3223:
3219:
3211:
3207:
3199:
3195:
3187:
3168:
3160:
3151:
3143:
3139:
3131:
3127:
3119:
3115:
3107:
3100:
3092:
3088:
3080:
3076:
3072:, pp. 138.
3068:
3064:
3056:
3052:
3044:
3040:
3032:
3028:
3020:
3016:
3008:
3004:
2996:
2992:
2984:
2980:
2972:
2965:
2957:
2950:
2942:
2938:
2930:
2923:
2915:
2911:
2903:
2899:
2891:
2887:
2879:
2875:
2867:
2863:
2855:
2851:
2843:
2839:
2831:
2827:
2819:
2815:
2807:
2803:
2795:
2788:
2780:
2776:
2768:
2764:
2756:
2752:
2744:
2740:
2732:
2725:
2717:
2713:
2705:
2701:
2693:
2684:
2676:
2672:
2664:
2657:
2649:
2640:
2632:
2628:
2620:
2609:
2601:
2597:
2589:
2582:
2574:
2570:
2562:
2555:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2540:
2531:
2527:
2506:
2502:
2493:
2480:
2466:
2462:
2448:
2444:
2437:Ryukchin pangŏn
2415:
2411:
2406:
2396:borrowings and
2295:
2257:
2240:
2226:
2213:
2199:
2182:
2168:
2155:
2144:
2105:
2068:
2047:
2002:
1952:
1934:
1893:
1851:
1800:
1754:
1729:
1717:Pyongan dialect
1701:
1647:
1595:
1527:
1473:
1182:After consonant
1168:
1163:
738:now taking the
614:
486:Pyongan dialect
405:
385:Northeast China
381:Korean diaspora
370:Alexander Vovin
360:, south of the
276:
260:
211:
195:
163:
148:
143:
137:
123:
116:
95:
92:Language family
90:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5100:
5098:
5090:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5059:
5058:
5052:
5051:
5049:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5033:
5028:
5027:
5026:
5016:
5011:
5005:
5003:
4999:
4998:
4996:
4995:
4990:
4985:
4980:
4974:
4972:
4966:
4965:
4963:
4962:
4957:
4952:
4947:
4942:
4937:
4932:
4927:
4919:
4917:
4911:
4910:
4907:
4906:
4904:
4903:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4877:
4875:
4865:
4864:
4862:
4861:
4856:
4851:
4850:
4849:
4844:
4839:
4829:
4828:
4827:
4822:
4812:
4810:Korean Braille
4806:
4800:
4798:Writing system
4794:
4793:
4791:
4790:
4784:
4782:
4776:
4775:
4772:
4771:
4769:
4768:
4762:
4760:
4754:
4753:
4751:
4750:
4744:
4742:
4736:
4735:
4733:
4732:
4730:Chinese Korean
4726:
4724:
4718:
4717:
4715:
4714:
4712:Yukjin dialect
4709:
4704:
4699:
4693:
4691:
4685:
4684:
4682:
4681:
4679:Jeolla dialect
4676:
4671:
4666:
4665:
4664:
4661:
4653:
4647:
4645:
4636:
4630:
4629:
4626:
4625:
4620:
4618:
4612:
4611:
4606:
4604:
4595:
4591:
4590:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4577:
4575:
4574:
4571:
4568:
4564:
4562:
4552:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4538:
4537:
4535:
4534:
4531:
4527:
4525:
4515:
4514:
4512:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4470:
4468:
4458:
4457:
4455:
4454:
4449:
4443:
4441:
4439:Proto-Koreanic
4432:
4426:
4425:
4420:
4418:
4417:
4410:
4403:
4395:
4386:
4385:
4383:
4382:
4375:
4368:
4360:
4358:
4354:
4353:
4351:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4303:Chŏng Sang-jin
4300:
4295:
4290:
4284:
4282:
4280:Notable people
4276:
4275:
4273:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4256:
4253:
4252:
4250:
4242:
4238:Ch'ŏnggu Sinbo
4234:
4226:
4218:
4214:Taedong Kongbo
4210:
4202:
4200:
4193:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4183:
4182:
4180:
4179:
4173:
4167:
4165:
4164:Historic sites
4161:
4160:
4157:
4156:
4154:
4153:
4148:
4146:Hambak Village
4143:
4138:
4133:
4127:
4125:
4123:In South Korea
4116:
4115:
4110:
4109:
4108:
4103:
4095:
4094:
4093:
4084:
4082:
4078:
4077:
4074:
4073:
4071:
4068:Siryak-tyamuri
4064:
4057:
4050:
4043:
4036:
4029:
4022:
4020:
4011:
4010:
4007:
4004:
4003:
4001:
3999:Yukjin dialect
3996:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3979:
3972:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3958:
3952:
3946:
3940:
3934:
3928:
3922:
3916:
3910:
3904:
3898:
3897:
3896:
3884:
3882:
3878:
3877:
3872:
3870:
3869:
3862:
3855:
3847:
3841:
3840:
3834:(in Chinese),
3823:
3817:
3790:
3772:Inmun Nonchong
3761:
3758:
3756:
3755:
3749:
3736:
3730:
3714:
3684:
3678:
3672:, SUNY Press,
3665:
3643:
3621:
3599:
3587:(2): 201–223,
3569:
3557:(2): 233–274,
3539:
3517:
3511:
3491:
3485:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3463:
3451:
3449:, p. 216.
