2110:, difficult to interpret. Most of these materials come from Silla, whose language is generally believed to be ancestral to all extant Korean varieties. There is no agreement on the relationship of Sillan to the languages of the other kingdoms. The issue is politically charged in Korea, with scholars who point out differences being accused by nationalists of trying to "divide the homeland". Apart from placenames, whose interpretation is controversial, data on the languages of Goguryeo and Baekje is extremely sparse.
1925:
211:
2076:
1906:. Evidence for the earlier linguistic history of the Korean peninsula is extremely sparse. Various proposals have been based on archaeological and ethnological theories and vague references in early Chinese histories. There is a tendency in Korea to assume that all languages formerly spoken on the peninsula were early forms of Korean, but the evidence indicates much greater linguistic variety in the past.
6067:
1630:
466:
2149:. These authors suggest that the place names reflect the languages of those states rather than that of Goguryeo. This would explain why they seem to reflect multiple language groups. It is generally agreed that these glosses demonstrate that Japonic languages were once spoken in part of the Korean peninsula, but there is no consensus on the identity of the speakers.
346:. The two standards have phonetic and lexical differences. Many loanwords have been purged from the North Korean standard, while South Korea has expanded Sino-Korean vocabulary and adopted loanwords, especially from English. Nonetheless, due to its origin in the Seoul dialect, the North Korean standard language is easily intelligible to all South Koreans.
133:
522:– populated by immigrants from southeastern Korea. The speech of their descendents is thus markedly distinct from other Hamgyong dialects, and preserves many archaisms. In particular, Yukchin was unaffected by the palatalization found in most other dialects. About 10 percent of Korean speakers in central Asia use the Yukchin dialect.
1793:
is no longer considered evidence of a genetic relationship. While many cognates are found between adjacent groups, few are attested across all three. The proposed sound correspondences have also been criticized for invoking too many phonemes, such as the four phonemes that are said to have merged as
1801:
In any case, most of the proposed matches with Korean were from the neighbouring
Tungusic group. A detailed comparison of Korean and Tungusic was published by Kim Dongso in 1981, but it has been criticized for teleological reconstructions, failing to distinguish loanwords and poor semantic matches,
1074:
The Late Middle Korean script assigns to each syllable one of three pitch contours: low (unmarked), high (one dot) or rising (two dots). The rising tone may have been longer in duration, and is believed to be secondary, arising from a contraction of a syllable with low pitch with one of high pitch.
1935:
Chinese histories provide the only contemporaneous descriptions of peoples of the Korean peninsula and eastern
Manchuria in the early centuries of the common era. They contain impressionistic remarks about the customs and languages of the area based on second-hand reports, and sometimes contradict
1780:
of later
Chinese sources. South Korean culture-historians tended to project contemporary Korean homogeneity into the distant past, assuming that a preformed Korean people arrived in the peninsula from elsewhere, ignoring the possibility of local evolution and interaction. However, no evidence of
2123:
and compiled in 1145 from earlier records that are no longer extant. This chapter surveys the part of
Goguryeo annexed by Silla, listing pronunciations and meanings of placenames, from which a vocabulary of 80 to 100 words has been extracted. Although the pronunciations recorded using
1866:. He suggests that the former group represent early loans from Korean, and that Old Japanese morphemes should not be assigned a Japonic origin unless they are also attested in Southern Ryukyuan or Eastern Old Japanese, which reduces the proposed cognates to fewer than a dozen.
1831:
However, Koreanic and
Japonic have a long history of interaction, which may explain their grammatical similarities and makes it difficult to distinguish inherited cognates from ancient loanwords. Most linguists studying the Japonic family believe that it was brought to the
2140:
words. Scholars who take these words as representing the language of
Goguryeo have come to a range of conclusions about the language, some holding that it was Koreanic, others that it was Japonic, and others that it was somehow intermediate between the three families.
1788:
Moreover, most comparativists no longer accept the core Altaic family itself, even without Korean, believing most of the commonalities to be the result of prolonged contact. The shared features turned out to be rather common among languages across the world, and
282:
alphabet in the 15th century (the Late Middle Korean period). Earlier forms, written with
Chinese characters using a variety of strategies, are much more obscure. The key sources on Early Middle Korean (10th to 14th centuries) are a Chinese text, the
1597:
Most modern varieties (except Jeju and a few northern dialects) have a form of accent, marked by vowel length in central dialects and pitch in the northeast and southeast. The position of this accent is determined by the first high pitch syllable in
878:
found that this proposed shift followed different principles to all the other chain shifts he surveyed. The philological evidence for the shift has also been challenged. An analysis based on Sino-Korean readings leads to a more conservative system:
412:
also shows the influence of
Japanese, for example in a reduced vowel system and some grammatical simplification. Korean-speakers are also found throughout the world, for example in North America, where Seoul Korean is the accepted standard.
2305:
Traditional histories give founding dates for Baekje and Silla of 18 BC and 57 BC respectively, and these dates are repeated in textbooks, but archaeological and documentary evidence indicates that these kingdoms were founded in the 4th
2017:, who were described in quite different terms from Buyeo and Goguryeo. The Mahan were said to have a different language from Jinhan, but the two accounts differ on the relationship between the languages of Byeonhan and Jinhan, with the
2040:
groups. Lee originally proposed that these were two branches of a
Koreanic language family, a view that was widely adopted by scholars in Korea. He later argued that the Puyŏ languages were intermediate between Korean and Japanese.
479:
The
Yukchin dialect, spoken in the northernmost part of Korea and adjacent areas in China, forms a dialect island separate from neighbouring northeastern dialects, and is sometimes considered a separate language. When King
2144:
Other authors point out that most of the place names come from central Korea, an area captured by Goguryeo from Baekje and other states in the 5th century, and none from the historical homeland of Goguryeo north of the
376:
The speech of Koreans in the Russian Far East was described by Russian scholars such as Mikhail Putsillo, who compiled a dictionary in 1874. Some 250,000 Koreans lived in the area in the 1930s, when Stalin had them
5843:
Koguryo, the Language of Japan's Continental Relatives: An Introduction to the Historical-Comparative Study of the Japanese-Koguryoic Languages with a Preliminary Description of Archaic Northeastern Middle
7226:
2099:, referring to Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla (Gaya was absorbed by Silla in the 6th century). The period ended in the late 7th century, when Silla conquered the other kingdoms in alliance with the Chinese
1130:
Old Korean pronouns were written with the Chinese characters for the corresponding Chinese pronouns, so their pronunciation must be inferred from Middle Korean forms. The known personal pronouns are *
218:
The various forms of Korean are conventionally described as "dialects" of a single Korean language, but breaks in intelligibility justify viewing them as a small family of two or three languages.
4879:[A study of the historical relationship of the Koguryo language, the Old Japanese language, and the Middle Korean language on the basis of fragmentary glosses preserved as place names in the
5522:——— (2013b), "Mongolian names for 'Korea' and 'Korean' and their significance for the history of the Korean language", in Sohn, Sung-Ock; Cho, Sungdai; You, Seok-Hoon (eds.),
5285:
Park, Hae Woon; Wee, Kaya (2016), "The Nationalistic Trend in South Korean Archaeology: Documenting the Development of a Unilinear Evolutionary Trajectory of a Homogeneous Korean Peoples",
1721:. However, none of these attempts has succeeded in demonstrating a common descent for Koreanic and any other language family. Larger proposed groupings subsuming these hypotheses, such as
1701:
Northeast Asia is home to several relatively shallow language families. There have been several attempts to link Korean with other language families, with the most-favoured being "
2219:
syllables, which are restricted to the form (C)V, limiting the precision of the transcription. About half of them appear to be Koreanic. Based on these words and a passage in the
2207:
was the same as that of Goguryeo. According to Korean traditional history, the kingdom of Baekje was founded by immigrants from Goguryeo who took over Mahan. The Japanese history
451:
states was not found in the standard speech of that time, but did occur in some dialects. This suggests that Jeju diverged from other dialects some time before the 15th century.
1806:, rather than reconstructed proto-Tungusic. Many of the best matches are found only in Manchu and closely related languages, and thus could be the result of language contact.
6521:
1828:, John Whitman and others have proposed hundreds of possible cognates, with sound correspondences. Most of the shared words concern the natural environment and agriculture.
1781:
these migrations has been found, and archaeologists now believe that the Korean peninsula and adjacent areas of eastern Manchuria have been continuously occupied since the
4733:
2049:
argue that the Han languages were Japonic, and were replaced by Koreanic Puyŏ languages in the 4th century. Some authors believe that the Puyŏ languages belong to the
1122:
suffixes. In contrast, Old Korean verb stems could be used independently, particularly in verb-verb compounds, where the first verb was typically an uninflected root.
1083:
system. In the proto-language, accent was probably not distinctive for verbs, but may have been for nouns, though with a preference for accent on the final syllable.
752:. There is some disagreement over whether aspirates were already a distinct series in the Old Korean period. However, it seems clear that the process began with *
9331:
2083:
As Chinese power ebbed in the early 4th century, centralized states arose on the peninsula. The Lelang commandery was overrun by Goguryeo in 314. In the south,
1994:
to the northeast. The latter language is completely unattested, but is believed, on the basis of the description of the people and their location, to have been
1824:
in 1879. The phoneme inventories of the two proto-languages are similar, with a single series of obstruents, a single liquid consonant and six or seven vowels.
6559:
431:
is not mutually intelligible with standard Korean, suggesting that it should be treated as a separate language. Jeju features a back central unrounded vowel
7433:
7276:
1847:
and other evidence suggest that Japonic languages persisted in central and southwestern parts of the peninsula into the early centuries of the common era.
9466:
6494:
1884:
in 1905 and explored by Morgan Clippinger in 1984, but has attracted little interest since the 1980s. There have also been proposals to link Korean with
378:
303:, mid-13th century). During this period, Korean absorbed a huge number of Chinese loanwords, affecting all aspects of the language. It is estimated that
194:
were spoken in central and southern parts of the peninsula. There have been many attempts to link Koreanic with other language families, most often with
190:(late 7th century) comes largely from placenames. Some of these languages are believed to have been Koreanic, but there is also evidence suggesting that
1967:(5th century) contain parallel accounts of peoples neighbouring the commanderies, apparently both based on a survey carried out by the Chinese state of
808:, respectively. These fricatives have disappeared in most modern dialects, but some dialects in the southeast and northeast (including Yukchin) retain
6516:
5893:
7216:
1760:
The Altaic theory was incorporated into the influential two-wave migration model of Korean ethnic history proposed in the 1970s by the archaeologist
2225:(636), Kōno Rokurō argued that the kingdom of Baekje was bilingual, with the gentry speaking a Puyŏ language and the common people a Han language.
9594:
251:. This area is usually divided into five or six dialect zones following provincial boundaries, with Yanbian dialects included in the northeastern
5720:
Yang, Changyong; O'Grady, William; Yang, Sejung; Hilton, Nanna; Kang, Sang-Gu; Kim, So-Young (2018), Brunn, Stanley D.; Kehrein, Roland (eds.),
6511:
1764:, who attributed cultural transitions in prehistoric Korea to migrations of distinct ethnic groups from the north. The appearance of Neolithic
5829:
5786:
5767:
5748:
5729:
5710:
5659:
5579:
5550:
5531:
5491:
5456:
5434:
5402:
5383:
5364:
5345:
5326:
5275:
5256:
5224:
5205:
5186:
5164:
5145:
5126:
5026:
5007:
4921:
4865:
4835:
4816:
4790:
4722:
4676:
8956:
8846:
8427:
2062:
1841:
1586:
contrast. Korean also resembles Japonic and Ainu in having a single liquid consonant, while its continental neighbours tend to distinguish
370:
240:
2215:, compiled in the early 8th century from earlier documents, including some from Baekje, records 42 Baekje words. These are transcribed as
408:
are descendants of immigrants during the Japanese occupation. Most Korean-language schools in Japan follow the North Korean standard. The
5336:
Serafim, Leon A. (2008), "The uses of Ryukyuan in understanding Japanese language history", in Frellesvig, Bjarke; Whitman, John (eds.),
831:
does not occur initially in native words, a typological characteristic shared with "Altaic" languages. Some, but not all, occurrences of
530:
Koreanic is a relatively shallow language family. Modern varieties show limited variation, most of which can be treated as derived from
7928:
1802:
leaving too few comparisons to establish correspondences. Much of this work relies on comparisons with modern languages, particularly
1068:
199:
9113:
6300:
5602:
1815:
9089:
7299:
5268:
Constructing "Korean" Origins: A Critical Review of Archaeology, Historiography, and Racial Myth in Korean State-formation Theories
5805:
Byington, Mark E. (2006), "Christopher I. Beckwith—Koguryo, the Language of Japan's Continental Relatives (Leiden: Brill, 2004)",
737:
consonants of modern Korean arose from clusters of consonants, becoming phonemically distinct after the Late Middle Korean period.
8328:
6552:
7141:
7129:
8247:
8183:
7426:
957:
8860:
8611:
8102:
9459:
6376:
6102:
6088:
4760:
2029:(州胡) people on a large island to the west of Mahan (possibly Jeju) were described as speaking a different language to Mahan.
1897:
1858:
contains several pairs of words of similar meaning in which one word matches a Korean form, while the other is also found in
159:
languages. The latter is often described as a dialect of Korean but is distinct enough to be considered a separate language.
8973:
8108:
7206:
4932:
9326:
7933:
7719:
7713:
7637:
7356:
7346:
7341:
7034:
6818:
6813:
5886:
5612:——— (2011), "Northeast Asian Linguistic Ecology and the Advent of Rice Agriculture in Korea and Japan",
1957:
1039:
1032:
1019:
926:
256:
9020:
8308:
7186:
393:. There are small Korean communities scattered throughout central Asia maintaining forms of Korean known collectively as
9336:
9321:
8321:
8079:
8040:
7361:
7331:
2169:
2165:
1820:
Scholars outside of Korea have given greater attention to possible links with Japonic, which were first investigated by
1750:
1614:
981:
668:
350:
167:
of the far northeast should be similarly distinguished. Korean has been richly documented since the introduction of the
9095:
7953:
7211:
5541:——— (2013c), "Northeastern and Central Asia: 'Altaic' linguistic history", in Bellwood, Peter (ed.),
9599:
9589:
9316:
9310:
8368:
8286:
8259:
7963:
7309:
6650:
6545:
6381:
5246:
1737:
The Altaic proposal, grouping Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic, emerged in the 19th century as a residue when the larger
914:
678:
8882:
8340:
7998:
7958:
7948:
5245:
Nelson, Sara M. (1995), "The Politics of Ethnicity in Prehistoric Korea", in Kohl, Philip L.; Fawcett, Clare (eds.),
1850:
The early Japanese state received many cultural innovations via Korea, which may also have influenced the language.
