585:, Nicholas Bennet wrote in May 1816 that "all was froze" and the hills were "barren like winter". Temperatures fell below freezing almost every day in May. The ground froze on June 9; on June 12, the Shakers had to replant crops destroyed by the cold. On July 7, it was so cold that all of their crops had stopped growing. Salem, Massachusetts physician Edward Holyoke—a weather observer and amateur astronomer—while in Franconia, New Hampshire, wrote on June 7, "exceedingly cold. Ground frozen hard, and squalls of snow through the day. Icicles 12 inches long in the shade of noon day." After a lull, by August 17, Holyoke noted an abrupt change from summer to winter by August 21, when a meager bean and corn crop were killed. "The fields," he wrote, "were as empty and white as October." The
715:
671:. By this circumstance all the streams had been dried up, the cattle were dying or dead, and all the population emigrating to the borders of the great rivers in search of water. The greatest distress prevailed, provisions were wanting, and the mills completely at a stand. They have no windmills, so that no corn could be ground. Vessels have been sent from Pernambuco to the United States to fetch flour, and what had tended to increase this distress was the interruption of the coasting trade through the dread of war with
566:, frost was reported five nights in a row in late June, causing extensive crop damage. Though fruit and vegetable crops survived in New England, corn was reported to have ripened so poorly that no more than a quarter of it was usable for food, and much of it was moldy and not even fit for animal feed. The crop failures in New England, Canada, and parts of Europe caused food prices to rise sharply. In Canada, Quebec ran out of bread and milk, and Nova Scotians found themselves boiling foraged herbs for sustenance.
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It is now the middle of July, and we have not yet had what could properly be called summer. Easterly winds have prevailed for nearly three months past ... the sun during that time has generally been obscured and the sky overcast with clouds; the air has been damp and uncomfortable, and frequently so
597:
prices high and the poorer class of people were often in straits for want of food. It must be remembered that the granaries of the great west had not then been opened to us by railroad communication, and people were obliged to rely upon their own resources or upon others in their immediate locality.
487:
record reported the eleventh coldest year on record since 1659, as well as the third coldest summer and the coldest July on record. Widespread flooding of Europe's major rivers is attributed to the event, as is frost in August. Hungary experienced snowfall colored brown by volcanic ash; in northern
734:
in the atmosphere caused a haze to hang over the sky for several years after the eruption, and created rich red hues in sunsets. Paintings during the years before and after seem to confirm that these striking reds were not present before Mount
Tambora's eruption, and depict moodier, darker scenes,
533:
The weather was not in itself a hardship for those accustomed to long winters. Hardship came from the weather's effect on crops and thus on the supply of food and firewood. The consequences were felt most strongly at higher elevations, where farming was already difficult even in good years. In May
319:
region have been found, though conditions from surrounding areas have implied above-normal rainfall. Below the Sahel, the coastal regions of West Africa likely experienced below-normal levels of precipitation. Severe storms affected the South
African coast during the Southern Hemisphere winter. On
2263:, 1792–1795, a single route of 62 miles; "it seems impossible to ascribe to the turnpike movement in the years before 1810 any significant improvement in the methods of land transportation in southern New England, or any considerable reduction in the cost of land carriage" (Percy Wells Bidwell, "
2159:
Sarah Snell Bryant diary, 1816 Remarks, original at
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Samuel Griswold Goodrich, Recollections of a Lifetime (New York: Auburn, Miller, Orton, and Mulligan, 1857), 2: 78–79, quoted in Glendyne R. Wergland, One Shaker Life: Isaac Newton Youngs, 1793–1865
1104:
and parts of the
Northeast. Every month in 1992 except for January and February was colder than normal. More rain than normal fell across the West Coast of the United States, particularly California, during the 1991–1992 and 1992–1993 rainy seasons. The American Midwest experienced more rain and
770:
A 2007 study analyzing paintings created between the years 1500 and 1900 around the times of notable volcanic events found a correlation between volcanic activity and the amount of red used in the painting. High levels of tephra in the atmosphere led to spectacular sunsets during this period, as
596:
Severe frosts occurred every month; June 7th and 8th snow fell, and it was so cold that crops were cut down, even freezing the roots ... In the early Autumn when corn was in the milk it was so thoroughly frozen that it never ripened and was scarcely worth harvesting. Breadstuffs were scarce and
1082:, was responsible for up to hundreds of thousands of fatalities throughout the Northern Hemisphere (over 25,000 in England alone), and one of the coldest winters ever recorded in North America, 1783–1784; long-term consequences included poverty and famine that may have contributed to the
647:
in 1815 to 92¢ per bushel in 1816. Crop failures were aggravated by inadequate transportation infrastructure; with few roads or navigable inland waterways and no railroads, it was prohibitively expensive to import food in most of the country.