3439:
3427:
3415:
3413:, p. 215.
3403:
3401:, p. 193.
3388:
3376:
3364:
3352:
3350:, p. 332.
3340:
3338:, p. 119.
3328:
3326:, p. 118.
3311:
3309:, p. 109.
3299:
3297:, p. 113.
3280:
3278:, p. 108.
3268:
3266:, p. 112.
3253:
3241:
3239:, p. 211.
3229:
3217:
3215:, p. 110.
3205:
3193:
3191:, p. 107.
3166:
3164:, p. 111.
3149:
3147:, p. 105.
3137:
3135:, p. 141.
3125:
3113:
3111:, p. 126.
3098:
3096:, p. 288.
3086:
3074:
3062:
3050:
3038:
3026:
3014:
3002:
3000:, p. 320.
2990:
2978:
2976:, p. 323.
2963:
2961:, p. 206.
2948:
2936:
2934:, p. 203.
2921:
2909:
2897:
2885:
2873:
2861:
2859:, p. 319.
2849:
2837:
2825:
2813:
2811:, p. 236.
2801:
2786:
2774:
2762:
2760:, p. 235.
2750:
2738:
2736:, p. 202.
2723:
2711:
2699:
2697:, p. 465.
2682:
2670:
2655:
2638:
2636:, p. 313.
2626:
2607:
2595:
2580:
2578:, p. 201.
2568:
2566:, p. 189.
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2525:
2500:
2478:
2460:
2442:
2422:Yukjin bangeon
2408:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2294:
2291:
2259:
2258:
2235:move.out-come-
2227:
2214:
2203:
2202:
2200:
2169:
2156:
2145:
2134:
2133:
2130:
2129:
2126:
2104:
2101:
2098:
2097:
2082:
2079:
2074:
2060:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2039:
2038:
2011:
2008:
1994:
1993:
1966:
1963:
1958:
1944:
1943:
1940:
1926:
1925:
1902:
1899:
1885:
1884:
1863:
1860:
1857:
1843:
1842:
1809:
1806:
1792:
1791:
1766:
1763:
1760:
1746:
1745:
1738:
1735:
1721:
1720:
1713:
1710:
1707:
1693:
1692:
1656:
1653:
1639:
1638:
1601:
1587:
1586:
1549:
1546:
1533:
1519:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1509:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1465:
1451:
1437:
1431:
1430:
1417:Middle Korean
1415:
1408:
1405:
1399:
1398:
1378:
1354:
1344:
1343:
1329:
1322:
1315:
1308:
1302:
1301:
1286:
1272:
1265:
1258:
1252:
1251:
1213:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1196:
1189:
1183:
1180:
1167:
1164:
1162:
1159:
1141:
1140:
1123:
1105:
1092:
1088:
1087:
1070:
1052:
1034:
1030:
1029:
1012:
994:
976:
972:
971:
968:
965:
962:
906:
905:
866:
846:
820:palatalization
816:
801:
613:
610:
574:North Hamgyong
519:In the 1930s,
502:Primorsky Krai
463:Jurchen people
404:
401:
352:or a separate
316:Yukjin dialect
310:
309:
306:
305:
298:
292:
291:
284:
278:
277:
270:
268:
262:
261:
254:
252:
246:
245:
241:
240:
233:
227:
226:
219:
213:
212:
205:
203:
197:
196:
189:
187:
181:
180:
176:
175:
172:
171:
168:
160:
159:
158:Language codes
155:
154:
149:
145:Writing system
142:
139:
138:
136:
135:
126:
124:
121:
118:
117:
115:
114:
113:
112:
98:
96:
89:
86:
85:
76:
72:
71:
68:
64:
63:
58:
57:Native to
54:
53:
42:
41:
37:
36:
26:
24:
18:Yukjin dialect
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5099:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5064:
5062:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5034:
5032:
5029:
5025:
5022:
5021:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5006:
5004:
5000:
4994:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4975:
4973:
4971:
4967:
4961:
4958:
4956:
4955:Speech levels
4953:
4951:
4948:
4946:
4945:Postpositions
4943:
4941:
4938:
4936:
4933:
4931:
4928:
4926:
4925:
4921:
4920:
4918:
4916:
4912:
4902:
4899:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4878:
4876:
4874:
4870:
4869:Cyrillization
4866:
4860:
4857:
4855:
4852:
4848:
4845:
4843:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4834:
4833:
4830:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4817:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4807:
4804:
4801:
4799:
4795:
4789:
4788:Jeju language
4786:
4785:
4783:
4781:
4777:
4767:
4764:
4763:
4761:
4759:
4755:
4749:
4746:
4745:
4743:
4741:
4737:
4731:
4728:
4727:
4725:
4723:
4719:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4694:
4692:
4690:
4686:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4662:
4659:
4658:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4648:
4646:
4644:
4640:
4637:
4635:
4631:
4623:
4619:
4617:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4603:
4599:
4596:
4592:
4587:
4572:
4569:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4557:
4556:Modern Korean
4553:
4547:
4539:
4532:
4529:
4528:
4526:
4520:
4519:Middle Korean
4516:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4471:
4469:
4463:
4459:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4444:
4442:
4440:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4416:
4411:
4409:
4404:
4402:
4397:
4396:
4393:
4381:
4380:
4376:
4374:
4373:
4369:
4367:
4366:
4362:
4361:
4359:
4355:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4293:Alexandra Kim
4291:
4289:
4288:Aleksandr Min
4286:
4285:
4283:
4281:
4277:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4257:
4248:
4247:
4243:
4240:
4239:
4235:
4232:
4231:
4230:Kwŏnŏp Sinmun
4227:
4224:
4223:
4219:
4216:
4215:
4211:
4208:
4207:
4203:
4201:
4197:
4191:
4190:
4188:
4186:Organizations
4184:
4177:
4174:
4172:
4169:
4168:
4166:
4162:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4144:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4124:
4120:
4114:
4111:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4099:
4098:
4096:
4092:
4089:
4088:
4086:
4085:
4083:
4079:
4070:
4069:
4065:
4063:
4062:
4058:
4056:
4055:
4051:
4049:
4048:
4044:
4042:
4041:
4037:
4035:
4034:
4030:
4028:
4027:
4023:
4021:
4019:
4015:
4009:
4008:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3982:
3980:
3976:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3963:
3956:
3953:
3950:
3947:
3944:
3941:
3938:
3935:
3932:
3929:
3926:
3923:
3920:
3917:
3914:
3911:
3908:
3905:
3902:
3899:
3895:
3892:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3885:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3868:
3863:
3861:
3856:
3854:
3849:
3848:
3845:
3837:
3833:
3824:
3820:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3777:
3774:(in Korean),
3773:
3764:
3763:
3759:
3752:
3746:
3742:
3737:
3733:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3701:
3698:(in Korean),
3697:
3696:Eomun Yeon'gu
3693:
3685:
3681:
3675:
3671:
3666:
3662:
3659:(in Korean),
3658:
3653:
3644:
3640:
3637:(in Korean),
3636:
3631:
3622:
3618:
3615:(in Korean),
3614:
3609:
3607:육진방언의 음성과 음운사
3600:
3595:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3545:
3540:
3536:
3533:(in Korean),
3532:
3527:
3525:육진방언의 종결어미 연구
3518:
3514:
3508:
3504:
3497:
3492:
3488:
3482:
3478:
3473:
3472:
3467:
3460:
3455:
3452:
3448:
3443:
3440:
3436:
3431:
3428:
3424:
3419:
3416:
3412:
3407:
3404:
3400:
3395:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3380:
3377:
3373:
3368:
3365:
3362:, p. 16.