9609:
8543:
8138:
7968:
7654:
7419:
6978:
1059:
1002:
718:
635:
627:
9101:
9077:
9052:
9025:
9008:
7916:
7487:
5501:——— (2013a), "From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean",
1738:
9604:
9452:
9294:
8018:
7973:
7943:
7442:
7376:
7371:
7366:
7234:
7156:
7151:
6807:
6793:
6568:
6339:
4713:
Brown, Lucien; Yeon, Jaehoon (2015), "Varieties of contemporary Korean", in Brown, Lucien; Yeon, Jaehoon (eds.),
2246:
643:
8773:
8605:
7660:
7476:
6917:
9341:
9148:
8785:
7667:
7201:
7146:
6747:
6636:
6246:
6210:
5879:
1944:
1875:
1115:
938:
409:
4875:
Itabashi, Yoshizo (2003), "Kōkuri no chimei kara Kōkurigo to Chōsengo/Nihongo to no shiteki kankei wo saguru"
534:(15th century). The few exceptions indicate a date of divergence only a few centuries earlier, following the
9563:
8346:
8271:
7674:
7624:
7015:
6910:
6860:
6839:
6830:
6712:
6629:
6589:
6366:
6349:
4664:
2272:
2242:
2096:
1769:
651:
543:
489:
5425:
Tranter, Nicholas (2012), "Introduction: typology and area in Japan and Korea", in Tranter, Nicolas (ed.),
9360:
9208:
9003:
8998:
8779:
8732:
8362:
8279:
7938:
7922:
7730:
7631:
7494:
7470:
7171:
7166:
6931:
6903:
6894:
6853:
6526:
6504:
6353:
1885:
1795:
1765:
1746:
1606:
1591:
1587:
1557:
1552:
1547:
1542:
1530:
1519:
1514:
1509:
1504:
1492:
1481:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1454:
1443:
1438:
1433:
1428:
1416:
1405:
1400:
1395:
1390:
1378:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1340:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1302:
1298:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1272:
1260:
1256:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1218:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1180:
1176:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1108:
1054:
836:
832:
825:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
786:
779:
772:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
745:
440:
432:
353:, people emigrated from the northern parts of the peninsula to eastern Manchuria and the southern part of
304:
272:
268:
264:
7696:
6924:
6371:
9558:
9553:
9406:
9304:
8993:
8796:
8586:
8575:
8537:
8144:
8118:
8023:
8013:
7612:
7463:
7323:
7196:
7176:
6719:
6657:
1963:
1076:
707:
695:
602:
594:
446:
248:
9107:
8832:
5319:
Lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in early Middle Chinese, late Middle Chinese, and early Mandarin
4894:] (in Japanese), vol. 31, Kyoto: International Center for Japanese Studies, pp. 131–185,
2032:
Based on this text, Lee Ki-Moon divided the languages spoken on the Korean peninsula at that time into
1602:. A similar pitch accent is found in Japonic and Ainu languages, but not Tungusic, Mongolic or Turkic.
9381:
9266:
9138:
8946:
8919:
8902:
8870:
8768:
8482:
8407:
8334:
8113:
8090:
8062:
7993:
7904:
7685:
7304:
7294:
7284:
7134:
6988:
6801:
6685:
6435:
6425:
5621:
5444:
5314:
2046:
2010:
1863:
1833:
1821:
1742:
1726:
1030:
546:
to Middle Korean, supplemented with philological analysis of the fragmentary records of Old Korean.
9158:
9062:
8962:
8951:
8913:
8892:
8790:
8749:
8524:
8506:
8500:
8475:
8468:
8461:
8374:
8357:
8096:
7762:
7749:
7643:
7593:
7450:
7351:
7124:
7109:
7044:
6846:
6768:
6678:
6671:
6622:
6580:
6334:
6177:
6131:
5644:
1790:
1722:
1571:
1075:
Pitch levels after the first high or rising tone were not distinctive, so that Middle Korean had a
1050:
741:
659:
382:
252:
9499:
9494:
9072:
9067:
9057:
9040:
9035:
9030:
9014:
8983:
8978:
8931:
8925:
8876:
8821:
8744:
8628:
8592:
8553:
8495:
8302:
8297:
8008:
7767:
7736:
7702:
7649:
7524:
7085:
7039:
6949:
6944:
6305:
6154:
5302:
5174:
2129:
2125:
2107:
2050:
2014:
1995:
1859:
1825:
1773:
1757:. Many cognates have been proposed, and attempts have been made to reconstruct a proto-language.
1710:
1706:
1662:
1653:
1080:
612:
570:
565:
531:
195:
172:
9169:
9132:
5695:
9509:
9174:
9163:
9143:
9083:
8988:
8968:
8907:
8887:
8598:
8559:
8530:
8518:
8455:
8401:
8379:
8352:
8292:
8265:
8084:
8045:
8035:
8003:
7876:
7802:
7784:
7778:
7680:
7598:
7512:
7481:
7289:
7266:
7261:
7239:
7181:
6959:
6882:
6775:
6450:
6415:
6410:
5969:
5932:
5910:
5825:
5782:
5763:
5744:
5725:
5706:
5655:
5598:
5575:
5546:
5527:
5487:
5452:
5430:
5398:
5379:
5360:
5341:
5322:
5271:
5252:
5220:
5201:
5182:
5160:
5141:
5122:
5022:
5003:
4917:
4861:
4831:
4812:
4786:
4718:
4672:
2177:
2161:
2120:
2066:
2033:
2006:
1948:
1915:
1718:
1679:
1583:
1045:
1025:
969:
575:
331:
236:
191:
107:
5570:
439:), but has merged with other vowels in mainland dialects. Jeju also features the combination
401:, descended from people forcibly transferred to the Japanese part of the island before 1945.
342:, despite the North Korean claim that their standard is based on the speech of their capital
9489:
9475:
9391:
9251:
9241:
9236:
9231:
9190:
9184:
9179:
9153:
9046:
8941:
8865:
8803:
8755:
8690:
8683:
8676:
8669:
8662:
8651:
8635:
8570:
8565:
8548:
8489:
8383:
8315:
8226:
8193:
8171:
8161:
8057:
8029:
7978:
7899:
7883:
7869:
7851:
7844:
7830:
7790:
7772:
7756:
7742:
7564:
7547:
7251:
7244:
7191:
7119:
7114:
7071:
7064:
6994:
6938:
6876:
6782:
6754:
6740:
6726:
6643:
6615:
6603:
6596:
6404:
6182:
6149:
5989:
5857:
5682:
5629:
5565:
5510:
5294:
5087:
5064:
5041:
4895:
4699:
2187:
2168:
order (as found in Korean and other northeast Asian languages) instead of the usual Chinese
2153:
2137:
2088:
1924:
1785:. The projection of the Yemaek back to this period has also been criticized as unjustified.
1782:
1714:
1702:
1644:
1092:
863:
503:
481:
405:
366:
358:
335:
311:(6th to early 10th centuries) is even more sparsely attested, mostly by inscriptions and 14
2172:
order, and particles 之 and 伊, for which some authors have proposed Korean interpretations.
9386:
9261:
9246:
9215:
8936:
8897:
8762:
8708:
8580:
8442:
8208:
8203:
8068:
7983:
7864:
7857:
7837:
7819:
7724:
7707:
7506:
7078:
7029:
6983:
6866:
6761:
6733:
6692:
6609:
6473:
6430:
6420:
6278:
6187:
6136:
6114:
6036:
5954:
5902:
5466:
2191:
2173:
2133:
2070:
2042:
1851:
1803:
1096:
580:
507:
232:
227:
160:
152:
148:
98:
80:
60:
54:
2157:
5625:
5412:
Toh, Soo Hee (2005), "About Early Paekche language mistaken as being Koguryŏ language",
2053:
family. Others believe that there is insufficient evidence to support a classification.
1990:
only slightly different from them. Their languages were said to differ from that of the
9545:
9396:
9256:
9225:
9196:
8827:
8713:
8696:
8646:
8641:
8512:
8449:
8219:
8213:
8133:
8128:
8074:
8051:
7796:
7618:
7575:
7558:
7552:
7530:
7518:
7256:
7024:
6395:
6290:
6159:
5979:
5974:
5959:
2268:
2186:(6th century) that appear to have Korean etymologies, as well as Koreanic loanwords in
2180:
was the ancestor of Koreanic, citing a few Goguryeo words in Chinese texts such as the
1688:
620:
519:
485:
354:
307:
makes up more than half of the Korean lexicon, but only about 10% of basic vocabulary.
164:
90:
5758:
Yeon, Jaehoon (2012), "Korean dialects: a general survey", in Tranter, Nicolas (ed.),
1067:
reflects an eighth Proto-Korean vowel, based on its high frequency and an analysis of
123:
9583:
9568:
9280:
9220:
9202:
8718:
8702:
8656:
8413:
8233:
8198:
8188:
8166:
8123:
7988:
7569:
7501:
6458:
6268:
6192:
5999:
5964:
5927:
5306:
5114:
5078:——— (1992), "Archaisms and Innovations in Soviet Korean dialects",
4909:
4849:
4778:
2199:
2146:
2037:
1952:
1919:
1903:
1881:
1837:
1599:
1579:
1104:
895:
875:
870:, Lee Ki-Moon argued for a Korean Vowel Shift between the 13th and 15th centuries, a
686:
535:
511:
460:
422:
260:
156:
85:
2075:
792:. These occurred only in limited environments, and are believed to have arisen from
435:, which also appears in standard 15th-century texts (written with the Hangul letter
210:
9535:
8177:
7161:
6969:
6703:
6440:
6361:
6220:
5807:
5590:
4995:
4845:
2221:
2216:
2152:
A small number of inscriptions have been found in Goguryeo, the earliest being the
2100:
1855:
1761:
1754:
1618:
286:
137:
Current extent of Koreanic as majority and minority (dashed) languages in East Asia
554:
A relatively simple inventory of consonants is reconstructed for Proto-Koreanic:
6169:
6123:
6096:
6082:
5840:
5524:
Studies in Korean Linguistics and Language Pedagogy: Festschrift for Ho-min Sohn
4947:
4933:"A Contextual Approach to the Convergence and Divergence of Korean and Japanese"
2210:
2182:
2115:
1940:
1578:
stops and affricates, but Proto-Korean is reconstructed with a single set, like
907:
890:
871:
499:
428:
349:
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, in response to poor harvests and the
322:
187:
6537:
6066:
5469:(2005), "Koguryŏ and Paekche: different languages or dialects of Old Korean?",
5235:
1928:
Chinese commanderies (in purple) and their eastern neighbours mentioned in the
1745:
in 1924, and others later added Japanese. The languages share features such as
1629:
1037:
have a limited distribution in Late Middle Korean, suggesting that unaccented *
9530:
9525:
7824:
7336:
7055:
7005:
6871:
6327:
5984:
5942:
5634:
5298:
4966:
1983:
1610:
1119:
993:
900:
851:
suggest that Old Korean probably had two sounds corresponding to later Korean
847:
841:
587:
390:
386:
308:
179:
186:. What little is known of other languages spoken on the peninsula before the
7411:
6322:
6228:
4857:
1575:
950:
734:
729:
Many of the consonants in later forms of Korean are secondary developments:
394:
362:
343:
278:
Korean is extensively and precisely documented from the introduction of the
117:
47:
5589:
Whitman, John (1990), "A rule of medial *-r- loss in pre-Old Japanese", in
5686:
5514:
4686:
Bentley, John R. (2000), "A new look at Paekche and Korean: data from the
1936:
one another. The later Korean histories lack any discussion of languages.
6499:
5862:
1972:
793:
515:
398:
859:
in Middle Korean, and may reflect an earlier cluster with an obstruent.
465:
17:
6572:
6463:
6317:
5449:
The role of contact in the origins of the Japanese and Korean languages
5092:
5069:
4982:
Janhunen, Juha; Kho, Songmoo (1982), "Is Korean related to Tungusic?",
4704:
2288:(韓) is unrelated to the Chinese Han dynasty, but is analysed as Korean
2106:
Linguistic evidence from these states is sparse and, being recorded in
1968:
1836:
from the Korean peninsula around 700–300 BC by wet-rice farmers of the
314:
5046:
4900:
9401:
9299:
6664:
6295:
2204:
2084:
2002:
1777:
319:
songs composed between the 7th and 9th centuries and recorded in the
279:
168:
9444:
5777:
Yi, Seonbok (2014), "Korea: archaeology", in Bellwood, Peter (ed.),
1582:
and Ainu, but unlike Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic, which feature a
132:
2241:
Nam Pung-hyun considers Old Korean as spanning the period from the
2128:
are difficult to interpret, some of these words appear to resemble
2095:
arose from Mahan, Byeonhan and Jinhan respectively. Thus began the
1986:
were described as speaking similar languages, with the language of
1570:
Modern Koreanic varieties have a three-way contrast between plain,
361:. Korean labourers were forcibly moved to Manchuria as part of the
6312:
6238:
6202:
5871:
5560:——— (2017), "Origins of the Japanese Language",
2092:
2074:
1991:
1987:
1979:
1923:
1776:
migration of the ancestral Korean population, identified with the
1628:
539:
464:
339:
244:
209:
183:
43:
5101:
Kōno, Rokurō (1987), "The bilingualism of the Paekche language",
4967:"Reconstructing the Language Map of Prehistorical Northeast Asia"
2113:
The most widely cited evidence for Goguryeo is chapter 37 of the
839:. Distinctions in the phonographic use of the Chinese characters
334:
of North and South Korea are both based primarily on the central
171:
alphabet in the 15th century. Earlier renditions of Korean using
6468:
5215:
Nam, Pung-hyun (2012), "Old Korean", in Tranter, Nicolas (ed.),
3540:
3538:
1798:
is said to result from the merger of four proto-Altaic liquids.
9448:
9420:
Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.
7415:
6541:
5875:
4809:
Language Atlas of China (2nd edition): Minority language volume
2534:
2532:
2164:, but feature some irregularities, including occasional use of
1741:
grouping was abandoned. Korean was added to the proposal by
1635:
247:, though dialects at opposite ends of the continuum are not
239:
stretching from the southern end of the Korean peninsula to
5119:
Principles of Linguistic Change, Volume 1: Internal Factors
5055:
King, J. R. P. (1987), "An introduction to Soviet Korean",
4802:
Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Shǎoshù mínzú yǔyán juǎn
4283:
4281:
4172:
4170:
4145:
4143:
4106:
4104:
4079:
4077:
2599:
2597:
2595:
744:
of Middle and modern Korean also arose from clusters with *
542:. Thus proto-Koreanic is reconstructed largely by applying
5484:
Korea-Japonica: A Re-evaluation of a Common Genetic Origin
5198:
Consonant Lenition in Korean and the Macro-Altaic Question
5000:
Recent Archaeological Discoveries in the Republic of Korea
4734:"Comparison of Texts between the Accounts of Han 韓 in the
3944:
3942:
3940:
2375:
2373:
5017:
Kim, Nam-Kil (1987), "Korean", in Comrie, Bernard (ed.),
5002:, Tokyo: Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, UNESCO,
2905:
2903:
2746:
2744:
2711:
862:
Late Middle Korean had seven vowels. Based on loans from
5739:
Yang, Changyong; Yang, Sejung; O'Grady, William (2019),
5234:
National Geography Information Institute (NGII) (2017),
3337:
3335:
3259:
3257:
2980:
2978:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2846:
1902:
All modern varieties are descended from the language of
5240:, Seoul: Ministry of Land Infrastructure and Transport.
5038:
Adoption of Aspiration Feature in Sino-Korean Phonology
3465:
3463:
3426:
3424:
3422:
2324:
2322:
1772:
group, while the arrival of bronze was attributed to a
4669:
Koguryo, the Language of Japan's Continental Relatives
3310:
3308:
2785:
2783:
1091:
Korean uses several postnominal particles to indicate
1063:. Some authors have proposed that Late Middle Korean
771:
Late Middle Korean had a series of voiced fricatives,
5248:
Nationalism, Politics and the Practice of Archaeology
3855:
3853:
5103:
Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko
4892:
Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese Language
2119:, a history of the Three Kingdoms period written in
104:
95:
9544:
9518:
9482:
9374:
9351:
9279:
9123:
8845:
8813:
8731:
8620:
8426:
8393:
8246:
8154:
7898:
7812:
7589:
7540:
7449:
7322:
7275:
7225:
7098:
7053:
7013:
7004:
6968:
6893:
6829:
6792:
6702:
6579:
6482:
6449:
6394:
6348:
6277:
6259:
6237:
6219:
6201:
6168:
6122:
6113:
6095:
6081:
6074:
6035:
6021:
5998:
5941:
5918:
5909:
5321:, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press,
4883:], in Vovin, Alexander; Osada, Toshiki (eds.),
4811:] (in Chinese), Beijing: The Commercial Press,
3377:
1605:Like other languages in northeast Asia, Korean has
116:
74:
66:
53:
37:
32:
4800:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) (2012),
5040:(PhD thesis), Seattle: University of Washington,
5251:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 218–231,
4848:(2017), "Other isolated languages of Asia", in
2103:and then expelled the Tang from the peninsula.