618:, sustained crop failures that sent him further into debt. On September 13, a Virginia newspaper reported that corn crops would be one half to two-thirds short and lamented that "the cold as well as the drought has nipt the buds of hope". A
307:(0.1) to date since records on solar activity began. It is not yet known, however, if and how changes in solar activity affect Earth's climate, and this correlation does not prove that lower solar activity produces global cooling.
609:
on August 20 and 21. Rapid, dramatic temperature swings were common, with temperatures sometimes reverting from normal or above-normal summer temperatures as high as 95 °F (35 °C) to near-freezing within hours.
155:
Countries such as Great
Britain, Ireland, and France experienced significant hardship, with food riots and famine becoming common. The situation was exacerbated by the fact that Europe was still recovering from the
923:
use and intellectual conversations. After listening intently to one of these conversations, she awoke with the image of Victor
Frankenstein kneeling over his monstrous creation, and thus was inspired to write
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caused average
Northern Hemisphere summer temperatures to fall by as much as 1.2 °C (2.2 °F). One of the wettest rainy seasons in recorded history followed in California during 1883–1884.
292:, it had already caused considerable agricultural distress in Europe. The eruption of Tambora occurred near the end of the Little Ice Age, exacerbating the background global cooling of the period.
445:
As a result of the series of volcanic eruptions in the 1810s, crops had been poor for several years; the final blow came in 1815 with the eruption of
Tambora. Europe, still recuperating from the
932:" by a single day when "the fowls all went to roost at noon and candles had to be lit as at midnight". The imagery in the poem is starkly similar to the conditions of the Year Without a Summer:
174:, leading to food shortages and economic distress. These conditions forced many families to leave their homes in search of better farming opportunities, contributing to the westward expansion.
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285:, the 1815 Tambora eruption caused a temporary drop in the Earth's average land temperature of about one degree Celsius; smaller temperature drops were recorded from the 1812–1814 eruptions.
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alone experienced a decrease in population of between 10,000 and 15,000 in 1816 and 1817, erasing seven previous years of population growth. Among those who left
Vermont were the family of
480:
epidemics occurred in parts of Europe, including
Ireland, Italy, Switzerland, and Scotland, precipitated by the famine. More than 65,000 people died as the disease spread out of Ireland.
2178:
Nicholas Bennet, Domestic Journal, May–September 1816, Western Reserve Historical Society ms. V: B-68, quoted in Wergland, One Shaker Life: Isaac Newton Youngs, 1793–1865, chapter 2.
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of the 8th of Feb. , which state that a most uncommon drought has been experienced in the tropical regions of the Brazils, or that part of the country between Pernambuco and
469:
took place in many European cities. Though riots were common during times of hunger, the food riots of 1816 and 1817 were the most violent period on the continent since the
1219:
Schurer, Andrew P.; Hegerl, Gabriele C.; Luterbacher, Jürg; Brönnimann, Stefan; Cowan, Tim; Tett, Simon F. B.; Zanchettin, Davide; Timmreck, Claudia (September 17, 2019).