3361:
3356:
3353:
3349:
3344:
3341:
3337:
3332:
3329:
3325:
3320:
3318:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3303:
3300:
3296:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3272:
3269:
3265:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3245:
3242:
3238:
3233:
3230:
3226:
3221:
3218:
3214:
3209:
3206:
3202:
3197:
3194:
3190:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3175:
3173:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3141:
3138:
3134:
3129:
3126:
3122:
3117:
3114:
3110:
3105:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3090:
3087:
3083:
3078:
3075:
3071:
3066:
3063:
3059:
3054:
3051:
3047:
3042:
3039:
3035:
3030:
3027:
3023:
3018:
3015:
3011:
3006:
3003:
2999:
2994:
2991:
2988:, p. 13.
2987:
2982:
2979:
2975:
2970:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2955:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2940:
2937:
2933:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2913:
2910:
2907:, p. 82.
2906:
2901:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2886:
2882:
2877:
2874:
2870:
2865:
2862:
2858:
2853:
2850:
2847:, p. 69.
2846:
2841:
2838:
2834:
2829:
2826:
2823:, p. 99.
2822:
2817:
2814:
2810:
2805:
2802:
2798:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2778:
2775:
2771:
2766:
2763:
2759:
2754:
2751:
2747:
2742:
2739:
2735:
2730:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2715:
2712:
2708:
2703:
2700:
2696:
2691:
2689:
2687:
2683:
2680:, p. 22.
2679:
2674:
2671:
2667:
2662:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2630:
2627:
2624:, p. 11.
2623:
2618:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2599:
2596:
2593:, p. 95.
2592:
2587:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2560:
2558:
2554:
2548:
2543:
2529:
2526:
2504:
2501:
2497:
2491:
2489:
2487:
2485:
2483:
2479:
2469:
2464:
2461:
2451:
2446:
2443:
2438:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2410:
2403:
2401:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2386:
2380:
2369:
2363:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2336:
2326:
2322:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2311:Neo-Confucian
2308:
2304:
2300:
2299:Middle Korean
2292:
2290:
2288:
2283:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2243:
2239:
2233:
2230:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2217:
2212:
2209:
2206:
2201:
2198:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2175:
2172:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2159:
2154:
2151:
2148:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2132:
2131:
2123:
2120:
2117:
2111:
2102:
2094:
2088:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2072:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2054:
2051:
2041:
2040:
2035:
2029:
2023:
2017:
2012:
2009:
2006:
1996:
1995:
1990:
1984:
1978:
1972:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1956:
1946:
1945:
1941:
1938:
1928:
1927:
1922:
1916:
1903:
1897:
1887:
1886:
1881:
1875:
1869:
1864:
1861:
1855:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1833:
1827:
1821:
1815:
1810:
1807:
1804:
1794:
1793:
1788:
1782:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1764:
1762:Interrogative
1758:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1723:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1705:
1695:
1694:
1689:
1683:
1677:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1641:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1625:
1619:
1613:
1607:
1602:
1599:
1589:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1573:
1567:
1561:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1540:Interrogative
1537:
1531:
1521:
1520:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1496:
1490:
1484:
1478:
1477:speech levels
1470:
1463:
1457:
1452:
1448:
1442:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1427:
1421:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1401:
1400:
1396:
1390:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1353:
1349:
1346:
1345:
1341:
1335:
1330:
1327:
1323:
1320:
1316:
1313:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1298:
1292:
1287:
1283:
1277:
1273:
1270:
1266:
1263:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1253:
1248:
1244:
1224:
1219:
1214:
1211:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1188:
1187:rounded vowel
1184:
1181:
1178:
1177:
1173:
1165:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1149:
1134:
1124:
1116:
1106:
1093:
1090:
1089:
1081:
1071:
1063:
1053:
1045:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1023:
1013:
1005:
995:
987:
977:
974:
973:
969:
966:
964:Middle Korean
963:
960:
959:
953:
927:
923:
902:
896:
890:
884:
878:
872:
867:
864:
858:
852:
847:
844:
838:
832:
826:
821:
817:
813:
807:
802:
800:
796:
792:
791:
790:
787:
781:
777:
770:
766:
761:
751:
745:
743:
729:
723:
719:
701:
700:vowel harmony
696:
693:
687:
681:
675:
669:
667:
647:
646:Middle Korean
643:
638:
633:
628:
623:
619:
611:
609:
607:
602:
600:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
575:
570:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
547:
545:
540:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
517:
515:
511:
507:
503:
498:
494:
491:
487:
483:
478:
474:
472:
468:
464:
461:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
438:, Chongsŏng,
437:
432:
422:
414:
409:
402:
400:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
371:
368:forms. Thus,
367:
366:Middle Korean
363:
359:
355:
351:
346:
341:
331:
321:
317:
307:
303:
299:
297:
293:
289:
285:
283:
279:
269:
267:
263:
253:
251:
247:
242:
238:
234:
232:
228:
224:
220:
218:
214:
204:
202:
198:
188:
186:
182:
177:
173:
169:
166:
161:
156:
153:
150:
146:
140:
134:
133:Middle Korean
131:
130:
129:
125:
119:
111:
108:
107:
106:
103:
102:
101:
97:
93:
87:
84:
80:
77:
73:
69:
65:
62:
59:
55:
52:
48:
43:
38:
33:
30:
19:
5002:Other topics
4922:
4881:ISO/TR 11941
4873:Romanization
4854:Mixed script
4740:Central Asia
4711:
4377:
4370:
4363:
4343:Vladimir Kim
4318:Hong Beom-do
4244:
4236:
4228:
4220:
4212:
4206:Haejo Sinmun
4204:
4151:Texas Street
4066:
4059:
4052:
4045:
4038:
4031:
4024:
3890:(1910–1945)
3835:
3831:
3798:
3794:
3775:
3771:
3740:
3721:
3702:(4): 67–87,
3699:
3695:
3669:
3660:
3656:
3638:
3635:Jindan Hakbo
3634:
3616:
3612:
3584:
3580:
3554:
3550:
3534:
3531:Eomun Nonjip
3530:
3502:
3495:
3476:
3454:
3442:
3430:
3418:
3406:
3379:
3367:
3355:
3343:
3331:
3302:
3271:
3244:
3232:
3220:
3208:
3196:
3140:
3128:
3116:
3089:
3077:
3065:
3053:
3041:
3029:
3017:
3005:
2993:
2981:
2939:
2912:
2900:
2888:
2876:
2864:
2852:
2840:
2828:
2816:
2804:
2777:
2765:
2753:
2741:
2714:
2702:
2673:
2668:, p. 7.
2653:, p. 6.
2629:
2598:
2571:
2528:
2511:is becoming
2503:
2463:
2445:
2427:North Korean
2412:
2318:
2296:
2287:nominalizers
2285:function as
2262:
2254:
2251:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2234:
2223:
2219:
2210:
2196:
2193:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2176:
2165:
2161:
2152:
2141:
2106:
1896:-(a)la/(e)la
1624:-(su)kkwoani
1598:-(su)kkwueni
1514:Speech level
1474:
1450:for animates
1377:for animates
1306:Instrumental
1144:
967:Seoul Korean
907:
795:pitch accent
788:
746:
739:
725:
715:
697:
670:
622:Seoul Korean
620:of standard
618:eight vowels
615:
603:
571:
548:
541:
523:ordered the
518:
499:
495:
489:
479:
475:
418:
412:
389:Central Asia
374:
315:
313:
109:
50:
49:/ 여섯 고을 말 /
46:
45:六邑말 / 뉴웁말 /
29:
4825:Punctuation
4689:North Korea
4643:South Korea
4616:North Korea
4602:South Korea
4573:South Korea
4570:North Korea
4348:Yevgeny Kim
4338:Vitalii Kim
4333:Viktor Tsoi
4323:Kim Pen Hwa
4298:Cho Ki-chon
4241:(1917–1919)
4233:(1912–1914)
4217:(1908–1910)
4101:Birobidzhan
4087:Kazakhstan
4081:Communities
3933:(1920–1945)
3931:Maki Mirage
3921:(1920–1921)
3915:(1918–1921)
3909:(1911–1914)
3903:(1911–1937)
3901:Sinhanch'on
3874:Koryo-saram
3832:Mínzú yǔwén
3828:朝鲜语六镇话的方言特点
3785:10371/29722
3778:: 231–272,
3651:동북방언과 국어국문학
3613:Bang'eonhak
3594:10371/85946
3564:10371/85771
3468:Works cited
2784:, Map C1-7.