263:accent, vowels, voiced fricatives, word-medial
6522:North–South differences in the Korean language
5645:"The relationship between Japanese and Korean"
4212:
4134:
2208:
9460:
7427:
6553:
5887:
5021:, Oxford University Press, pp. 881–898,
3760:
3748:
3544:
3529:
1943:conquered northern Korea and established the
1535:
1497:
1459:
1421:
1383:
1345:
1307:
1265:
1223:
1185:
883:Old Korean vowels and Middle Korean reflexes
284:
8:
9430:Families with more than 30 languages are in
7397:Families with more than 30 languages are in
5526:, Korea University Press, pp. 200–206,
2079:The Korean peninsula in the late 5th century
1880:A link with Dravidian was first proposed by
1633:Larger language families of northeast Asia:
493:
470:
444:
320:
312:
298:
292:
178:All modern varieties are descended from the
5741:Jejueo: The Language of Korea's Jeju Island
5722:Handbook of the Changing World Language Map
5562:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
4783:Language Classification: History and Method
3796:
3353:
1955:and lasted until 314 AD. Chapter 30 of the
1057:in accented initial position or following *
9467:
9453:
9445:
9287:
8853:
8737:
8434:
8252:
7909:
7604:
7455:
7434:
7420:
7412:
7102:
7010:
6560:
6546:
6538:
6495:International Circle of Korean Linguistics
6283:
6119:
6078:
5915:
5894:
5880:
5872:
5701:, in Brown, Lucien; Yeon, Jaehoon (eds.),
5359:(2nd ed.), Rowman & Littlefield,
3820:
3236:
3164:
2379:
488:from what is now the northernmost part of
373:, where the language has official status.
291:(1103–1104), and the pharmacological work
6517:National Institute of the Korean Language
5861:
5743:, Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press,
5633:
5569:
5397:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
5091:
5068:
5045:
4899:
4703:
4539:
4527:
4515:
4479:
4467:
4455:
4431:
4419:
4287:
4236:
4200:
4176:
4149:
4110:
4083:
4056:
4008:
3832:
3784:
3772:
3616:
3592:
3505:
3454:
3365:
3326:
3224:
3200:
3176:
3104:
3092:
3044:
3008:
2996:
2933:
2921:
2870:
2837:
2735:
2699:
2687:
2603:
2538:
2511:
2499:
2463:
2451:
1961:(late 3rd century) and Chapter 85 of the
1794:*y in proto-Turkic. Similarly, Koreanic *
5779:The Global Prehistory of Human Migration
5597:, Berlin: de Gruyter, pp. 511–545,
5543:The Global Prehistory of Human Migration
5451:, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press,
5155:Lee, Ki-Moon; Ramsey, S. Robert (2011),
4732:Byington, Mark E.; Barnes, Gina (2014),
4503:
4491:
4335:
3960:
3919:
3883:
3493:
2813:
2675:
2627:
1951:, which was centred on the basin of the
1144:
881:
556:
5471:Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies
5414:Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies
5121:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell,
4623:
4563:
4443:
4260:
3948:
3931:
3895:
3844:
3808:
3736:
3652:
3556:
3469:
3430:
3341:
3299:
3263:
3152:
3140:
3128:
3080:
3068:
2984:
2945:
2909:
2894:
2858:
2825:
2750:
2318:
2234:
1118:that cannot appear without one or more
855:. The second of these is often spelled
492:in 1434, he established six garrisons (
397:. There is also a Korean population on
6512:List of English words of Korean origin
5571:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.277
5136:Lee, Iksop; Ramsey, S. Robert (2000),
4599:
4299:
3712:
3700:
3664:
3248:
3212:
3188:
3056:
3032:
2328:
1617:order, modifiers preceding nouns, and
175:are much more difficult to interpret.
29:
5673:, by Ki-Moon Lee and Robert Ramsey",
5595:Change and Reconstruction Methodology
5545:, Wiley-Blackwell, pp. 197–203,
4635:
4575:
4347:
4311:
3984:
3972:
3907:
3859:
3413:
3401:
3389:
3314:
3275:
3116:
2969:
2882:
369:, mostly in the border prefecture of
73:
7:
5357:A Concise History of Premodern Korea
5338:Proto-Japanese: Issues and Prospects
4826:Cho, Sungdai; Whitman, John (2019),
4647:
4611:
4407:
4395:
4383:
4359:
4323:
4224:
4161:
4122:
4095:
4068:
4044:
4020:
3996:
3871:
3580:
3568:
3517:
3481:
3442:
3020:
2801:
2789:
2774:
2762:
2723:
2663:
2651:
2639:
2615:
2586:
2574:
2562:
2550:
2487:
2475:
2439:
2427:
2415:
2403:
2391:
2364:
2352:
2340:
2292:'great' with the nominalizer suffix
2063:Placename glosses in the Samguk sagi
2021:describing them as similar, but the
1768:was interpreted as a migration of a
1095:and other relationships. The modern
202:has been conclusively demonstrated.
5919:
4587:
4551:
4371:
4272:
4248:
4188:
4032:
3724:
3676:
3640:
3604:
3287:
2957:
2523:
5703:The Handbook of Korean Linguistics
5340:, John Benjamins, pp. 79–99,
5270:, Harvard University Asia Center,
4715:The Handbook of Korean Linguistics
3688:
3628:
2203:(635) states that the language of
1053:. They may also have merged with *
25:
4828:Korean: A Linguistic Introduction
1816:Comparison of Japanese and Korean
1058:
1044:
1038:
1024:
1018:
1001:
980:
968:
956:
937:
925:
913:
717:
694:
677:
667:
650:
642:
634:
626:
611:
601:
593:
6065:
5760:The Languages of Japan and Korea
5671:A History of the Korean Language
5652:The Languages of Japan and Korea
5427:The Languages of Japan and Korea
5217:The Languages of Japan and Korea
5157:A History of the Korean Language
2267:The title refers to the Chinese
1888:, but these have few adherents.
874:involving five of these vowels.
365:. There are now about 2 million
363:Japanese occupation of Manchuria
131:
5762:, Routledge, pp. 168–185,
5669:——— (2013), "
3378:Yang, Yang & O'Grady (2019)
2258:Readings in Late Middle Chinese
1625:Proposed external relationships
9595:History of the Korean language
5694:——— (2015),
5643:——— (2012),
5486:, University of Hawaii Press,
5482:——— (2010),
5378:, Cambridge University Press,
5374:Shin, Michael D., ed. (2014),
5200:, University of Hawaii Press,
5196:——— (1996),
5159:, Cambridge University Press,
4965:——— (2010),
4931:——— (1999),
4877:高句麗の地名から高句麗語と朝鮮語・日本語との史的関係をさぐる
4830:, Cambridge University Press,
4785:, Cambridge University Press,
2025:referring to differences. The
1898:History of the Korean language
835:are attributed to lenition of
410:form of Korean spoken in Japan
299:
1:
5820:Kang, Yeng-pong, ed. (2009),
5654:, Routledge, pp. 24–38,
5650:, in Tranter, Nicolas (ed.),
5219:, Routledge, pp. 41–72,
5179:A Reference Grammar of Korean
4738:三國志, in the Fragments of the
3667:, pp. 220–221, 223, 230.
2271:period (220–280 AD), not the
2019:Records of the Three Kingdoms
1958:Records of the Three Kingdoms
1930:Records of the Three Kingdoms
5824:(in Korean), Jeju Province,
5429:, Routledge, pp. 3–23,
4914:Manchuria: An Ethnic History
4781:; Poser, William J. (2008),
4626:, pp. 424–427, 436–438.
4602:, pp. 224–226, 228–232.
4213:Byington & Barnes (2014)
4135:Byington & Barnes (2014)
2160:in 414). All are written in
1114:In modern Korean, verbs are
536:unification of the peninsula
351:Japanese annexation of Korea
5846:By Christopher I. Beckwith"
5781:, Wiley, pp. 586–597,
5705:, Wiley, pp. 421–438,
5564:, Oxford University Press,
5237:The National Atlas of Korea
5019:The World's Major Languages
4717:, Wiley, pp. 459–476,
3761:Campbell & Poser (2008)
3749:Campbell & Poser (2008)
3545:Campbell & Poser (2008)
3530:Campbell & Poser (2008)
2209:
1978:To the north and east, the
1947:, the most important being
1566:Typology and areal features
1103:is derived from an earlier
494:
475:) in far northeastern Korea
471:
445:
321:
313:
293:
285:
243:in the Chinese province of
59:One of the world's primary
9626:
7217:Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric
6301:Consonant and vowel tables
5266:Pai, Hyung Il 裵炯逸 (2000),
4885:Nihongo keitoron no genzai
2060:
1913:
1910:Early Chinese descriptions
1895:
1873:
1813:
1729:, have even less support.
866:and transcriptions in the
458:
420:
255:group. Dialects differ in
225:
9415:
9290:
8856:
8740:
8437:
8255:
7912:
7607:
7458:
7443:Primary language families
7385:
7105:
6340:Transcription into Korean
6286:
6063:
5635:10.1007/s12284-011-9080-0
5355:Seth, Michael J. (2016),
5315:Pulleyblank, Edwin George
5299:10.1007/s11759-017-9307-9
3797:Janhunen & Kho (1982)
1842:Placename glosses in the
1536:
1498:
1460:
1422:
1384:
1346:
1308:
1266:
1224:
1186:
1155:
846:
840:
443:, which the 15th-century
130:
55:Linguistic classification
8260:Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan
5839:Pellard, Thomas (2005),
4916:, Finno-Ugrian Society,
4887:
4876:
4804:
4759:: 97–112, archived from
4665:Beckwith, Christopher I.
3821:Cho & Whitman (2019)
3571:, pp. 263, 265–266.
3237:Cho & Whitman (2019)
3165:Cho & Whitman (2019)
2380:Cho & Whitman (2019)
1945:Four Commanderies of Han
1876:Dravido-Korean languages
558:Proto-Korean consonants
9427:have no living members.
7394:have no living members.
7277:East and Southeast Asia
6367:Cyrillization of Korean
5822:Revised Jeju Dictionary
4540:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4528:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4516:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4480:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4468:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4456:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4432:Lee & Ramsey (2000)
4420:Lee & Ramsey (2000)
4288:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4237:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4201:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4177:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4150:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4111:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4084:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4057:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
4009:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3833:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3785:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3773:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3617:Lee & Ramsey (2000)
3593:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3506:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3455:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3366:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3327:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3225:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3201:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3177:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3105:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3093:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3045:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
3009:Lee & Ramsey (2000)
2997:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2934:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2922:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2871:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2838:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2736:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2700:Brown & Yeon (2015)
2688:Brown & Yeon (2015)
2604:Brown & Yeon (2015)
2539:Lee & Ramsey (2000)
2512:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2500:Lee & Ramsey (2000)
2464:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2452:Lee & Ramsey (2011)
2275:(4th to 7th centuries).
2273:Three Kingdoms of Korea
1939:In 108 BC, the Chinese
544:internal reconstruction
490:North Hamgyong Province
9407:Unclassified languages
9361:list of sign languages
8329:Northeastern Tasmanian
6527:Sino-Korean vocabulary
6505:List of Konglish terms
6150:Gyeonggi/Seoul dialect
6041:(19th century–present)
5376:Korean History in Maps
3987:, pp. 6, 237–240.
2296:, meaning 'chieftain'.
2080:
1971:after their defeat of
1932:
1698:
476:
305:Sino-Korean vocabulary
215:
9382:Constructed languages
5687:10.1075/kl.15.2.05whi
5515:10.1075/kl.15.2.03vov
5393:Sohn, Ho-Min (1999),
5181:, Charles E. Tuttle,
4940:Central Asian Studies
3847:, pp. 24, 26–28.
3653:Park & Wee (2016)
2097:Three Kingdoms period
2078:
2057:Three Kingdoms period
2023:Book of the Later Han
2001:To the south lay the
1964:Book of the Later Han
1927:
1632:
498:) in the bend of the
468:
447:Hunminjeongeum Haerye
249:mutually intelligible
213:
7929:Binanderean–Goilalan
5863:10.1353/ks.2006.0008
5036:Kim, Sun-Mi (2015),
4860:, pp. 139–161,
4805:中国语言地图集(第2版):少数民族语言卷
3922:, pp. 1–2, 6–7.
3751:, pp. 236, 240.
3071:, p. 542, n. 5.
2726:, pp. 170, 178.
2047:James Marshall Unger
1864:Eastern Old Japanese
1834:Japanese archipelago
1822:William George Aston
742:aspirated consonants
259:and the reflexes of
200:genetic relationship
9211:(Maku-Auari/Jukude)
9114:Tequiraca–Canichana
8957:Harákmbut–Katukinan
7720:Northwest Caucasian
7714:Northeast Caucasian
7638:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
7035:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
6819:Northwest Caucasian
6814:Northeast Caucasian
6132:Chungcheong dialect
6022:Early modern Korean
5626:2011Rice....4..149W
5395:The Korean Language
5138:The Korean Language
4578:, pp. 117–119.
4566:, pp. 251–252.
4422:, pp. 274–275.
4302:, pp. 237–238.
4263:, pp. 249–250.
4251:, pp. 882–883.
4035:, pp. 881–882.
3910:, pp. 237–240.
3727:, pp. 104–111.
3715:, pp. 226–229.
3655:, pp. 313–314.
3631:, pp. 586–587.
3532:, pp. 243–266.
3496:, pp. 289–290.
3484:, pp. 265–266.
3457:, pp. 165–167.
3302:, pp. 434–435.
3227:, pp. 167–168.
3203:, pp. 163–165.
3131:, pp. 254–255.
3119:, pp. 138–139.
3059:, pp. 200–202.
3011:, pp. 320–321.
2777:, pp. 236–238.
2738:, pp. 159–160.
2702:, pp. 468–469.
2690:, pp. 466–468.
2654:, pp. 179–180.
2642:, pp. 238–241.
2618:, pp. 233–234.
2577:, pp. 181–182.
2553:, pp. 180–184.
2541:, pp. 309–310.
2430:, pp. 169–172.
2249:(mid-13th century).
1751:subject–object–verb
1615:subject–object–verb
1161:Late Middle Korean
1147:
1079:rather than a full
884:
559:
469:The six garrisons (
383:Soviet Central Asia
198:or Japonic, but no
163:suggested that the
9600:Languages of Korea
9590:Koreanic languages
8833:Tarascan/Purépecha
8322:Northern Tasmanian
8080:South Bougainville
8041:North Bougainville
7300:Austronesian–Ongan
7099:Proposed groupings
6490:Koreanic languages
6261:Koreanic languages
6155:Gyeongsang dialect
5675:Korean Linguistics
5503:Korean Linguistics
5445:Unger, J. Marshall
4098:, pp. 16, 19.
3679:, pp. 97, 99.
3354:Pulleyblank (1991)
2712:Yang et al. (2018)
2126:Chinese characters
2108:Chinese characters
2081:
1933:
1699:
1146:Koreanic numerals
1145:
882:
557:
532:Late Middle Korean
477:
332:standard languages
294:Hyangyak kugŭppang
241:Yanbian prefecture
216:
188:Sillan unification
173:Chinese characters
151:consisting of the
9610:Language families
9577:
9576:
9476:Altaic hypothesis
9442:
9441:
9392:Language isolates
9370:
9369:
9275:
9274:
8841:
8840:
8727:
8726:
8422:
8421:
8369:Western Tasmanian
8287:Eastern Tasmanian
8242:
8241:
7964:East Geelvink Bay
7894:
7893:
7585:
7584:
7409:
7408:
7318:
7317:
7310:Sino-Austronesian
7094:
7093:
6569:Language families
6535:
6534:
6390:
6389:
6372:McCune-Reischauer
6255:
6254:
6141:Yeongdong dialect
6109:
6108:
6061:
6060:
6042:
6026:
6025:(17–18th century)
6005:
6004:(10–16th century)
5948:
5831:978-89-962572-5-7
5788:978-1-118-97059-1
5769:978-0-415-46287-7
5750:978-0-8248-7443-8
5731:978-3-319-73400-2
5712:978-1-118-35491-9
5661:978-0-415-46287-7
5581:978-0-19-938465-5
5552:978-1-118-97059-1
5533:978-89-7641-830-2
5493:978-0-8248-3278-0
5458:978-0-8248-3279-7
5436:978-0-415-46287-7
5404:978-0-521-36123-1
5385:978-1-107-09846-6
5366:978-1-4422-6043-6
5347:978-90-272-4809-1
5328:978-0-7748-0366-3
5277:978-0-674-00244-9
5258:978-0-521-55839-6
5226:978-0-415-46287-7
5207:978-0-82481-809-8
5188:978-0-8048-1887-2
5175:Martin, Samuel E.