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because of severe climate abnormalities that caused average global temperatures to decrease by 0.4–0.7 °C (0.7–1 °F). Summer temperatures in Europe were the
863:
2169:
Edward Holyoke, journal, 1816, in Soon, W., and Yaskell, S.H., Year Without a Summer, Mercury, Vol. 32, No. 3, Astronomical Society of the Pacific, May/June, 2003.
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1853:
Dai, Jihong; Mosley-Thompson, Ellen; Thompson, Lonnie G. (1991). "Ice core evidence for an explosive tropical volcanic eruption six years preceding Tambora".
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These eruptions had built up a substantial amount of atmospheric dust, and thus temperatures fell worldwide as the airborne material blocked sunlight in the
519:
In the spring and summer of 1816, a persistent "dry fog" was observed in parts of the eastern United States. The fog reddened and dimmed sunlight such that
2428:
449:, suffered from widespread food shortages, resulting in its worst famine of the century. Low temperatures and heavy rains resulted in failed harvests in
2543:
2196:
2081:
Oppenheimer, Clive (2003), "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815",
1508:
Clive Oppenheimer (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815".
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were visible to the naked eye. Neither wind nor rainfall dispersed the "fog", retrospectively characterized by Clive Oppenheimer as a "stratospheric
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1620:
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in the Philippines. The significant amount of volcanic ash and gases released into the atmosphere blocked sunlight, leading to global cooling.
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rose sharply throughout Europe. With the cause of the problems unknown, hungry people demonstrated in front of grain markets and bakeries.
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1969:"The 'year without a summer' in 1816 produced massive famines and helped stimulate the emergence of the administrative state", observes
511:'s efforts to drain the growing lake, the ice dam collapsed catastrophically in June 1818, killing forty people in the resulting flood.
170:, a persistent "dry fog" dimmed the sunlight, causing unusual cold and frost throughout the summer months. Crops failed in regions like
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144:(modern-day Indonesia). This eruption was the largest in at least 1,300 years (after the hypothesized eruption causing the
2896:
2494:
1439:; Black, Parbury, and Allen for the Hon. East India Company 1817; reprinted in the Cambridge Library Collection, 2010.
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that they had read, Lord Byron proposed a contest to see who could write the scariest story, leading Shelley to write
777:
759:
484:
70:
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Maryland experienced brown, bluish, and yellow snowfall in April and May, colored by volcanic ash in the atmosphere.
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of 1782–1788, cold damaged crops, but no crop failures were reported and there was no adverse effect on population.
288:
The Earth had already been in a centuries-long period of cooling that began in the 14th century. Known today as the
2906:
2855:
2485:
1049:
214:
2926:
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1090:
782:
2126:"Weather Doctor's Weather People and History: Eighteen Hundred and Froze To Death, The Year There Was No Summer"
1728:
1703:
1101:
1071:); 1601 consisted of a bitterly cold winter, a cold, frosty, nonexistent spring, and a cool, cloudy, wet summer
816:
2420:
2916:
972:
2259:, "Commencement of the Turnpike and Bridge Era", 1888:27 notes that the very first artificial road was the
2188:
1804:
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and the People's Republic of China, in 969 (± 20 years), is thought to have had a role in the downfall of
1005:
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687:
361:
240:
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145:
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1807:
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The Year Without a Summer was an agricultural disaster; historian John D. Post called it "the last great
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Byron, George Gordon Noel Byron, sixth Bar (December 5, 1816), McGann, Jerome J. (ed.), "301 Darkness",
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reported fields disrupted by frost and conscripts deserting as a result. Summer snowfall or otherwise
2823:
2371:"Atmospheric effects of volcanic eruptions as seen by famous artists and depicted in their paintings"
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1862:
1715:
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major flooding during the spring and summer of 1993. This may also have contributed to the historic "
874:
836:
563:
85:
1987:
Warde, Paul; Fagan, Brian (January 2002). "The Little Ice Age. How Climate Made History 1300–1850".