2470:original: "
2452:original: "
2371:'id.'; and
2307:patriarchal
2087:-(su)kkwuma
2077:Exclamatory
1961:Propositive
1787:-(su)pnikka
1757:-(su)mtwung
1709:Declarative
1612:-(su)kkwuei
1606:-(su)kkwuma
1560:-(su)kkwoma
1554:-(su)pkwuma
1536:Declarative
1530:-(su)kkwuma
874:"tree" but
722:allomorphic
689:> >
586:Koryo-saram
582:North Korea
456:Tumen River
421:Sino-Korean
377:North Korea
362:Tumen River
342::
332::
322::
179:Korean name
122:Early forms
81:, formerly
61:North Korea
5061:Categories
4970:Literature
4935:Honorifics
4930:Count word
4462:Old Korean
4308:German Kim
4246:Koryo Ilbo
4199:Newspapers
3907:Gwoneophoe
3641:: 183–211.
3619:: 121–154.
2576:Vovin 2013
2544:References
2354:attached;
2187:ppalli na
1859:Imperative
1781:-(su)ngkka
1742:Old Korean
1618:-(su)kkeni
1582:-(su)pnita
1566:-(su)kkwum
1544:Imperative
1447:-(wu)keyse
1363:inanimates
1256:Accusative
1204:Nominative
1185:After non-
818:a lack of
606:Jaegaseung
533:Kazakhstan
529:Uzbekistan
490:Bukgwan-ji
128:Old Korean
83:Jaegaseung
4924:Phonology
4842:Hyangchal
4748:Koryo-mar
4265:Cafe Lily
4222:Taeyangbo
4178:(Bastobe)
4054:Morkovcha
3984:Koryo-mar
3537:: 93–125.
3459:King 1992
3447:King 1992
3435:Kwak 2015
3423:Kwak 2015
3411:King 1992
3399:Kwak 2015
3384:Kwak 2015
3372:Kwak 2018
3360:Kwak 2018
3237:King 1992
3133:Kwak 2012
3121:King 1992
3109:Kwak 2012
3082:Kwak 2012
3070:Kwak 2012
3058:Kwak 2012
3034:Kwak 2012
2986:Kwak 2018
2959:King 1992
2944:Kwak 2012
2932:King 1992
2917:Kwak 2012
2905:Piao 2019
2893:Piao 2019
2881:Kwak 2012
2845:Piao 2019
2833:Kwak 2015
2809:King 1987
2782:CASS 2012
2770:CASS 2012
2758:King 1987
2746:Yeon 2012
2734:King 1992
2719:King 1987
2707:King 1987
2678:Kwak 2018
2666:Kwak 2018
2651:Kwak 2018
2622:Kwak 2018
2603:King 1987
2564:Kwak 2015
2549:Citations
2346:causative
2271:adnominal
2184:빨리 나 모 오디
1977:-keypsywo
1890:(아)라/(어)라
1775:-(su)mtwu
1770:nasalized
1635:intonated
1630:-(su)kkai
1577:intonated
1572:-(su)kkwu
1243:allomorph
975:to inform
765:affricate
612:Phonology
569:, China.