5166:978-1-139-49448-9
5147:978-0-7914-4831-1
5128:978-0-631-17913-9
5080:Language Research
5057:Language Research
5028:978-0-19-520521-3
5009:978-92-3-102001-8
4971:Studia Orientalia
4923:978-951-9403-84-7
4901:10.15055/00005276
4867:978-1-317-61090-8
4854:Language Isolates
4837:978-0-521-51485-9
4818:978-7-100-07053-9
4792:978-0-521-88005-3
4724:978-1-118-35491-9
4692:Language Research
4678:978-90-04-13949-7
4650:, pp. 84–85.
4554:, pp. 23–26.
4530:, pp. 40–41.
4518:, pp. 43–44.
4506:, pp. 27–28.
4482:, pp. 37–44.
4410:, pp. 29–30.
4386:, pp. 30–33.
4239:, pp. 34–36.
4203:, pp. 35–36.
4164:, pp. 19–23.
4137:, pp. 97–98.
4125:, pp. 17–19.
4023:, pp. 25–27.
3999:, pp. 27–29.
3975:, pp. 92–94.
3874:, pp. 29–35.
3835:, pp. 26–29.
3787:, pp. 23–24.
3775:, pp. 20–21.
3595:, pp. 15–23.
3583:, pp. 18–25.
3520:, pp. 17–18.
3508:, pp. 14–15.
3445:, pp. 60–62.
3290:, pp. 64–65.
3215:, pp. 60–68.
3191:, pp. 35–40.
3167:, pp. 18–19.
3107:, pp. 94–95.
3035:, pp. 20–21.
2972:, pp. 12–32.
2924:, pp. 64–65.
2897:, pp. 28–29.
2840:, pp. 2, 63.
2828:, pp. 27–28.
2565:, pp. 82–83.
2514:, pp. 51–59.
2466:, pp. 79–81.
2418:, pp. 60–66.
2394:, pp. 57–59.
2178:Goguryeo language
2162:Classical Chinese
2121:Classical Chinese
2067:Goguryeo language
1696:
1695:
1613:word order, with
1563:
1562:
1065:⟨ㅕ⟩
1015:
1014:
1008:⟨ㅏ⟩
987:⟨ㅗ⟩
975:⟨ㆍ⟩
963:⟨ㅓ⟩
944:⟨ㅜ⟩
932:⟨ㅡ⟩
920:⟨ㅣ⟩
829:⟨ㄹ⟩
790:⟨ㆁ⟩
783:⟨ㅿ⟩
776:⟨ㅸ⟩
727:
726:
437:⟨ㆍ⟩
379:forcibly deported
267:and word-initial
237:dialect continuum
192:Japonic languages
142:
141:
61:language families
16:(Redirected from
9617:
9605:Altaic languages
9469:
9462:
9455:
9446:
9288:
9242:Huaorani/Waorani
9126:(extant in 2000)
9090:Esmeralda–Yaruro
8861:Andoque–Urequena
8854:
8738:
8544:Plateau Penutian
8435:
8410:(Northern Daly?)
8253:
8139:Northwest Papuan
8103:Trans–New Guinea
7969:East New Britain
7944:Central Solomons
7910:
7655:Great Andamanese
7605:
7456:
7436:
7429:
7422:
7413:
7377:Proto-Euphratean
7103:
7011:
6979:Great Andamanese
6562:
6555:
6548:
6539:
6284:
6183:Hwanghae dialect
6178:Hamgyŏng dialect
6144:Yeongseo dialect
6120:
6079:
6069:
6040:
6024:
6003:
5947:(?–10th century)
5946:
5916:
5896:
5889:
5882:
5873:
5867:
5865:
5835:
5816:
5792:
5773:
5754:
5735:
5716:
5700:
5690:
5665:
5649:
5639:
5637:
5620:(3–4): 149–158,
5608:
5585:
5573:
5556:
5537:
5518:
5497:
5478:
5467:Vovin, Alexander
5462:
5440:
5421:
5408:
5389:
5370:
5351:
5332:
5310:
5281:
5262:
5241:
5230:
5211:
5192:
5170:
5151:
5132:
5110:
5097:
5095:
5074:
5072:
5051:
5049:
5032:
5013:
4991:
4978:
4961:
4959:
4958:
4952:
4946:, archived from
4937:
4927:
4905:
4903:
4871:
4841:
4822:
4796:
4774:
4772:
4771:
4765:
4750:
4728:
4709:
4707:
4682:
4651:
4645:
4639:
4633:
4627:
4621:
4615:
4609:
4603:
4597:
4591:
4585:
4579:
4573:
4567:
4561:
4555:
4549:
4543:
4537:
4531:
4525:
4519:
4513:
4507:
4501:
4495:
4489:
4483:
4477:
4471:
4465:
4459:
4453:
4447:
4441:
4435:
4429:
4423:
4417:
4411:
4405:
4399:
4393:
4387:
4381:
4375:
4369:
4363:
4357:
4351:
4345:
4339:
4333:
4327:
4321:
4315:
4309:
4303:
4297:
4291:
4285:
4276:
4270:
4264:
4258:
4252:
4246:
4240:
4234:
4228:
4222:
4216:
4210:
4204:
4198:
4192:
4186:
4180:
4174:
4165:
4159:
4153:
4147:
4138:
4132:
4126:
4120:
4114:
4108:
4099:
4093:
4087:
4081:
4072:
4066:
4060:
4054:
4048:
4042:
4036:
4030:
4024:
4018:
4012:
4006:
4000:
3994:
3988:
3982:
3976:
3970:
3964:
3958:
3952:
3946:
3935:
3929:
3923:
3917:
3911:
3905:
3899:
3893:
3887:
3881:
3875:
3869:
3863:
3857:
3848:
3842:
3836:
3830:
3824:
3818:
3812:
3806:
3800:
3794:
3788:
3782:
3776:
3770:
3764:
3758:
3752:
3746:
3740:
3734:
3728:
3722:
3716:
3710:
3704:
3698:
3692:
3686:
3680:
3674:
3668:
3662:
3656:
3650:
3644:
3638:
3632:
3626:
3620:
3614:
3608:
3602:
3596:
3590:
3584:
3578:
3572:
3566:
3560:
3554:
3548:
3542:
3533:
3527:
3521:
3515:
3509:
3503:
3497:
3491:
3485:
3479:
3473:
3467:
3458:
3452:
3446:
3440:
3434:
3428:
3417:
3411:
3405:
3399:
3393:
3387:
3381:
3375:
3369:
3363:
3357:
3351:
3345:
3339:
3330:
3324:
3318:
3312:
3303:
3297:
3291:
3285:
3279:
3273:
3267:
3261:
3252:
3246:
3240:
3234:
3228:
3222:
3216:
3210:
3204:
3198:
3192:
3186:
3180:
3174:
3168:
3162:
3156:
3150:
3144:
3138:
3132:
3126:
3120:
3114:
3108:
3102:
3096:
3090:
3084:
3078:
3072:
3066:
3060:
3054:
3048:
3042:
3036:
3030:
3024:
3018:
3012:
3006:
3000:
2994:
2988:
2982:
2973:
2967:
2961:
2955:
2949:
2943:
2937:
2931:
2925:
2919:
2913:
2907:
2898:
2892:
2886:
2880:
2874:
2868:
2862:
2856:
2841:
2835:
2829:
2823:
2817:
2811:
2805:
2799:
2793:
2787:
2778:
2772:
2766:
2760:
2754:
2748:
2739:
2733:
2727:
2721:
2715:
2709:
2703:
2697:
2691:
2685:
2679:
2673:
2667:
2661:
2655:
2649:
2643:
2637:
2631:
2625:
2619:
2613:
2607:
2601:
2590:
2584:
2578:
2572:
2566:
2560:
2554:
2548:
2542:
2536:
2527:
2521:
2515:
2509:
2503:
2497:
2491:
2485:
2479:
2473:
2467:
2461:
2455:
2449:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2425:
2419:
2413:
2407:
2401:
2395:
2389:
2383:
2377:
2368:
2362:
2356:
2350:
2344:
2338:
2332:
2326:
2307:
2303:
2297:
2282:
2276:
2265:
2259:
2256:
2250:
2239:
2214:
2176:argues that the
2154:Gwanggaeto Stele
2089:Gaya confederacy
1854:points out that
1797:
1783:Late Pleistocene
1686:
1677:
1671:
1660:
1651:
1642:
1636:
1593:
1589:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1544:
1539:
1538:
1532:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1500:
1494:
1483:
1478:
1473:
1468:
1463:
1462:
1456:
1445:
1440:
1435:
1430:
1425:
1424:
1418:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1386:
1380:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1354:
1349:
1348:
1342:
1331:
1326:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1310:
1304:
1300:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1268:
1262:
1258:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1226:
1220:
1209:
1204:
1199:
1194:
1189:
1188:
1182:
1178:
1148:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1110:
1066:
1062:
1056:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1028:
1022:
1009:
1005:
988:
984:
976:
972:
964:
960:
945:
941:
933:
929:
921:
917:
885:
864:Middle Mongolian
850:
844:
838:
834:
830:
827:
819:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
791:
788:
784:
781:
777:
774:
767:
764:and finally to *
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
721:
698:
681:
671:
654:
646:
638:
630:
615:
605:
597:
560:
497:
474:
450:
442:
438:
434:
406:Koreans in Japan
367:Koreans in China
359:Russian Far East
336:prestige dialect
327:(13th century).
326:
318:
302:
301:
296:
290:
274:
270:
266:
206:Extant languages
182:of the state of
135:
126:
106:
97:
30:
21:
9625:
9624:
9620:
9619:
9618:
9616:
9615:
9614:
9580:
9579:
9578:
9573:
9546:Proto-languages
9540:
9519:Early languages
9514:
9478:
9473:
9443:
9438:
9437:
9411:
9397:Mixed languages
9366:
9347:
9282:
9271:
9125:
9119:
8974:Katembri–Taruma
8848:
8837:
8809:
8723:
8616:
8429:
8418:
8389:
8238:
8150:
8109:Turama–Kikorian
8019:Lower Mamberamo
7974:East Strickland
7902:
7890:
7808:
7596:
7591:
7581:
7536:
7445:
7440:
7410:
7405:
7404:
7381:
7372:Paleo-Laplandic
7367:Pre-Finno-Ugric
7314:
7271:
7235:Greater Siangic
7221:
7207:Uralic–Yukaghir
7157:Ibero-Caucasian
7152:Elamo-Dravidian
7090:
7049:
7000:
6964:
6889:
6825:
6808:North Caucasian
6788:
6698:
6637:Paleo-Sardinian
6575:
6566:
6536:
6531:
6478:
6474:Yongbieocheonga
6445:
6386:
6344:
6273:
6251:
6247:Zainichi Korean
6233:
6215:
6197:
6188:Pyongan dialect
6164:
6137:Gangwon dialect
6105:
6091:
6070:
6057:
6039:
6031:
6023:
6017:
6002:
5994:
5945:
5937:
5905:
5903:Korean language
5900:
5870:
5838:
5832:
5819:
5804:
5800:
5798:Further reading
5795:
5789:
5776:
5770:
5757:
5751:
5738:
5732:
5719:
5713:
5698:
5693:
5668:
5662:
5647:
5642:
5611:
5605:
5588:
5582:
5559:
5553:
5540:
5534:
5521:
5500:
5494:
5481:
5465:
5459:
5443:
5437:
5424:
5411:
5405:
5392:
5386:
5373:
5367:
5354:
5348:
5335:
5329:
5313:
5284:
5278:
5265:
5259:
5244:
5233:
5227:
5214:
5208:
5195:
5189:
5173:
5167:
5154:
5148:
5135:
5129:
5113:
5100:
5077:
5054:
5035:
5029:
5016:
5010:
4994:
4981:
4964:
4956:
4954:
4950:
4935:
4930:
4924:
4908:
4889:
4878:
4874:
4868:
4844:
4838:
4825:
4819:
4806:
4799:
4793:
4777:
4769:
4767:
4763:
4748:
4742:魏略, and in the
4731:
4725:
4712:
4685:
4679:
4663:
4659:
4654:
4646:
4642:
4634:
4630:
4622:
4618:
4610:
4606:
4598:
4594:
4586:
4582:
4574:
4570:
4562:
4558:
4550:
4546:
4538:
4534:
4526:
4522:
4514:
4510:
4504:Beckwith (2004)
4502:
4498:
4492:Itabashi (2003)
4490:
4486:
4478:
4474:
4466:
4462:
4454:
4450:
4442:
4438:
4430:
4426:
4418:
4414:
4406:
4402:
4394:
4390:
4382:
4378:
4370:
4366:
4358:
4354:
4346:
4342:
4336:Beckwith (2004)
4334:
4330:
4322:
4318:
4310:
4306:
4298:
4294:
4286:
4279:
4271:
4267:
4259:
4255:
4247:
4243:
4235:
4231:
4223:
4219:
4211:
4207:
4199:
4195:
4187:
4183:
4175:
4168:
4160:
4156:
4148:
4141:
4133:
4129:
4121:
4117:
4109:
4102:
4094:
4090:
4082:
4075:
4067:
4063:
4055:
4051:
4043:
4039:
4031:
4027:
4019:
4015:
4007:
4003:
3995:
3991:
3983:
3979:
3971:
3967:
3961:Janhunen (1999)
3959:
3955:
3947:
3938:
3930:
3926:
3920:Janhunen (1999)
3918:
3914:
3906:
3902:
3894:
3890:
3884:Janhunen (1996)
3882:
3878:
3870:
3866:
3858:
3851:
3843:
3839:
3831:
3827:
3819:
3815:
3807:
3803:
3799:, pp. 4–5.
3795:
3791:
3783:
3779:
3771:
3767:
3759:
3755:
3747:
3743:
3735:
3731:
3723:
3719:
3711:
3707:
3699:
3695:
3687:
3683:
3675:
3671:
3663:
3659:
3651:
3647:
3639:
3635:
3627:
3623:
3615:
3611:
3607:, pp. 1–2.
3603:
3599:
3591:
3587:
3579:
3575:
3567:
3563:
3559:, pp. 6–7.
3555:
3551:
3543:
3536:
3528:
3524:
3516:
3512:
3504:
3500:
3494:Janhunen (2010)
3492:
3488:
3480:
3476:
3468:
3461:
3453:
3449:
3441:
3437:
3429:
3420:
3412:
3408:
3400:
3396:
3388:
3384:
3376:
3372:
3364:
3360:
3352:
3348:
3340:
3333:
3325:
3321:
3313:
3306:
3298:
3294:
3286:
3282:
3274:
3270:
3262:
3255:
3247:
3243:
3235:
3231:
3223:
3219:
3211:
3207:
3199:
3195:
3187:
3183:
3175:
3171:
3163:
3159:
3151:
3147:
3139:
3135:
3127:
3123:
3115:
3111:
3103:
3099:
3091:
3087:
3079:
3075:
3067:
3063:
3055:
3051:
3043:
3039:
3031:
3027:
3019:
3015:
3007:
3003:
2995:
2991:
2983:
2976:
2968:
2964:
2956:
2952:
2944:
2940:
2932:
2928:
2920:
2916:
2908:
2901:
2893:
2889:
2881:
2877:
2869:
2865:
2857:
2844:
2836:
2832:
2824:
2820:
2816:, pp. 2–3.