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in 1991 led to odd weather patterns and temporary cooling in the United States, particularly in the
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349:
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126:
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Ljungqvist, F. C.; Krusic, P. J.; Sundqvist, H. S.; Zorita, E.; Brattström, G.; Frank, D. (2016).
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2626:
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Zerefos, C. S.; Gerogiannis, V. T.; Balis, D.; Zerefos, S. C.; Kazantzidis, A. (April 16, 2007).
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2020:
2012:
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material into the atmosphere. It remains the most recent confirmed VEI-7 eruption to date.
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The Year Without Summer: 1816 and the Volcano that Darkened the World and Changed History
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Tambora, Indonesian Volcano (Tambora Volcano Part I): Tambora: The Year Without A Summer
1236:
1181:
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391:, the delayed summer monsoon caused late torrential rains that aggravated the spread of
2189:"When should sweet corn be harvested? | Mississippi State University Extension Service"
1137:
1131:
1125:
1097:
1067:, caused 1601 to be the coldest year in the Northern Hemisphere for six centuries (see
919:. These days inside Villa Diodati, remembered fondly by Mary Shelley, were occupied by
815:
The crop failures of the "Year without a Summer" may have shaped the settlement of the
668:
457:. Famine was prevalent in north and southwest Ireland, following the failure of wheat,
341:
300:
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289:
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1908:
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between 1766 and 2000, resulting in crop failures and major food shortages across the
2870:
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2024:
1537:
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1168:
Stothers, Richard B. (1984). "The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath".
1038:
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in the Western world". The climatic aberrations of 1816 had their greatest effect on
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55:
17:
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in search of a more hospitable climate, richer soil, and better growing conditions.
800:
to research new ways of horseless transportation, which led to the invention of the
46:
1816 summer temperature anomaly compared with average temperatures from 1971 to 2000
2584:
2544:"Did a volcanic eruption in Indonesia really lead to the creation of Frankenstein?"
2217:
William G. Atkins, History of Hawley (West Cummington, Massachusetts (1887), p. 86.
1882:
1592:
1060:
1008:
has been linked to the effects of a volcanic eruption, possibly at Krakatoa, or of
895:
870:
851:
840:
775:, and may have given rise to the yellow tinge predominant in his paintings such as
672:
602:
508:
381:
278:
257:
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601:
In July and August, lake and river ice was observed as far south as northwestern
2622:
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1970:
1914:
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1024:
1016:
909:
862:. This move precipitated the series of events that culminated in Smith founding
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417:
304:
271:
187:
171:
1245:
1220:
659:
A newspaper account of northeastern Brazil was published in the United Kingdom:
589:
saw frost again on August 23, as did much of New England and upstate New York.
148:); its effect on the climate may have been exacerbated by the 1814 eruption of
2102:
1529:
960:
900:
878:
805:
797:
697:
664:
615:
586:
570:
2399:
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2324:
2160:(Amherst, Massachusetts: University of Massachusetts Press, 2006), chapter 2.
2008:
1737:
1482:
1264:
1140: – Climatic cooling after the Medieval Warm Period (16th–19th centuries)
224:
Other large volcanic eruptions (of at least VEI-4) around this time include:
217:(VEI) ranking of 7, and ejected at least 37 km (8.9 cu mi) of
2851:
2480:
1756:
Fudan Journal (Social Sciences) No. 1 2005, archived on March 26, 2009 from
982:
956:
869:
In June 1816, "incessant rainfall" during the "wet, ungenial summer" forced
819:, as many thousands of people left New England for western New York and the
466:
429:
425:
321:
247:
93:
1584:
1197:
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American Beacon (Norfolk, Virginia), Vol. II, Issue 124 (July 4, 1816), 3.