551:Manchuria
544:Koryo-mar
537:Koryo-mar
448:Kyŏnghŭng
318:(Yukjin:
165:ISO 639-3
75:Ethnicity
47:Nyuup-mal
5019:Konglish
4950:Pronouns
4940:Numerals
4634:Dialects
4608:Pyojuneo
4594:Standard
4489:Goguryeo
4033:Funchoza
3978:Language
3336:Kim 2003
3324:Kim 2003
3307:Kim 2003
3295:Kim 2003
3276:Kim 2003
3264:Kim 2003
3249:Kim 2003
3225:Kim 2003
3213:Kim 2003
3201:Kim 2003
3189:Kim 2003
3162:Kim 2003
3145:Kim 2003
2821:Kim 2003
2797:Kim 2003
2591:Kim 2003
2249:na-wo-ci
2242:빨리 못 나오지
2232:na-wo-ci
2153:move.out
2055:Informal
1989:-(u)pswo
1971:-keypswo
1901:Informal
1880:-(u)sswo
1854:-(u)pswo
1820:-ass/ess
1808:Informal
1737:Informal
1462:-eykeyse
1435:Ablative
1403:Genitive
1374:-(i)ntey
1368:-(wu)key
1352:locative
1229:becomes
1136:
1130:
1118:
1112:
1091:silkworm
1083:
1077:
1065:
1059:
1047:
1041:
1025:
1019:
1007:
1001:
989:
983:
926:lenition
901:namwu-ey
892:, Seoul
877:nangk-ey
563:Hamgyŏng
444:Kyŏngwŏn
436:Hoeryŏng
431:ryukchin
345:Nyuupmal
100:Koreanic
4983:Hyangga
4915:Grammar
4896:Revised
4837:Gugyeol
4622:Munhwaŏ
4509:Ye-Maek
4430:History
4313:Ho Ka-i
4249:(1923–)
4113:Ukraine
4097:Russia
4026:Begodya
4018:Cuisine
3965:Culture
3881:History
3838:: 1–13.
3795:Yukchin
3663:: 5–42.
2398:calques
2394:Russian
2362:wukwuli
2348:suffix
2335:kaliwu-
2321:Jurchen
2316:state.
2293:Lexicon
2245:ppalli
2211:quickly
2142:quickly
2125:Yukjin
2113:'not',
2010:Neutral
1955:-kipswo
1937:-kwulye
1874:-(u)pse
1712:Neutral
1395:-hantey
1334:-(u)lwo
1225:, e.g.
1161:Grammar
1122:
1104:
1085:/kasɯɾ/
1069:
1051:
1049:/kʌzʌl/
1027:/aɾkwi/
1022:alkwuy-
1011:
993:
991:/alɣoj/
986:alGwoy-
970:Yukjin
961:English
889:namk-oy
854:before
769:phoneme
559:Pyongan
504:in the
452:Puryŏng
413:yuk jin
79:Koreans
4815:Hangul
4567:Joseon
4549:Joseon
4533:Joseon
4530:Goryeo
4474:Baekje
4365:Hanaan
4225:(1911)
4209:(1908)
4091:Almaty
4061:Pukjai
3957:(1956)
3951:(1937)
3945:(1921)
3939:(1920)
3927:(1920)
3815:
3747:
3728:
3676:
3509:
3483:
2325:Manchu
2314:Joseon
2224:cannot
2208:ppalli
2166:cannot
2139:ppalli
2128:Seoul
2116:mwo(s)
2103:Syntax
2071:-kwuma
2016:-keywo
1965:Formal
1868:-(s)wo
1862:Formal
1826:-an/en
1765:Formal
1665:liquid
1650:-(s)wo
1627:, and
1548:Formal
1517:Notes
1508:Suffix
1392:, and
1389:-eykey
1348:Dative
1340:-(u)la
1326:-wulli
1291:-(l)ul
1223:umlaut
1198:Notes
1154:twuwúl
1138:/nɯpe/
1102:*nuβəj
1067:/kaɯl/
1033:autumn
1009:/alwe/
1004:alwoy-
948:, and
936:, and
916:, and
837:c(h)i-
831:t(h)y-
825:t(h)i-
664:after
648:vowel
642:backed
521:Stalin
467:Sejong
450:, and
440:Onsŏng
395:, the
350:Korean
338:;
328:;
320:Korean
250:Hangul
185:Hangul
152:Hangul
110:Yukjin
105:Korean
70:Yukjin
67:Region
35:Yukjin
4960:Verbs
4832:Hanja
4758:Japan
4722:China
4504:Silla
4499:Okjeo
4494:Mahan
4479:Buyeo
4357:Media