2814:Janhunen (1999)
2812:
2808:
2800:
2796:
2788:
2781:
2773:
2769:
2761:
2757:
2749:
2742:
2734:
2730:
2722:
2718:
2710:
2706:
2698:
2694:
2686:
2682:
2676:Janhunen (1996)
2674:
2670:
2662:
2658:
2650:
2646:
2638:
2634:
2628:Janhunen (1996)
2626:
2622:
2614:
2610:
2602:
2593:
2585:
2581:
2573:
2569:
2561:
2557:
2549:
2545:
2537:
2530:
2522:
2518:
2510:
2506:
2498:
2494:
2486:
2482:
2474:
2470:
2462:
2458:
2454:, pp. 5–6.
2450:
2446:
2438:
2434:
2426:
2422:
2414:
2410:
2402:
2398:
2390:
2386:
2378:
2371:
2363:
2359:
2351:
2347:
2339:
2335:
2327:
2320:
2316:
2311:
2310:
2304:
2300:
2283:
2279:
2266:
2262:
2257:
2253:
2247:Mongol invasion
2240:
2236:
2231:
2174:Alexander Vovin
2073:
2071:Baekje language
2059:
2043:Alexander Vovin
2005:('three Han'),
1982:, Goguryeo and
1922:
1912:
1900:
1894:
1878:
1872:
1852:Alexander Vovin
1818:
1812:
1766:Jeulmun pottery
1743:Gustaf Ramstedt
1735:
1697:
1691:
1684:
1682:
1675:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1658:
1656:
1649:
1647:
1640:
1627:
1609:morphology and
1568:
1128:
1097:nominative case
1089:
1064:
1007:
986:
974:
962:
943:
931:
919:
828:
820:in these words.
789:
782:
775:
760:, extended to *
552:
528:
463:
457:
436:
425:
419:
385:, particularly
233:Korean dialects
230:
228:Korean language
224:
208:
161:Alexander Vovin
149:language family
138:
122:
39:
28:
27:Language family
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9623:
9621:
9613:
9612:
9607:
9602:
9597:
9592:
9582:
9581:
9575:
9574:
9572:
9571:
9566:
9564:Proto-Mongolic
9561:
9556:
9550:
9548:
9542:
9541:
9539:
9538:
9533:
9528:
9522:
9520:
9516:
9515:
9513:
9512:
9507:
9502:
9497:
9492:
9486:
9484:
9480:
9479:
9474:
9472:
9471:
9464:
9457:
9449:
9440:
9439:
9436:
9435:
9428:
9421:
9417:
9416:
9413:
9412:
9410:
9409:
9404:
9399:
9394:
9389:
9384:
9378:
9376:
9372:
9371:
9368:
9367:
9365:
9364:
9355:
9353:
9349:
9348:
9346:
9345:
9339:
9334:
9329:
9324:
9322:Indo-Pakistani
9319:
9314:
9307:
9302:
9297:
9291:
9285:
9277:
9276:
9273:
9272:
9270:
9269:
9264:
9259:
9254:
9249:
9244:
9239:
9234:
9229:
9223:
9218:
9213:
9205:
9200:
9193:
9188:
9182:
9177:
9172:
9167:
9161:
9156:
9151:
9146:
9141:
9136:
9129:
9127:
9121:
9120:
9118:
9117:
9111:
9105:
9099:
9093:
9087:
9081:
9075:
9070:
9065:
9060:
9055:
9050:
9043:
9038:
9033:
9028:
9023:
9021:Piaroa–Saliban
9018:
9011:
9006:
9001:
8996:
8991:
8986:
8981:
8976:
8971:
8966:
8959:
8954:
8949:
8944:
8939:
8934:
8929:
8922:
8917:
8910:
8905:
8900:
8895:
8890:
8885:
8880:
8873:
8868:
8863:
8857:
8851:
8843:
8842:
8839:
8838:
8836:
8835:
8830:
8825:
8817:
8815:
8811:
8810:
8808:
8807:
8800:
8793:
8788:
8786:Tequistlatecan
8783:
8776:
8771:
8766:
8759:
8752:
8747:
8741:
8735:
8729:
8728:
8725:
8724:
8722:
8721:
8716:
8711:
8706:
8699:
8694:
8687:
8680:
8673:
8666:
8659:
8654:
8649:
8644:
8639:
8632:
8624:
8622:
8618:
8617:
8615:
8614:
8609:
8602:
8595:
8590:
8583:
8578:
8573:
8568:
8563:
8556:
8551:
8546:
8541:
8534:
8527:
8522:
8515:
8510:
8503:
8498:
8493:
8486:
8479:
8472:
8465:
8458:
8453:
8446:
8438:
8432:
8424:
8423:
8420:
8419:
8417:
8416:
8411:
8405:
8397:
8395:
8391:
8390:
8388:
8387:
8377:
8372:
8365:
8360:
8355:
8350:
8344:
8337:
8332:
8325:
8318:
8313:
8309:Marrku–Wurrugu
8305:
8300:
8295:
8290:
8283:
8276:
8268:
8263:
8256:
8250:
8244:
8243:
8240:
8239:
8237:
8236:
8231:
8223:
8217:
8211:
8206:
8201:
8196:
8191:
8186:
8181:
8175:
8169:
8164:
8158:
8156:
8152:
8151:
8149:
8148:
8142:
8136:
8131:
8126:
8121:
8116:
8111:
8106:
8099:
8094:
8087:
8082:
8077:
8072:
8065:
8060:
8055:
8048:
8043:
8038:
8033:
8026:
8021:
8016:
8011:
8006:
8001:
7996:
7991:
7986:
7981:
7976:
7971:
7966:
7961:
7956:
7951:
7946:
7941:
7936:
7931:
7926:
7919:
7913:
7907:
7896:
7895:
7892:
7891:
7889:
7888:
7880:
7873:
7867:
7862:
7854:
7849:
7841:
7834:
7827:
7822:
7816:
7814:
7810:
7809:
7807:
7806:
7800:
7794:
7788:
7782:
7776:
7770:
7765:
7760:
7753:
7746:
7739:
7734:
7727:
7722:
7717:
7710:
7705:
7700:
7693:
7688:
7683:
7678:
7671:
7668:Hurro-Urartian
7664:
7657:
7652:
7647:
7640:
7635:
7628:
7621:
7616:
7608:
7602:
7587:
7586:
7583:
7582:
7580:
7579:
7573:
7567:
7562:
7555:
7550:
7544:
7542:
7538:
7537:
7535:
7534:
7528:
7522:
7516:
7510:
7504:
7499:
7491:
7484:
7479:
7474:
7467:
7459:
7453:
7447:
7446:
7441:
7439:
7438:
7431:
7424:
7416:
7407:
7406:
7403:
7402:
7395:
7387:
7386:
7383:
7382:
7380:
7379:
7374:
7369:
7364:
7359:
7354:
7349:
7344:
7339:
7334:
7328:
7326:
7320:
7319:
7316:
7315:
7313:
7312:
7307:
7302:
7297:
7292:
7287:
7281:
7279:
7273:
7272:
7270:
7269:
7264:
7259:
7254:
7249:
7248:
7247:
7242:
7231:
7229:
7223:
7222:
7220:
7219:
7214:
7209:
7204:
7202:Uralo-Siberian
7199:
7194:
7189:
7187:Serbi–Mongolic
7184:
7179:
7174:
7169:
7164:
7159:
7154:
7149:
7147:Dravido-Korean
7144:
7142:Dené–Yeniseian
7139:
7138:
7137:
7132:
7130:Dené–Caucasian
7127:
7117:
7112:
7106:
7100:
7096:
7095:
7092:
7091:
7089:
7088:
7083:
7075:
7068:
7060:
7058:
7051:
7050:
7048:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7027:
7021:
7019:
7008:
7002:
7001:
6999:
6998:
6991:
6986:
6981:
6975:
6973:
6966:
6965:
6963:
6962:
6957:
6952:
6947:
6942:
6935:
6928:
6921:
6914:
6907:
6899:
6897:
6891:
6890:
6888:
6887:
6879:
6874:
6869:
6864:
6857:
6850:
6843:
6835:
6833:
6827:
6826:
6824:
6823:
6822:
6821:
6816:
6804:
6798:
6796:
6790:
6789:
6787:
6786:
6779:
6772:
6765:
6758:
6751:
6748:Hurro-Urartian
6744:
6737:
6730:
6723:
6716:
6708:
6706:
6700:
6699:
6697:
6696:
6689:
6682:
6675:
6668:
6661:
6654:
6647:
6640:
6633:
6630:Paleo-Corsican
6626:
6619:
6612:
6607:
6600:
6593:
6585:
6583:
6577:
6576:
6567:
6565:
6564:
6557:
6550:
6542:
6533:
6532:
6530:
6529:
6524:
6519:
6514:
6509:
6508:
6507:
6497:
6492:
6486:
6484:
6480:
6479:
6477:
6476:
6471:
6466:
6461:
6455:
6453:
6447:
6446:
6444:
6443:
6438:
6433:
6428:
6423:
6418:
6413:
6408:
6400:
6398:
6392:
6391:
6388:
6387:
6385:
6384:
6379:
6374:
6369:
6364:
6358:
6356:
6346:
6345:
6343:
6342:
6337:
6332:
6331:
6330:
6325:
6320:
6310:
6309:
6308:
6303:
6293:
6291:Korean Braille
6287:
6281:
6279:Writing system
6275:
6274:
6272:
6271:
6265:
6263:
6257:
6256:
6253:
6252:
6250:
6249:
6243:
6241:
6235:
6234:
6232:
6231:
6225:
6223:
6217:
6216:
6214:
6213:
6211:Chinese Korean
6207:
6205:
6199:
6198:
6196:
6195:
6193:Yukjin dialect
6190:
6185:
6180:
6174:
6172:
6166:
6165:
6163:
6162:
6160:Jeolla dialect
6157:
6152:
6147:
6146:
6145:
6142:
6134:
6128:
6126:
6117:
6111:
6110:
6107:
6106:
6101:
6099:
6093:
6092:
6087:
6085:
6076:
6072:
6071:
6064:
6062:
6059:
6058:
6056:
6055:
6052:
6049:
6045:
6043:
6033:
6032:
6029:
6027:
6019:
6018:
6016:
6015:
6012:
6008:
6006:
5996:
5995:
5993:
5992:
5987:
5982:
5977:
5972:
5967:
5962:
5957:
5951:
5949:
5939:
5938:
5936:
5935:
5930:
5924:
5922:
5920:Proto-Koreanic
5913:
5907:
5906:
5901:
5899:
5898:
5891:
5884:
5876:
5869:
5868:
5850:Korean Studies
5836:
5830:
5817:
5801:
5799:
5796:
5794:
5793:
5787:
5774:
5768:
5755:
5749:
5736:
5730:
5717:
5711:
5691:
5681:(2): 246–260,
5666:
5660:
5640:
5609:
5603:
5586:
5580:
5557:
5551:
5538:
5532:
5519:
5509:(2): 222–240,
5498:
5492:
5479:
5463:
5457:
5441:
5435:
5422:
5409:
5403:
5390:
5384:
5371:
5365:
5352:
5346:
5333:
5327:
5311:
5293:(3): 304–339,
5282:
5276:
5263:
5257:
5242:
5231:
5225:
5212:
5206:
5193:
5187:
5171:
5165:
5152:
5146:
5140:, SUNY Press,
5133:
5127:
5115:Labov, William
5111:
5098:
5086:(2): 201–223,
5075:
5063:(2): 233–274,
5052:
5033:
5027:
5014:
5008:
4992:
4979:
4962:
4928:
4922:
4910:Janhunen, Juha
4906:
4872:
4866:
4850:Campbell, Lyle
4842:
4836:
4823:
4817:
4797:
4791:
4779:Campbell, Lyle
4775:
4729:
4723:
4710:
4698:(2): 417–443,
4683:
4677:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4653:
4652:
4640:
4638:, p. 119.
4628:
4624:Bentley (2000)
4616:
4604:
4592:
4580:
4568:
4564:Whitman (2013)
4556:
4544:
4532:
4520:
4508:
4496:
4484:
4472:
4460:
4448:
4446:, p. 423.
4444:Whitman (2015)
4436:
4434:, p. 276.
4424:
4412:
4400:
4388:
4376:
4374:, p. 234.
4364:
4352:
4350:, p. 151.
4340:
4328:
4316:
4304:
4292:
4277:
4265:
4261:Whitman (2013)
4253:
4241:
4229:
4217:
4215:, p. 105.
4205:
4193:
4181:
4166:
4154:
4139:
4127:
4115:
4100:
4088:
4073:
4061:
4049:
4037:
4025:
4013:
4001:
3989:
3977:
3965:
3953:
3951:, p. 154.
3949:Whitman (2011)
3936:
3932:Serafim (2008)
3924:
3912:
3900:
3898:, p. 156.
3896:Whitman (2011)
3888:
3886:, p. 200.
3876:
3864:
3849:
3845:Whitman (2012)
3837:
3825:
3813:
3811:, p. 249.
3809:Whitman (2013)
3801:
3789:
3777:
3765:
3763:, p. 239.
3753:
3741:
3739:, p. 248.
3737:Whitman (2013)
3729:
3717:
3705:
3703:, p. 230.
3693:
3691:, p. 587.
3681:
3669:
3657:
3645:
3643:, p. 882.
3633:
3621:
3609:
3597:
3585:
3573:
3561:
3557:Tranter (2012)
3549:
3547:, p. 235.
3534:
3522:
3510:
3498:
3486:
3474:
3470:Tranter (2012)
3459:
3447:
3435:
3431:Tranter (2012)
3418:
3416:, p. 211.
3406:
3404:, p. 181.
3394:
3392:, p. 220.
3382:
3370:
3368:, p. 175.
3358:
3346:
3342:Whitman (2012)
3331:
3319:
3304:
3300:Whitman (2015)
3292:
3280:
3268:
3264:Whitman (2012)
3253:
3241:
3229:
3217:
3205:
3193:
3181:
3179:, p. 163.
3169:
3157:
3155:, p. 430.
3153:Whitman (2015)
3145:
3143:, p. 429.
3141:Whitman (2015)
3133:
3129:Whitman (2013)
3121:
3109:
3097:
3095:, p. 156.
3085:
3083:, p. 434.
3081:Whitman (2015)
3073:
3069:Whitman (1990)
3061:
3049:
3037:
3025:
3013:
3001:
2989:
2985:Whitman (2012)
2974:
2962:
2950:
2948:, p. 432.
2946:Whitman (2015)
2938:
2926:
2914:
2912:, p. 431.
2910:Whitman (2015)
2899:
2895:Whitman (2012)
2887:
2875:
2873:, p. 128.
2863:
2859:Whitman (2012)
2842:
2830:
2826:Whitman (2012)
2818:
2806:
2804:, p. 236.
2794:
2792:, p. 202.
2779:
2767:
2765:, p. 238.
2755:
2753:, p. 155.
2751:Whitman (2011)
2740:
2728:
2716:
2704:
2692:
2680:
2668:
2666:, p. 235.
2656:
2644:
2632:
2620:
2608:
2606:, p. 465.
2591:
2589:, p. 184.
2579:
2567:
2555:
2543:
2528:
2516:
2504:
2502:, p. 136.
2492:
2480:
2468:
2456:
2444:
2432:
2420:
2408:
2406:, p. 168.
2396:
2384:
2369:
2357:
2345:
2333:
2331:, p. 201.