1553:"Why does the stratosphere cool when the troposphere warms? " RealClimate"
1009:
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801:
606:
373:
1754:
Serious Famine in Yunnan (1815–1817) and the Eruption of Tambola Volcano
1576:
407:. In Bengal, abnormal cold and snow was reported in the winter monsoon.
41:
2235:"Crops," American Beacon (Norfolk, Virginia), September 13, 1816, p. 3.
2016:
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season in China was disrupted, resulting in overwhelming floods in the
337:
210:
1874:
796:
The lack of oats to feed horses may have inspired the German inventor
436:
occurred before 1810. The peak after 1815 was caused by Mount Tambora.
201:
The main cause of the Year Without a Summer is generally held to be a
1221:"Disentangling the causes of the 1816 European year without a summer"
1134: – Discredited 1970s hypothesis of imminent cooling of the Earth
1042:
1028:
731:
644:
636:
477:
404:
400:
396:
377:
2315:
2039:"Met Office Hadley Centre Central England Temperature Data Download"
2000:
1668:"Dalton minimum | solar phenomenon [1790–1830] | Britannica"
1638:"Environmental History Resources – The Little Ice Age, c. 1300–1870"
1935:
Volcano weather : the story of 1816, the year without a summer
631:
Regional farmers succeeded in bringing some crops to maturity, but
920:
753:
632:
592:
Massachusetts historian William G. Atkins summed up the disaster:
577:, wrote in her diary: "Weather backward." At the Church Family of
535:
416:
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In Japan, which was still cautious after the cold-weather-related
388:
357:
316:
149:
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Columbian Register (New Haven, Connecticut), July 27, 1816, p. 2.
977:
The 1628–1626 BC climate disturbances, usually attributed to the
1075:
640:
325:
114:
2861:
458:
2226:
American Beacon (Norfolk, Virginia), September 9, 1816, p. 3.
1913:. Oliver Wendell Holmes Library Phillips Academy. New York,:
1910:
The Little Ice Age : how climate made history, 1300–1850
1146: – Lost village and culture on Sumbawa Island, Indonesia
108:
that dropped temperatures by 0.4–0.7°C (or 0.7–1°F) worldwide
2276:
Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences
1001:(sometimes referred to as the Taupō eruption), around AD 180
1729:
10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077<2077:SLAYWA>2.0.CO;2
2256:
Development of Transportation Systems in the United States
663:
By an arrival at Liverpool we have received accounts from
2679:, vol. 4, Oxford University Press, pp. 41–460,
955:, a chemist who had experienced the famine as a child in
1308:. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.
959:, later studied plant nutrition and introduced mineral
627:
chilling as to render the fireside a desirable retreat.
132:
Evidence suggests that the anomaly was predominantly a
2723:
The last great subsistence crisis in the western world
1306:
The last great subsistence crisis in the Western World
1128: – Period of low solar activity from 1790 to 1830
839:
of upstate New York was responsible for centering the
1364:"Is the Meghalayan Event a Tipping Point in Geology?"
1122: – Large volcanic eruption of uncertain location
1800:
1798:
1449:
Kandlbauer, J.; Sparks, R. S. J. (October 1, 2014).
495:, the summers of 1816 and 1817 were so cold that an
1451:"New estimates of the 1815 Tambora eruption volume"
991:of about 1200 BC, contemporary with the historical
100:
81:
69:
61:
51:
34:
2767:
1975:Earth in the Balance: Ecology and the human spirit
1956:
1954:
781:(1828). Similar phenomena were observed after the
538:killed off most crops in the higher elevations of
2349:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
1704:"Ships' Logbooks and "The Year Without a Summer""
614:, by then retired from politics to his estate at
2766:Klingaman, William; Klingaman, Nicholas (2013).
1109:" on the Atlantic Coast in March that same year.
947:Morn came and went—and came, and brought no day
907:", which Polidori later used as inspiration for
735:even in the light of both the sun and the moon.