4047:Kuksu
3577:(PDF)
3547:(PDF)
3501:[
2404:Notes
2341:gari-
2266:kath-
2191:wo-ti
2177:come-
2174:wo-ti
2022:-kywo
2005:-kiwo
1751:슴둥/ㅁ둥
1592:(스)꿔니
1524:(스)꾸마
1495:-(u)p
1471:Verbs
1456:-eyse
1441:-eyse
1312:-illi
1166:Nouns
1148:twǔlh
1133:nupey
1120:/nue/
1115:nwuey
1080:kasul
1044:kozol
1038:ᄀᆞᅀᆞᆯ
895:namwu
883:namwo
871:namwo
843:c(h)-
834:into
780:trill
710:, or
578:Rason
567:Jilin
510:Kazan
423:term
330:Hanja
266:Hanja
201:Hanja
4988:Sijo
4978:Gasa
4901:Yale
4871:and
4484:Gaya
4452:Puyŏ
3813:ISBN
3745:ISBN
3726:ISBN
3674:ISBN
3507:ISBN
3481:ISBN
2432:륙진방언
2379:than
2303:Jeju
2279:and
2247:mwos
2220:mwos
2031:and
2019:and
1974:and
1838:-tun
1803:-nya
1704:-sum
1688:ani-
1660:-swo
1569:and
1511:Mood
1500:Mood
1489:-sup
1459:and
1426:-i-i
1365:and
1361:for
1276:-lwu
1179:Case
1172:Case
1062:kaul
898:and
886:and
860:and
809:and
793:the
677:and
634:and
632:open
604:The
576:and
531:and
419:The
387:and
314:The
208:六鎭方言
4847:Idu
4447:Han
4040:Khe
3803:doi
3780:hdl
3704:doi
3639:125
3589:hdl
3559:hdl
2534:/β/
2521:/ɣ/
2517:/k/
2513:/w/
2509:/p/
2385:dan
2368:uku
2357:우쿠리
2351:-wu
2330:가리우
2237:DEC
2229:나오지
2189:mwo
2179:DEC
2162:mwo
2110:ani
2093:su-
2050:-ca
2034:-wo
2028:-ki
1983:-ki
1921:-ne
1915:-na
1910:/n/
1906:/l/
1877:or
1835:as
1832:-te
1823:as
1814:-ni
1732:-ta
1676:-wu
1673:or
1644:오/소
1483:su-
1420:-uy
1412:-wu
1383:-ey
1358:-ey
1319:-li
1297:-li
1282:-wu
1269:-li
1247:-ka
1239:/a/
1235:/æ/
1231:/æ/
1227:/a/
1097:누ᄫᅦ
950:/p/
946:/s/
942:/k/
938:/p/
934:/s/
930:/k/
928:of
918:/β/
914:/z/
910:/ɣ/
822:of
812:sy-
784:/l/
776:tap
772:/l/
760:cy-
755:/i/
736:/u/
732:/p/
712:/ɛ/
708:/o/
704:/a/
662:/o/
660:to
658:/ʌ/
654:/a/
650:/ʌ/
383:in
335:六鎭말
325:뉴웁말
273:六鎭語
5063::
3811:,
3776:58
3700:47
3661:43
3617:16
3585:28
3583:,
3579:,
3555:23
3553:,
3549:,
3535:48
3391:^
3314:^
3283:^
3256:^
3169:^
3152:^
3101:^
2966:^
2951:^
2924:^
2789:^
2726:^
2685:^
2658:^
2641:^
2610:^
2583:^
2556:^
2481:^
2440:,
2429::
2425:,
2419::
2400:.
2282:-l
2276:-n
2205:빨리
2171:오디
2150:na
2136:빨리
2065:구마
2037:.
1999:기오
1992:.
1949:깁소
1931:구려
1924:.
1883:.
1848:읍소
1790:.
1744:.
1719:.
1682:i-
1670:-i
1621:,
1615:,
1542:,
1538:,
1386:,
1371:,
1262:-i
1218:-n
1210:-i
1127:느베
1109:누에
1074:가슬
1056:가을
1016:알귀
998:아뢰
980:알외
944:,
932:,
912:,
851:n-
840:,
828:,
806:s-
741:a-
727:ə-
717:a-
706:,
686:uy
668:.
627:wo
601:.
580:,
516:.
446:,
442:,
426:六鎭
340:RR
4414:e
4407:t
4400:v
3866:e
3859:t
3852:v
3836:5
3821:.
3805::
3788:.
3782::
3753:.
3734:.
3712:.
3706::
3682:.
3597:.
3591::
3567:.
3561::
3515:.
3489:.
2523:.
2476:"
2458:"
2374:탄
2216:못
2158:모
2147:나
2081:—
2044:자
1797:냐
1726:다
1698:슴
1350:-
1285:)
1279:(
1195:)
1094:*
904:)
863:y
857:i
750:c
692:i
680:i
674:u
637:u
170:–
20:)
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