2317:
2315:
2312:
2309:
2308:
2298:
2277:
2269:Three Kingdoms
2260:
2251:
2243:Three Kingdoms
2233:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2058:
2055:
1916:Puyŏ languages
1911:
1908:
1893:
1890:
1871:
1868:
1811:
1808:
1734:
1731:
1694:
1693:
1683:
1674:
1672: Koreanic
1668:
1666:
1657:
1648:
1639:
1634:
1626:
1623:
1567:
1564:
1561:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1540:
1533:
1527:
1523:
1522:
1517:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1495:
1489:
1485:
1484:
1479:
1474:
1469:
1464:
1457:
1451:
1447:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1419:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1381:
1375:
1371:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1343:
1337:
1333:
1332:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1312:
1305:
1295:
1291:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1263:
1253:
1249:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1221:
1215:
1211:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1183:
1173:
1169:
1168:
1165:
1164:Modern Korean
1162:
1159:
1154:
1151:
1127:
1124:
1088:
1085:
1013:
1012:
1010:
998:
996:
990:
989:
977:
965:
953:
947:
946:
934:
922:
910:
904:
903:
898:
893:
888:
824:Middle Korean
822:
821:
769:
738:
725:
724:
722:
714:
712:
710:
704:
703:
701:
699:
691:
689:
683:
682:
674:
672:
664:
662:
656:
655:
647:
639:
631:
623:
617:
616:
608:
606:
598:
590:
584:
583:
578:
573:
568:
563:
551:
548:
527:
526:Proto-Koreanic
524:
459:Main article:
456:
453:
427:The speech of
421:Main article:
418:
415:
355:Primorsky Krai
257:palatalization
226:Main article:
223:
220:
207:
204:
165:Yukjin dialect
140:
139:
136:
128:
127:
120:
114:
113:
112:
111:
102:
93:
88:
83:
76:
72:
71:
70:Proto-Koreanic
68:
67:Proto-language
64:
63:
57:
51:
50:
41:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9622:
9611:
9608:
9606:
9603:
9601:
9598:
9596:
9593:
9591:
9588:
9587:
9585:
9570:
9569:Proto-Japonic
9567:
9565:
9562:
9560:
9557:
9555:
9552:
9551:
9549:
9547:
9543:
9537:
9534:
9532:
9529:
9527:
9524:
9523:
9521:
9517:
9511:
9508:
9506:
9503:
9501:
9498:
9496:
9493:
9491:
9488:
9487:
9485:
9481:
9477:
9470:
9465:
9463:
9458:
9456:
9451:
9450:
9447:
9433:
9429:
9426:
9422:
9419:
9418:
9414:
9408:
9405:
9403:
9400:
9398:
9395:
9393:
9390:
9388:
9385:
9383:
9380:
9379:
9377:
9373:
9363:
9362:
9357:
9356:
9354:
9350:
9343:
9340:
9338:
9335:
9333:
9332:Original Thai
9330:
9328:
9325:
9323:
9320:
9318:
9315:
9313:
9312:
9308:
9306:
9303:
9301:
9298:
9296:
9293:
9292:
9289:
9286:
9284:
9278:
9268:
9265:
9263:
9260:
9258:
9255:
9253:
9250:
9248:
9245:
9243:
9240:
9238:
9235:
9233:
9230:
9227:
9224:
9222:
9219:
9217:
9214:
9212:
9210:
9206:
9204:
9201:
9199:
9198:
9194:
9192:
9189:
9186:
9183:
9181:
9178:
9176:
9173:
9171:
9168:
9165:
9162:
9160:
9157:
9155:
9152:
9150:
9147:
9145:
9142:
9140:
9137:
9134:
9131:
9130:
9128:
9122:
9115:
9112:
9109:
9106:
9103:
9100:
9097:
9096:Hibito–Cholón
9094:
9091:
9088:
9085:
9082:
9079:
9076:
9074:
9071:
9069:
9066:
9064:
9061:
9059:
9056:
9054:
9051:
9049:
9048:
9044:
9042:
9039:
9037:
9034:
9032:
9029:
9027:
9024:
9022:
9019:
9017:
9016:
9012:
9010:
9007:
9005:
9002:
9000:
8997:
8995:
8992:
8990:
8987:
8985:
8982:
8980:
8977:
8975:
8972:
8970:
8967:
8965:
8964:
8960:
8958:
8955:
8953:
8950:
8948:
8945:
8943:
8940:
8938:
8935:
8933:
8930:
8928:
8927:
8923:
8921:
8918:
8916:
8915:
8911:
8909:
8906:
8904:
8901:
8899:
8896:
8894:
8891:
8889:
8886:
8884:
8881:
8879:
8878:
8874:
8872:
8869:
8867:
8864:
8862:
8859:
8858:
8855:
8852:
8850:
8844:
8834:
8831:
8829:
8826:
8824:
8823:
8819:
8818:
8816:
8812:
8806:
8805:
8801:
8799:
8798:
8794:
8792:
8789:
8787:
8784:
8782:
8781:
8777:
8775:
8772:
8770:
8767:
8765:
8764:
8760:
8758:
8757:
8753:
8751:
8748:
8746:
8743:
8742:
8739:
8736:
8734:
8730:
8720:
8717:
8715:
8712:
8710:
8707:
8705:
8704:
8700:
8698:
8695:
8693:
8692:
8688:
8686:
8685:
8681:
8679:
8678:
8674:
8672:
8671:
8667:
8665:
8664:
8660:
8658:
8655:
8653:
8650:
8648:
8645:
8643:
8640:
8638:
8637:
8633:
8631:
8630:
8626:
8625:
8623:
8619:
8613:
8612:Yuman–Cochimí
8610:
8608:
8607:
8603:
8601:
8600:
8596:
8594:
8591:
8589:
8588:
8584:
8582:
8579:
8577:
8574:
8572:
8569:
8567:
8564:
8562:
8561:
8557:
8555:
8552:
8550:
8547:
8545:
8542:
8540:
8539:
8535:
8533:
8532:
8528:
8526:
8523:
8521:
8520:
8516:
8514:
8511:
8509:
8508:
8504:
8502:
8499:
8497:
8494:
8492:
8491:
8487:
8485:
8484:
8480:
8478:
8477:
8473:
8471:
8470:
8466:
8464:
8463:
8459:
8457:
8454:
8452:
8451:
8447:
8445:
8444:
8440:
8439:
8436:
8433:
8431:
8425:
8415:
8412:
8409:
8406:
8404:
8403:
8399:
8398:
8396:
8392:
8385:
8381:
8378:
8376:
8373:
8371:
8370:
8366:
8364:
8361:
8359:
8356:
8354:
8351:
8348:
8347:Southern Daly
8345:
8343:
8342:
8338:
8336:
8333:
8331:
8330:
8326:
8324:
8323:
8319:
8317:
8314:
8311:
8310:
8306:
8304:
8301:
8299:
8296:
8294:
8291:
8289:
8288:
8284:
8282:
8281:
8277:
8274:
8273:
8272:Darwin Region
8269:
8267:
8264:
8261:
8258:
8257:
8254:
8251:
8249:
8245:
8235:
8232:
8230:
8228:
8224:
8221:
8218:
8215:
8212:
8210:
8207:
8205:
8202:
8200:
8197:
8195:
8192:
8190:
8187:
8185:
8182:
8179:
8176:
8173:
8170:
8168:
8165:
8163:
8160:
8159:
8157:
8153:
8146:
8143:
8140:
8137:
8135:
8132:
8130:
8127:
8125:
8122:
8120:
8117:
8115:
8112:
8110:
8107:
8105:
8104:
8100:
8098:
8095:
8093:
8092:
8088:
8086:
8083:
8081:
8078:
8076:
8073:
8071:
8070:
8066:
8064:
8061:
8059:
8056:
8054:
8053:
8049:
8047:
8044:
8042:
8039:
8037:
8034:
8032:
8031:
8027:
8025:
8022:
8020:
8017:
8015:
8012:
8010:
8007:
8005:
8002:
8000:
7997:
7995:
7992:
7990:
7987:
7985:
7982:
7980:
7977:
7975:
7972:
7970:
7967:
7965:
7962:
7960:
7957:
7955:
7954:Demta–Sentani
7952:
7950:
7947:
7945:
7942:
7940:
7937:
7935:
7932:
7930:
7927:
7925:
7924:
7920:
7918:
7915:
7914:
7911:
7908:
7906:
7901:
7897:
7887:
7885:
7881:
7879:
7878:
7874:
7871:
7868:
7866:
7863:
7861:
7859:
7855:
7853:
7850:
7848:
7846:
7842:
7840:
7839:
7835:
7833:
7832:
7828:
7826:
7823:
7821:
7818:
7817:
7815:
7811:
7804:
7801:
7798:
7795:
7792:
7789:
7786:
7783:
7780:
7777:
7774:
7771:
7769:
7766:
7764:
7761:
7759:
7758:
7754:
7752:
7751:
7747:
7745:
7744:
7740:
7738:
7735:
7733:
7732:
7728:
7726:
7723:
7721:
7718:
7716:
7715:
7711:
7709:
7706:
7704:
7701:
7699:
7698:
7694:
7692:
7689:
7687:
7684:
7682:
7679:
7677:
7676:
7675:Indo-European
7672:
7670:
7669:
7665:
7663:
7662:
7658:
7656:
7653:
7651:
7648:
7646:
7645:
7641:
7639:
7636:
7634:
7633:
7629:
7627:
7626:
7625:Austroasiatic
7622:
7620:
7617:
7615:
7614:
7610:
7609:
7606:
7603:
7600:
7595:
7588:
7577:
7574:
7571:
7568:
7566:
7563:
7561:
7560:
7556:
7554:
7551:
7549:
7546:
7545:
7543:
7539:
7532:
7529:
7526:
7523:
7520:
7517:
7514:
7511:
7508:
7505:
7503:
7500:
7497:
7496:
7492:
7490:
7489:
7485:
7483:
7480:
7478:
7475:
7473:
7472:
7468:
7466:
7465:
7461:
7460:
7457:
7454:
7452:
7448:
7444:
7437:
7432:
7430:
7425:
7423:
7418:
7417:
7414:
7400:
7396:
7393:
7389:
7388:
7384:
7378:
7375:
7373:
7370:
7368:
7365:
7363:
7360:
7358:
7355:
7353:
7350:
7348:
7345:
7343:
7340:
7338:
7335:
7333:
7330:
7329:
7327:
7325:
7321:
7311:
7308:
7306:
7303:
7301:
7298:
7296:
7293:
7291:
7288:
7286:
7283:
7282:
7280:
7278:
7274:
7268:
7265:
7263:
7260:
7258:
7255:
7253:
7250:
7246:
7243:
7241:
7238:
7237:
7236:
7233:
7232:
7230:
7228:
7224:
7218:
7215:
7213:
7212:Eskimo–Uralic
7210:
7208:
7205:
7203:
7200:
7198:
7195:
7193:
7190:
7188:
7185:
7183:
7180:
7178:
7175:
7173:
7170:
7168:
7165:
7163:
7160:
7158:
7155:
7153:
7150:
7148:
7145:
7143:
7140:
7136:
7133:
7131:
7128:
7126:
7123:
7122:
7121:
7118:
7116:
7113:
7111:
7108:
7107:
7104:
7101:
7097:
7087:
7084:
7081:
7080:
7076:
7074:
7073:
7069:
7067:
7066:
7062:
7061:
7059:
7057:
7052:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7026:
7023:
7022:
7020:
7017:
7016:Paleosiberian
7012:
7009:
7007:
7003:
6997:
6996:
6992:
6990:
6987:
6985:
6982:
6980:
6977:
6976:
6974:
6971:
6967:
6961:
6958:
6956:
6953:
6951:
6948:
6946:
6943:
6941:
6940:
6936:
6934:
6933:
6929:
6927:
6926:
6922:
6920:
6919:
6915:
6913:
6912:
6911:Austroasiatic
6908:
6906:
6905:
6901:
6900:
6898:
6896:
6892:
6885:
6884:
6880:
6878:
6875:
6873:
6870:
6868:
6865:
6863:
6862:
6861:Austroasiatic
6858:
6856:
6855:
6851:
6849:
6848:
6844:
6842:
6841:
6840:Indo-European
6837:
6836:
6834:
6832:
6828:
6820:
6817:
6815:
6812:
6811:
6810:
6809:
6805:
6803:
6800:
6799:
6797:
6795:
6791:
6785:
6784:
6780:
6778:
6777:
6773:
6771:
6770:
6766:
6764:
6763:
6759:
6757:
6756:
6752:
6750:
6749:
6745:
6743:
6742:
6738:
6736:
6735:
6731:
6729:
6728:
6724:
6722:
6721:
6717:
6715:
6714:
6713:Indo-European
6710:
6709:
6707:
6705:
6701:
6695:
6694:
6690:
6688:
6687:
6683:
6681:
6680:
6676:
6674:
6673:
6669:
6667:
6666:
6662:
6660:
6659:
6655:
6653:
6652:
6648:
6646:
6645:
6641:
6639:
6638:
6634:
6632:
6631:
6627:
6625:
6624:
6620:
6618:
6617:
6613:
6611:
6608:
6606:
6605:
6601:
6599:
6598:
6594:
6592:
6591:
6590:Indo-European
6587:
6586:
6584:
6582:
6578:
6574:
6570:
6563:
6558:
6556:
6551:
6549:
6544:
6543:
6540:
6528:
6525:
6523:
6520:
6518:
6515:
6513:
6510:
6506:
6503:
6502:
6501:
6498:
6496:
6493:
6491:
6488:
6487:
6485:
6481:
6475:
6472:
6470:
6467:
6465:
6462:
6460:
6457:
6456:
6454:
6452:
6448:
6442:
6439:
6437:
6436:Speech levels
6434:
6432:
6429:
6427:
6426:Postpositions
6424:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6412:
6409:
6407:
6406:
6402:
6401:
6399:
6397:
6393:
6383:
6380:
6378:
6375:
6373:
6370:
6368:
6365:
6363:
6360:
6359:
6357:
6355:
6351:
6350:Cyrillization
6347:
6341:
6338:
6336:
6333:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6315:
6314:
6311:
6307:
6304:
6302:
6299:
6298:
6297:
6294:
6292:
6289:
6288:
6285:
6282:
6280:
6276:
6270:
6269:Jeju language
6267:
6266:
6264:
6262:
6258:
6248:
6245:
6244:
6242:
6240:
6236:
6230:
6227:
6226:
6224:
6222:
6218:
6212:
6209:
6208:
6206:
6204:
6200:
6194:
6191:
6189:
6186:
6184:
6181:
6179:
6176:
6175:
6173:
6171:
6167:
6161:
6158:
6156:
6153:
6151:
6148:
6143:
6140:
6139:
6138:
6135:
6133:
6130:
6129:
6127:
6125:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6112:
6104:
6100:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6084:
6080:
6077:
6073:
6068:
6053:
6050:
6047:
6046:
6044:
6038:
6037:Modern Korean
6034:
6028:
6020:
6013:
6010:
6009:
6007:
6001:
6000:Middle Korean
5997:
5991:
5988:
5986:
5983:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5973:
5971:
5968:
5966:
5963:
5961:
5958:
5956:
5953:
5952:
5950:
5944:
5940:
5934:
5931:
5929:
5926:
5925:
5923:
5921:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5908:
5904:
5897:
5892:
5890:
5885:
5883:
5878:
5877:
5874:
5864:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5845:
5837:
5833:
5827:
5823:
5818:
5815:(1): 141–166.
5814:
5810:
5809:
5803:
5802:
5797:
5790:
5784:
5780:
5775:
5771:
5765:
5761:
5756:
5752:
5746:
5742:
5737:
5733:
5727:
5723:
5718:
5714:
5708:
5704:
5697:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5676:
5672:
5667:
5663:
5657:
5653:
5646:
5641:
5636:
5631:
5627:
5623:
5619:
5615:
5610:
5606:
5604:3-11-011908-0
5600:
5596:
5592:
5591:Baldi, Philip
5587:
5583:
5577:
5572:
5567:
5563:
5558:
5554:
5548:
5544:
5539:
5535:
5529:
5525:
5520:
5516:
5512:
5508:
5504:
5499:
5495:
5489:
5485:
5480:
5477:(2): 107–140.