320:July 29–30, 1816, a violent storm occurred near
2063:The flood is fully described in Jean M. Grove,
1708:Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society
945:Swung blind and blackening in the moonless air;
934:
889:for much of their Swiss holiday. Inspired by a
864:the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
2747:The climatic effects of the 1783 Laki eruption
1455:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
1052:has been implicated in events surrounding the
939:The bright sun was extinguish'd, and the stars
166:also faced extreme weather conditions. In the
2378:Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions
1422:, Indodigest, archived on June 15, 2006 from
1327:
1325:
928:. Lord Byron was inspired to write the poem "
324:, which brought forceful northerly winds and
8:
2820:Tambora: the eruption that changed the world
2706:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1855:Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
2822:. Princeton University Press. p. 293.
2793:Soon, Willie; Yaskell, Steven (June 2003).
303:from 1790 to 1830. May 1816 had the lowest
488:Italy, red snow fell throughout the year.
380:helped reverse the fortunes of the ruling
40:
2389:
2314:
1749:
1747:
1727:
1254:
1244:
941:Did wander darkling in the eternal space,
937:I had a dream, which was not all a dream.
315:No direct evidence for conditions in the
2774:. New York: St. Martin's Press. p.
2646:"The Diary of Dr. John William Polidori"
2475:
2473:
2471:
2454:. White Plains, New York: M. E. Sharpe.
2299:"Paintings in the Year Without a Summer"
1779:(in Traditional Chinese). Archived from
1702:Chenoweth, Michael (September 1, 1996).
943:Rayless, and pathless, and the icy earth
846:According to historian L. D. Stillwell,
2749:, pp. 58–77 in C. R. Harrington (Ed.),
2677:Lord Byron: The Complete Poetical Works
2634:July 30, 2009. Retrieved April 27, 2015
2517:"Joseph Smith Jr. – Significant Events"
1769:Broad, William J. (September 2, 2015).
1160:
885:, and their friends to stay indoors at
831:did two years later. British historian
690:paintings before and after the eruption
639:prices rose dramatically. The price of
160:, adding to the socio-economic stress.
2699:
2656:from the original on December 22, 2018
2554:from the original on December 17, 2023
2431:from the original on December 15, 2019
2342:
2045:from the original on November 22, 2020
1678:from the original on September 4, 2022
1648:from the original on February 18, 2012
1599:from the original on September 2, 2017
835:has suggested that migration into the
328:and caused severe damage to shipping.
31:
2725:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Pr.
2579:
2577:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2569:
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1928:
1926:
1924:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1896:
1894:
1892:
1697:
1695:
1693:
1400:from the original on January 17, 2018
827:became a state in December 1816, and
352:was reported in various locations in
295:This period also occurred during the
7:
2753:. Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa.
2409:from the original on March 13, 2020.
1618:Berkeley Earth Releases New Analysis
1279:"Saint John New Brunswick Time Date"
751:(1817) indicate this shift of mood.
507:, creating a lake. Despite engineer
2932:Weather events in the United States
2542:Marshall, Alan (January 24, 2020).
2497:from the original on April 21, 2016
2452:The Emergence of a National Economy
2297:Hubbard, Zachary (April 30, 2019).
2261:Philadelphia and Lancaster Turnpike
2065:Little Ice Ages, Ancient and Modern
1644:. Environmental History Resources.
1344:from the original on March 15, 2022
1281:. New-brunswick.net. Archived from
2124:Heidorn, Keith C. (July 1, 2000).
1370:from the original on July 23, 2018
891:collection of German ghost stories
281:. According to a 2012 analysis by
65:Eruption occurred on 10 April 1815
27:1816 volcanic winter climate event
25:
2591:. Random House. pp. xv–xvi.
2481:"1816, the Year Without a Summer"
2331:from the original on May 29, 2024
2199:from the original on May 29, 2024
2071:1988) revised edition. 2004: 161.