5476:
5472:
5468:
5464:
5460:
5454:
5450:
5446:
5442:
5438:
5432:
5428:
5423:
5419:
5415:
5410:
5406:
5400:
5396:
5391:
5387:
5381:
5377:
5372:
5368:
5362:
5358:
5353:
5349:
5343:
5339:
5334:
5330:
5324:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5308:
5304:
5300:
5296:
5292:
5288:
5287:Archaeologies
5283:
5279:
5273:
5269:
5264:
5260:
5254:
5250:
5249:
5243:
5239:
5238:
5232:
5228:
5222:
5218:
5213:
5209:
5203:
5199:
5194:
5190:
5184:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5162:
5158:
5153:
5149:
5143:
5139:
5134:
5130:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5099:
5094:
5089:
5085:
5081:
5076:
5071:
5066:
5062:
5058:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5039:
5034:
5030:
5024:
5020:
5015:
5011:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4996:Kim, Won-yong
4993:
4989:
4985:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4963:
4953:on 2021-02-26
4949:
4945:
4941:
4934:
4929:
4925:
4919:
4915:
4911:
4907:
4902:
4897:
4893:
4886:
4882:
4873:
4869:
4863:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4846:Georg, Stefan
4843:
4839:
4833:
4829:
4824:
4820:
4814:
4810:
4803:
4798:
4794:
4788:
4784:
4780:
4776:
4766:on 2020-06-06
4762:
4758:
4754:
4747:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4730:
4726:
4720:
4716:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4684:
4680:
4674:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4661:
4656:
4649:
4644:
4641:
4637:
4632:
4629:
4625:
4620:
4617:
4614:, p. 38.
4613:
4608:
4605:
4601:
4600:Vovin (2013a)
4596:
4593:
4590:, p. 42.
4589:
4584:
4581:
4577:
4572:
4569:
4565:
4560:
4557:
4553:
4548:
4545:
4542:, p. 40.
4541:
4536:
4533:
4529:
4524:
4521:
4517:
4512:
4509:
4505:
4500:
4497:
4493:
4488:
4485:
4481:
4476:
4473:
4470:, p. 39.
4469:
4464:
4461:
4458:, p. 37.
4457:
4452:
4449:
4445:
4440:
4437:
4433:
4428:
4425:
4421:
4416:
4413:
4409:
4404:
4401:
4398:, p. 29.
4397:
4392:
4389:
4385:
4380:
4377:
4373:
4368:
4365:
4362:, p. 35.
4361:
4356:
4353:
4349:
4344:
4341:
4338:, p. 19.
4337:
4332:
4329:
4326:, p. 39.
4325:
4320:
4317:
4314:, p. 87.
4313:
4308:
4305:
4301:
4300:Vovin (2013a)
4296:
4293:
4290:, p. 44.
4289:
4284:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4269:
4266:
4262:
4257:
4254:
4250:
4245:
4242:
4238:
4233:
4230:
4227:, p. 22.
4226:
4221:
4218:
4214:
4209:
4206:
4202:
4197:
4194:
4191:, p. 55.
4190:
4185:
4182:
4179:, p. 35.
4178:
4173:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4158:
4155:
4152:, p. 34.
4151:
4146:
4144:
4140:
4136:
4131:
4128:
4124:
4119:
4116:
4113:, p. 36.
4112:
4107:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4092:
4089:
4086:, p. 31.
4085:
4080:
4078:
4074:
4071:, p. 17.
4070:
4065:
4062:
4058:
4053:
4050:
4047:, p. 40.
4046:
4041:
4038:
4034:
4029:
4026:
4022:
4017:
4014:
4011:, p. 15.
4010:
4005:
4002:
3998:
3993:
3990:
3986:
3981:
3978:
3974:
3969:
3966:
3962:
3957:
3954:
3950:
3945:
3943:
3941:
3937:
3934:, p. 98.
3933:
3928:
3925:
3921:
3916:
3913:
3909:
3904:
3901:
3897:
3892:
3889:
3885:
3880:
3877:
3873:
3868:
3865:
3861:
3856:
3854:
3850:
3846:
3841:
3838:
3834:
3829:
3826:
3823:, p. 12.
3822:
3817:
3814:
3810:
3805:
3802:
3798:
3793:
3790:
3786:
3781:
3778:
3774:
3769:
3766:
3762:
3757:
3754:
3750:
3745:
3742:
3738:
3733:
3730:
3726:
3721:
3718:
3714:
3713:Nelson (1995)
3709:
3706:
3702:
3701:Nelson (1995)
3697:
3694:
3690:
3685:
3682:
3678:
3673:
3670:
3666:
3665:Nelson (1995)
3661:
3658:
3654:
3649:
3646:
3642:
3637:
3634:
3630:
3625:
3622:
3618:
3613:
3610:
3606:
3601:
3598:
3594:
3589:
3586:
3582:
3577:
3574:
3570:
3565:
3562:
3558:
3553:
3550:
3546:
3541:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3526:
3523:
3519:
3514:
3511:
3507:
3502:
3499:
3495:
3490:
3487:
3483:
3478:
3475:
3471:
3466:
3464:
3460:
3456:
3451:
3448:
3444:
3439:
3436:
3432:
3427:
3425:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3410:
3407:
3403:
3398:
3395:
3391:
3386:
3383:
3380:, p. 70.
3379:
3374:
3371:
3367:
3362:
3359:
3355:
3350:
3347:
3344:, p. 33.
3343:
3338:
3336:
3332:
3329:, p. 71.
3328:
3323:
3320:
3317:, p. 62.
3316:
3311:
3309:
3305:
3301:
3296:
3293:
3289:
3284:
3281:
3278:, p. 45.
3277:
3272:
3269:
3266:, p. 34.
3265:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3251:, p. 60.
3250:
3249:Martin (1996)
3245:
3242:
3239:, p. 25.
3238:
3233:
3230:
3226:
3221:
3218:
3214:
3213:Martin (1992)
3209:
3206:
3202:
3197:
3194:
3190:
3189:Martin (1996)
3185:
3182:
3178:
3173:
3170:
3166:
3161:
3158:
3154:
3149:
3146:
3142:
3137:
3134:
3130:
3125:
3122:
3118:
3113:
3110:
3106:
3101:
3098:
3094:
3089:
3086:
3082:
3077:
3074:
3070:
3065:
3062:
3058:
3057:Vovin (2013b)
3053:
3050:
3047:, p. 66.
3046:
3041:
3038:
3034:
3033:Martin (1996)
3029:
3026:
3023:, p. 89.
3022:
3017:
3014:
3010:
3005:
3002:
2999:, p. 64.
2998:
2993:
2990:
2987:, p. 29.
2986:
2981:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2966:
2963:
2959:
2954:
2951:
2947:
2942:
2939:
2936:, p. 65.
2935:
2930:
2927:
2923:
2918:
2915:
2911:
2906:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2891:
2888:
2885:, p. 11.
2884:
2879:
2876:
2872:
2867:
2864:
2861:, p. 28.
2860:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2834:
2831:
2827:
2822:
2819:
2815:
2810:
2807:
2803:
2798:
2795:
2791:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2768:
2764:
2759:
2756:
2752:
2747:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2732:
2729:
2725:
2720:
2717:
2713:
2708:
2705:
2701:
2696:
2693:
2689:
2684:
2681:
2678:, p. 43.
2677:
2672:
2669:
2665:
2660:
2657:
2653:
2648:
2645:
2641:
2636:
2633:
2630:, p. 42.
2629:
2624:
2621:
2617:
2612:
2609:
2605:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2583:
2580:
2576:
2571:
2568:
2564:
2559:
2556:
2552:
2547:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2533:
2529:
2526:, p. 41.
2525:
2520:
2517:
2513:
2508:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2493:
2490:, p. 87.
2489:
2484:
2481:
2478:, p. 44.
2477:
2472:
2469:
2465:
2460:
2457:
2453:
2448:
2445:
2442:, p. 45.
2441:
2436:
2433:
2429:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2400:
2397:
2393:
2388:
2385:
2382:, p. 13.
2381:
2376:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2361:
2358:
2355:, p. 34.
2354:
2349:
2346:
2343:, p. 37.
2342:
2337:
2334:
2330:
2329:Vovin (2013c)
2325:
2323:
2319:
2313:
2302:
2299:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2281:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2264:
2261:
2255:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2238:
2235:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2212:
2206:
2202:
2201:
2200:Book of Liang
2195:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2184:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2150:
2148:
2147:Taedong River
2142:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2122:
2118:
2117:
2111:
2109:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2090:
2086:
2077:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2056:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2039:
2035:
2030:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1959:
1954:
1953:Taedong River
1950:
1946:
1942:
1937:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1920:Han languages
1917:
1909:
1907:
1905:
1904:Unified Silla
1899:
1892:Early history
1891:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1882:Homer Hulbert
1877:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1848:
1846:
1845:
1839:
1838:Yayoi culture
1835:
1829:
1827:
1826:Samuel Martin
1823:
1817:
1809:
1807:
1805:
1799:
1792:
1786:
1784:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1770:Paleosiberian
1767:
1763:
1758:
1756:
1755:postpositions
1752:
1748:
1747:agglutinative
1744:
1740:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1690:
1681:
1667:
1664:
1655:
1646:
1638:
1637:
1631:
1624:
1622:
1621:(particles).
1620:
1619:postpositions
1616:
1612:
1608:
1607:agglutinative
1603:
1601:
1600:Middle Korean
1595:
1585:
1581:
1580:Proto-Japonic
1577:
1573:
1565:
1556:
1551:
1546:
1541:
1534:
1528:
1525:
1524:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1503:
1496:
1490:
1487:
1486:
1480:
1475:
1470:
1465:
1458:
1452:
1449:
1448:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1427:
1420:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1382:
1376:
1373:
1372:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1344:
1338:
1335:
1334:
1328:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1306:
1296:
1293:
1292:
1286:
1281:
1276:
1271:
1264:
1254:
1251:
1250:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1222:
1216:
1213:
1212:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1191:
1184:
1174:
1171:
1170:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1153:Proto-Korean
1152:
1150:
1149:
1143:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1117:
1112:
1106:
1105:ergative case
1102:
1098:
1094:
1086:
1084:
1082:
1078:
1072:
1070:
1061:
1052:
1047:
1041:
1034:
1027:
1021:
1011:
1004:
999:
997:
995:
992:
991:
983:
978:
971:
966:
959:
954:
952:
949:
948:
940:
935:
928:
923:
916:
911:
909:
906:
905:
902:
899:
897:
894:
892:
889:
887:
886:
880:
877:
876:William Labov
873:
869:
865:
860:
858:
854:
849:
843:
795:
770:
743:
739:
736:
732:
731:
730:
723:
720:
715:
713:
711:
709:
706:
705:
702:
700:
697:
692:
690:
688:
685:
684:
680:
675:
673:
670:
665:
663:
661:
658:
657:
653:
648:
645:
640:
637:
632:
629:
624:
622:
619:
618:
614:
609:
607:
604:
599:
596:
591:
589:
586:
585:
582:
579:
577:
574:
572:
569:
567:
564:
562:
561:
555:
549:
547:
545:
541:
537:
533:
525:
523:
521:
517:
514:, Chongsŏng,
513:
509:
505:
501:
496:
491:
487:
483:
473:
467:
462:
461:Yukjin Korean
454:
452:
449:
448:
430:
424:
423:Jeju language
416:
414:
411:
407:
402:
400:
396:
392:
388:
384:
380:
374:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
347:
345:
341:
337:
333:
328:
325:
324:
317:
316:
310:
306:
295:
289:
288:
281:
276:
262:
261:Middle Korean
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
229:
221:
219:
214:Dialect zones
212:
205:
203:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
176:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
134:
129:
125:
121:
119:
115:
109:
103:
100:
94:
92:
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
78:
77:
69:
65:
62:
58:
56:
52:
49:
45:
42:
36:
31:
19:
9559:Proto-Turkic
9554:Proto-Altaic
9536:Old Japanese
9504:
9431:
9424:
9423:Families in
9358:
9309:
9207:
9195:
9045:
9013:
9004:Pano-Tacanan
8961:
8924:
8912:
8883:Arutani–Sape
8875:
8820:
8802:
8795:
8780:Oto-Manguean
8778:
8761:
8754:
8701:
8689:
8682:
8675:
8668:
8661:
8634:
8627:
8604:
8597:
8585:
8558:
8536:
8529:
8517:
8505:
8488:
8481:
8474:
8467:
8460:
8448:
8441:
8400:
8367:
8363:Western Daly
8341:Pama–Nyungan
8339:
8327:
8320:
8307:
8285:
8280:Eastern Daly
8278:
8270:
8225:
8101:
8089:
8067:
8050:
8028:
7999:Kaure–Kosare
7959:Doso–Turumsa
7949:Chimbu–Wahgi
7939:Bulaka River
7923:Austronesian
7921:
7882:
7875:
7856:
7843:
7836:
7829:
7755:
7748:
7741:
7731:Sino-Tibetan
7729:
7712:
7695:
7690:
7673:
7666:
7659:
7642:
7632:Austronesian
7630:
7623:
7611:
7557:
7495:Nilo-Saharan
7493:
7486:
7471:Austronesian
7469:
7462:
7398:
7391:
7390:Families in
7347:Pre-Goidelic
7342:Pre-Germanic
7172:Indo-Semitic
7167:Indo-Pacific
7162:Indo-Hittite
7077:
7070:
7063:
6993:
6970:Indian Ocean
6954:
6937:
6932:Austronesian
6930:
6923:
6916:
6909:
6904:Sino-Tibetan
6902:
6881:
6859:
6854:Sino-Tibetan
6852:
6845:
6838:
6806:
6781:
6774:
6767:
6760:
6753:
6746:
6739:
6732:
6725:
6718:
6711:
6691:
6684:
6677:
6670:
6663:
6658:North Picene
6656:
6649:
6642:
6635:
6628:
6621:
6614:
6602:
6595:
6588:
6489:
6483:Other topics
6403:
6362:ISO/TR 11941
6354:Romanization
6335:Mixed script
6260:
6221:Central Asia
5853:
5849:
5842:
5821:
5812:
5808:Acta Koreana
5806:
5778:
5759:
5740:
5724:, Springer,
5721:
5702:
5696:"Old Korean"
5678:
5674:
5670:
5651:
5617:
5613:
5594:
5561:
5542:
5523:
5506:
5502:
5483:
5474:
5470:
5448:
5426:
5417:
5413:
5394:
5375:
5356:
5337:
5318:
5290:
5286:
5267:
5247:
5236:
5216:
5197:
5178:
5156:
5137:
5118:
5106:
5102:
5083:
5079:
5060:
5056:
5037:
5018:
4999:
4987:
4983:
4974:
4970:
4955:, retrieved
4948:the original
4943:
4939:
4913:
4891:
4884:
4880:
4853:
4827:
4808:
4801:
4782:
4768:, retrieved
4761:the original
4756:
4752:
4743:
4739:
4735:
4714:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4668:
4643:
4636:Vovin (2005)
4631:
4619:
4607:
4595:
4583:
4576:Vovin (2005)
4571:
4559:
4547:
4535:
4523:
4511:
4499:
4487:
4475:
4463:
4451:
4439:
4427:
4415:
4403:
4391:
4379:
4367:
4355:
4348:Georg (2017)
4343:
4331:
4319:
4312:Unger (2009)
4307:
4295:
4275:, p. 2.
4268:
4256:
4244:
4232:
4220:
4208:
4196:
4184:
4157:
4130:
4118:
4091:
4064:
4059:, p. 4.