1489:from the original on May 29, 2024
643:, for example, rose from 12¢ per
232:in the southwestern Pacific Ocean
1563:(7597). Realclimate.org: 94–98.
1475:10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.08.020
713:
696:
2852:1816, the Year Without a Summer
2319:(inactive September 12, 2024).
2128:. Islandnet.com. Archived from
1828:"夏のない年 from turning-point.info"
791:1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
787:West Coast of the United States
2912:Events that forced the climate
2685:10.1093/oseo/instance.00072952
2083:Progress in Physical Geography
1510:Progress in Physical Geography
1225:Environmental Research Letters
1150:Timeline of volcanism on Earth
138:1815 eruption of Mount Tambora
1:
1435:Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles:
1190:10.1126/science.224.4654.1191
771:depicted in the paintings of
499:formed below a tongue of the
476:Between 1816 and 1819, major
299:, a period of relatively low
2902:19th-century volcanic events
2265:Rural Economy in New England
372:, and frost was reported in
136:event caused by the massive
1805:Facts – Year Without Summer
1390:"The Year Without a Summer"
1069:Russian famine of 1601–1603
485:Central England temperature
2948:
2751:The Year Without a Summer?
2486:In Our Time (radio series)
1050:1452/1453 mystery eruption
554:. On June 6, snow fell in
376:. A large-scale famine in
215:volcanic explosivity index
205:created by the April 1815
2617:February 3, 2017, at the
2519:. Lds.org. Archived from
2103:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra
1623:October 21, 2012, at the
1530:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra
1256:21.11116/0000-0004-B878-6
1091:1883 eruption of Krakatoa
783:1883 eruption of Krakatoa
207:eruption of Mount Tambora
39:
2877:1816 in economic history
2644:Polidori, John William.
2450:Nettels, Curtis (1977).
2421:"Brimstone and bicycles"
2391:10.5194/acpd-7-5145-2007
1907:Fagan, Brian M. (2000).
1861:(D9): 17, 361–317, 366.
1246:10.1088/1748-9326/ab3a10
817:Midwestern United States
605:. Frost was reported in
250:in the Sangihe Islands,
123:coldest of any on record
2892:19th-century cold waves
2795:"Year Without a Summer"
1933:Stommel, Henry (1983).
569:Sarah Snell Bryant, of
461:, and potato harvests.
395:from a region near the
364:, snow was reported in
2887:1816 natural disasters
2721:Post, John D. (1977).
2612:Why Vampires Never Die
2253:John Luther Ringwalt,
1810:March 8, 2020, at the
1304:Post, John D. (1977).
1054:Fall of Constantinople
950:
767:
737:Caspar David Friedrich
688:Caspar David Friedrich
677:
629:
622:, newspaper reported:
599:
437:
146:volcanic winter of 536
2818:Wood, Gillen (2014).
2270:May 29, 2024, at the
2193:extension.msstate.edu
1989:Environmental History
1834:on September 11, 2019
1334:"Blast from the Past"
1120:1458 mystery eruption
1035:1257 Samalas eruption
883:John William Polidori
841:abolitionist movement
808:, a precursor of the
757:
661:
624:
594:
583:New Lebanon, New York
420:
230:1808 mystery eruption
219:dense-rock equivalent
213:. The eruption had a
168:eastern United States
119:Year Without a Summer
35:Year Without a Summer
18:Yunnan Famine of 1816
2897:19th-century famines
2427:. January 29, 2005.
1937:. Seven Seas Press.