4052:
4040:
4028:
4016:
4004:
3992:
3985:Vovin (2010)
3980:
3973:Vovin (2010)
3968:
3963:, p. 5.
3956:
3927:
3915:
3908:Vovin (2010)
3903:
3891:
3879:
3867:
3860:Vovin (2017)
3840:
3828:
3816:
3804:
3792:
3780:
3768:
3756:
3744:
3732:
3720:
3708:
3696:
3684:
3672:
3660:
3648:
3636:
3624:
3619:, p. 5.
3612:
3600:
3588:
3576:
3564:
3552:
3525:
3513:
3501:
3489:
3477:
3472:, p. 6.
3450:
3438:
3433:, p. 7.
3414:Vovin (2010)
3409:
3402:Vovin (2010)
3397:
3390:Vovin (2010)
3385:
3373:
3361:
3349:
3322:
3315:Vovin (2010)
3295:
3283:
3276:Vovin (2010)
3271:
3244:
3232:
3220:
3208:
3196:
3184:
3172:
3160:
3148:
3136:
3124:
3117:Labov (1994)
3112:
3100:
3088:
3076:
3064:
3052:
3040:
3028:
3016:
3004:
2992:
2970:Vovin (2010)
2965:
2953:
2941:
2929:
2917:
2890:
2883:Vovin (2010)
2878:
2866:
2833:
2821:
2809:
2797:
2770:
2758:
2731:
2719:
2707:
2695:
2683:
2671:
2659:
2647:
2635:
2623:
2611:
2582:
2570:
2558:
2546:
2519:
2507:
2495:
2483:
2471:
2459:
2447:
2435:
2423:
2411:
2399:
2387:
2360:
2348:
2336:
2301:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2280:
2263:
2254:
2237:
2222:Book of Zhou
2220:
2217:Old Japanese
2198:
2196:
2181:
2156:(erected in
2151:
2143:
2114:
2112:
2105:
2101:Tang dynasty
2082:
2031:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2000:
1977:
1962:
1956:
1938:
1934:
1929:
1901:
1886:Austronesian
1879:
1856:Old Japanese
1849:
1843:
1830:
1819:
1800:
1787:
1762:Kim Won-yong
1759:
1749:morphology,
1736:
1700:
1604:
1596:
1569:
1157:Jilin leishi
1156:
1129:
1120:inflectional
1113:
1100:
1090:
1087:Morphosyntax
1077:pitch accent
1073:
1017:The vowels *
1016:
868:Jìlín lèishì
867:
861:
856:
852:
823:
728:
553:
529:
478:
426:
403:
375:
348:
329:
287:Jilin leishi
277:
231:
217:
177:
144:
143:
75:Subdivisions
40:distribution
9317:Germanosign
9221:Mura-Pirahã
9102:Lule–Vilela
9078:Bora-Witoto
9053:Uru–Chipaya
9026:Ticuna–Yuri
9009:Peba–Yaguan
8994:Nambikwaran
8797:Uto-Aztecan
8733:Mesoamerica
8587:Uto-Aztecan
8576:Tsimshianic
8538:Palaihnihan
8408:Malak-Malak
8145:Papuan Gulf
8119:West Papuan
8024:Lower Sepik
8014:Lakes Plain
7917:Arai–Samaia
7905:the Pacific
7613:Afroasiatic
7488:Niger–Congo
7464:Afroasiatic
7197:Ural-Altaic
7177:Indo-Uralic
6989:Sentinelese
6720:Afroasiatic
6686:Eteocypriot
6306:Punctuation
6170:North Korea
6124:South Korea
6097:North Korea
6083:South Korea
6054:South Korea
6051:North Korea
5856:: 167–170,
5420:(2): 13–31.
5093:10371/85946
5070:10371/85771
4881:Samguk sagi
4744:Hou-Han shu
4705:10371/86143
4688:Nihon shoki
4657:Works cited
4648:Kōno (1987)
4612:Sohn (1999)
4408:Seth (2016)
4396:Seth (2016)
4384:Seth (2016)
4360:Seth (2016)
4324:Sohn (1999)
4225:Seth (2016)
4162:Seth (2016)
4123:Seth (2016)
4096:Shin (2014)
4069:Sohn (1999)
4045:Sohn (1999)
4021:Sohn (1999)
3997:Sohn (1999)
3872:Sohn (1999)
3581:Sohn (1999)
3569:Sohn (1999)
3518:Sohn (1999)
3482:Sohn (1999)
3443:Sohn (1999)
3021:Sohn (1999)
2802:King (1987)
2790:King (1992)
2775:King (1987)
2763:King (1987)
2724:Yeon (2012)
2664:King (1987)
2652:Yeon (2012)
2640:King (1987)
2616:King (1987)
2587:Yeon (2012)
2575:Yeon (2012)
2563:Sohn (1999)
2551:Yeon (2012)
2488:Sohn (1999)
2476:Sohn (1999)
2440:Sohn (1999)
2428:Yeon (2012)
2416:Sohn (1999)
2404:Yeon (2012)
2392:Sohn (1999)
2367:, Map C1-7.
2365:CASS (2012)
2353:King (1987)
2341:NGII (2017)
2211:Nihon Shoki
2183:Book of Wei
2170:verb–object
2166:object–verb
2116:Samguk sagi
1941:Han dynasty
1844:Samguk sagi
1739:Ural–Altaic
1116:bound forms
1069:tongue root
1023:> and *
872:chain shift
708:Approximant
500:Tumen River
429:Jeju Island
323:Samguk yusa
147:is a small
9584:Categories
9531:Old Korean
9526:Old Turkic
9311:Francosign
9159:Chiquitano
9139:Alacalufan
8947:Guaicuruan
8920:Chapacuran
8903:Cahuapanan
8871:Araucanian
8774:Mixe–Zoque
8769:Misumalpan
8483:Comecrudan
8335:Nyulnyulan
8114:Upper Yuat
8091:Torricelli
8063:Senu River
7994:Foja Range
7900:New Guinea
7825:Burushaski
7686:Kartvelian
7661:Hmong–Mien
7477:Khoe–Kwadi
7337:Pre-Celtic
7305:East Asian
7295:Austro-Tai
7285:Andamanese
7135:Eurasiatic
7056:North Asia
7006:North Asia
6918:Hmong–Mien
6872:Burushaski
6831:South Asia
6802:Kartvelian
6769:Philistine
6679:Eteocretan
6623:Tartessian
6451:Literature
6416:Honorifics
6411:Count word
5943:Old Korean
5047:1773/33458
4990:: 179–190.
4977:: 281–303.
4957:2020-05-07
4770:2020-05-07
4753:Crossroads
4736:Sanguo zhi
4588:Nam (2012)
4552:Toh (2005)
4372:Pai (2000)
4273:Kim (1983)
4249:Kim (1987)
4189:Nam (2012)
4033:Kim (1987)
3725:Pai (2000)
3677:Pai (2000)
3641:Kim (1987)
3605:Kim (1983)
3288:Nam (2012)
2958:Kim (2015)
2524:Nam (2012)
2314:References
2061:See also:
1914:See also:
1896:See also:
1874:See also:
1814:See also:
1753:order and
1727:Eurasiatic
1611:head-final
1576:reinforced
1138:'we' and *
1126:Vocabulary
1049:underwent
735:reinforced
484:drove the
391:Kazakhstan
387:Uzbekistan
309:Old Korean
180:Old Korean
38:Geographic
9342:Tanzanian
9283:languages
9180:Hodï/Joti
9124:Isolates
9063:Yanomaman
8999:Otomákoan
8963:Jirajaran
8952:Guajiboan
8914:Catacaoan
8893:Barbacoan
8822:Cuitlatec
8791:Totonacan
8750:Jicaquean
8629:Chimariko
8525:Muskogean
8507:Kalapuyan
8501:Iroquoian
8476:Chumashan
8469:Chinookan
8462:Chimakuan
8380:Yangmanic
8375:Worrorran
8358:Wagaydyic
8248:Australia
8097:Trans-Fly
7763:Yeniseian
7750:Tyrsenian
7644:Dravidian
7362:Pre-Vedic
7352:Pre-Greek
7324:Substrata
7227:Arunachal
7125:Nostratic
7110:Alarodian
7045:Yeniseian
6895:East Asia
6847:Dravidian
6704:West Asia
6672:Tyrsenian
6405:Phonology
6323:Hyangchal
6229:Koryo-mar
5307:133125509
4888:日本語系統論の現在
4858:Routledge
4671:, Brill,
3689:Yi (2014)
3629:Yi (2014)
2284:The name
1723:Nostratic
1572:aspirated
1071:harmony.
660:Fricative
550:Phonology
504:Kyŏnghŭng
395:Koryo-mar
344:Pyongyang
118:Glottolog
48:Manchuria
9505:Koreanic
9500:Tungusic
9495:Mongolic
9483:Families
9375:See also
9352:Isolates
9327:Japanese
9267:Yuracaré
9149:Candoshi
9108:Macro-Jê
9073:Zaparoan
9068:Zamucoan
9058:Witotoan
9041:Tucanoan
9036:Tiniguan
9031:Timotean
9015:Quechuan
8984:Matacoan
8979:Mascoian
8969:Jivaroan
8932:Chibchan
8926:Charruan
8877:Arawakan
8814:Isolates
8745:Chibchan
8621:Isolates
8593:Wakashan
8554:Salishan
8496:Eskaleut
8402:Giimbiyu
8394:Isolates
8303:Jarrakan
8298:Iwaidjan
8155:Isolates
8009:Kutubuan
7877:Sumerian
7813:Isolates
7768:Yukaghir
7737:Tungusic
7703:Mongolic
7691:Koreanic
7650:Eskaleut
7541:Isolates
7525:Ubangian
7357:Vasconic
7332:Atlantic
7086:Eskaleut
7040:Yukaghir
6955:Koreanic
6950:Tungusic
6945:Mongolic
6883:Harappan
6794:Caucasus
6776:Sumerian
6651:Ligurian
6500:Konglish
6431:Pronouns
6421:Numerals
6115:Dialects
6089:Pyojuneo
6075:Standard
5970:Goguryeo
5447:(2009),
5317:(1991),
5177:(1992),
5117:(1994),
5109:: 75–86.
4998:(1983),
4912:(1996),
4667:(2004),
2306:century.
2130:Tungusic
2051:Tungusic
2011:Byeonhan
1996:Tungusic
1975:in 244.
1973:Goguryeo
1860:Ryukyuan
1791:typology
1774:Tungusic
1711:Mongolic
1707:Tungusic
1663:Tungusic
1654:Mongolic
1429:ʔjit-kip
1353:da(ŋ)-ʂy
1107:marker *
794:lenition
571:Alveolar
566:Bilabial
516:Hoeryŏng
508:Kyŏngwŏn
399:Sakhalin
253:Hamgyŏng
196:Tungusic
145:Koreanic
124:kore1284
108:Goguryeo
33:Koreanic
18:Koreanic
9510:Japonic
9425:italics
9402:Pidgins
9387:Creoles
9337:Swedish
9305:Chinese
9252:Urarina
9237:Puinave
9191:Itonama
9185:Irantxe
9154:Chimane
9084:Chimuan
8989:Nadahup
8908:Cariban
8888:Aymaran
8849:America
8691:Waikuri
8684:Tonkawa
8677:Timucua
8670:Takelma
8663:Siuslaw
8652:Kutenai
8636:Esselen
8599:Wintuan
8560:Shastan
8531:Na-Dene
8519:Maiduan
8456:Caddoan
8430:America
8384:Wagiman
8382:(incl.
8353:Tangkic
8293:Garawan
8266:Bunuban
8227:Tambora
8194:Maybrat
8162:Abinomn
8085:Teberan
8046:Pauwasi
8036:Mairasi
8004:Kiwaian
7884:Tambora
7870:Shompen
7852:Kusunda
7845:Kenaboi
7831:Elamite
7803:Siangic
7785:Kho-Bwa
7779:Hrusish
7697:Kra–Dai
7681:Japonic
7590:Eurasia
7565:Sandawe
7548:Bangime
7513:Songhay
7392:italics
7290:Austric
7267:Kho-Bwa
7262:Hrusish
7240:Siangic
7182:Karasuk
7082: ?
6995:Kenaboi
6960:Japonic
6925:Kra–Dai
6886: ?
6877:Kusunda
6783:Elamite
6755:Kassite
6741:Kaskian
6644:Camunic
6616:Iberian
6573:Eurasia
6464:Hyangga
6396:Grammar
6377:Revised
6318:Gugyeol
6103:Munhwaŏ
5990:Ye-Maek
5911:History
5844:Chinese
5622:Bibcode
5593:(ed.),
4852:(ed.),
2245:to the
2188:Jurchen
2138:Japonic
1810:Japonic
1719:Japonic
1680:Japonic
1584:voicing
1505:ʔja-xaw
1472:jətɨ́lp
1467:jit-tap
1231:du-buaj
1177:hət(V)-
1142:'you'.
1099:suffix
1051:syncope
896:Central
576:Palatal
520:Puryŏng
495:Yukchin
486:Jurchen
472:Yukchin
455:Yukchin
371:Yanbian
357:in the
315:hyangga
235:form a
9490:Turkic
9300:BANZSL
9262:Yamana
9247:Trumai
9216:Movima
9170:Fulniô
9133:Aikanã
9047:Tupian
8942:Chonan
8866:Arauan
8804:Xincan
8756:Lencan
8709:Yokuts
8606:Yukian
8571:Tanoan
8566:Siouan
8549:Pomoan
8490:Coosan
8316:Mirndi
8209:Porome
8204:Pawaia
8058:Senagi
8030:Madang
7979:Eleman
7934:Border
7865:Nihali
7858:Minoan
7838:Hattic
7820:Basque
7791:Mijiic
7773:Digaro
7757:Uralic
7743:Turkic
7594:Europe
7451:Africa
7252:Mijiic
7245:Digaro
7192:Pontic
7120:Borean
7115:Altaic
7079:Rouran
7072:Turkic
7065:Uralic
7054:Other
6939:Turkic
6867:Nihali
6762:Gutian
6734:Hattic
6727:Turkic
6693:Minoan
6665:Sicani
6610:Basque
6604:Turkic
6597:Uralic
6581:Europe
6296:Hangul
6048:Joseon
6030:Joseon
6014:Joseon
6011:Goryeo
5955:Baekje
5828:
5785:
5766:
5747:
5728:
5709:
5658:
5601:
5578:
5549:
5530:
5490:
5455:
5433:
5401:
5382:
5363:
5344:
5325:
5305:
5274:
5255:
5223:
5204:
5185:
5163:
5144:
5125:
5025:
5006:
4984:Hangul
4920:
4864:
4834:
4815:
4789:
4740:Weilüe
4721:
4675:
2205:Baekje
2192:Manchu
2134:Korean
2087:, the
2085:Baekje
2069:, and
2027:Zhōuhú
2015:Jinhan
2003:Samhan
1949:Lelang
1870:Others
1804:Manchu
1778:Yemaek
1733:Altaic
1717:) and
1715:Turkic
1703:Altaic
1692:
1687:
1685:
1678:
1676:
1670:
1661:
1659:
1652:
1650:
1645:Turkic
1643:
1641:
1455:jətərp
1434:nilkúp
1417:nirkup
1396:jəsɨ́s
1391:jit-ʂy
1358:tasʌ́s
1193:ɣa-dun
1134:'I', *
1006:>
985:>
973:>
961:>
942:>
930:>
918:>
512:Onsŏng
482:Sejong
280:Hangul
222:Korean
169:Hangul
153:Korean
99:Baekje
91:Yukjin
81:Korean
9257:Warao
9226:Nukak
9197:Kunza
9175:Guató
9164:Cofán
9144:Camsá
8937:Choco
8898:Boran
8847:South
8828:Huave
8763:Mayan
8714:Yuchi
8697:Washo
8647:Karuk
8642:Haida
8581:Utian
8513:Keres
8450:Alsea
8443:Algic
8428:North
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