1783:on December 19, 2020
1338:Smithsonian Magazine
1107:Storm of the Century
875:Percy Bysshe Shelley
837:burned-over district
745:(ca. 1808–1810) and
564:Cape May, New Jersey
86:Lesser Sunda Islands
2828:2014tetc.book.....W
2095:2003PrPG...27..230O
1867:1991JGR....9617361D
1817:, Discovery Channel
1771:"200年前，那場火山爆發改變了世界"
1720:1996BAMS...77.2077C
1577:10.1038/nature17418
1569:2016Natur.532...94L
1522:2003PrPG...27..230O
1467:2014JVGR..286...93K
1394:www.bellrock.org.uk
1237:2019ERL....14i4019S
1182:1984Sci...224.1191S
1176:(4654): 1191–1198.
1023:between modern-day
993:Bronze Age collapse
821:Northwest Territory
742:The Monk by the Sea
704:The Monk by the Sea
412:Great Tenmei famine
350:mixed precipitation
127:Northern Hemisphere
2745:Wood, C.A. (1992)
2631:The New York Times
2627:Guillermo del Toro
2523:on August 28, 2004
2493:. April 21, 2016.
2132:on August 23, 2000
2069:The Little Ice Age
1672:www.britannica.com
1285:on January 9, 2017
768:
748:Two Men by the Sea
721:Two Men by the Sea
560:Dennysville, Maine
438:
184:subsistence crisis
2907:Anomalous weather
2732:978-0-8018-1850-9
2694:978-0-19-812756-7
2650:www.gutenberg.org
1960:Oppenheimer 2003.
1875:10.1029/91jd01634
1437:A History of Java
1366:. July 23, 2018.
1084:French Revolution
1041:on the island of
967:Comparable events
953:Justus von Liebig
913:– a precursor to
860:Palmyra, New York
854:, who moved from
620:Norfolk, Virginia
483:The long-running
471:French Revolution
424:concentration in
252:Dutch East Indies
142:Dutch East Indies
112:
111:
92:(now Republic of
90:Dutch East Indies
16:(Redirected from
2939:
2927:Volcanic winters
2882:1816 meteorology
2841:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2805:on April 2, 2015
2801:. Archived from
2789:
2773:
2754:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2718:
2712:
2711:
2705:
2697:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2661:
2641:
2635:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2581:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2559:
2548:The Conversation
2539:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2528:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2504:
2502:
2477:
2466:
2465:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2408:
2393:
2384:(2): 5145–5172.
2375:
2366:
2355:
2354:
2348:
2340:
2338:
2336:
2318:
2294:
2283:
2251:
2245:
2242:
2236:
2233:
2227:
2224:
2218:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2185:
2179:
2176:
2170:
2167:
2161:
2157:
2151:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2139:
2137:
2121:
2115:
2113:
2078:
2072:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2035:
2029:
2028:
1984:
1978:
1967:
1961:
1958:
1949:
1948:
1930:
1919:
1918:
1904:
1887:
1886:
1850:
1844:
1843:
1841:
1839:
1830:. Archived from
1824:
1818:
1802:
1793:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1766:
1760:
1751:
1742:
1741:
1731:
1714:(9): 2077–2094.
1699:
1688:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1664:
1658:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1642:eh-resources.org
1634:
1628:
1615:
1609:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1505:
1499:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1446:
1440:
1433:
1427:
1418:Tully, Anthony.
1416:
1410:
1409:
1407:
1405:
1386:
1380:
1379:
1377:
1375:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1349:
1329:
1320:
1319:
1301:
1295:
1294:
1292:
1290:
1275:
1269:
1268:
1258:
1248:
1216:
1210:
1209:
1165:
1096:The eruption of
989:Hekla 3 eruption
973:Toba catastrophe
856:Norwich, Vermont
843:in that region.
833:Lawrence Goldman
778:Chichester Canal
760:Chichester Canal
717:
700:
680:Societal effects
612:Thomas Jefferson
556:Albany, New York
552:upstate New York
434:unknown eruption
243:in the Caribbean
140:in April in the
117:is known as the
44:
32:
21:
2947:
2946:
2942:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2937:
2936:
2867:
2866:
2848:
2838:
2817:
2808:
2806:
2792:
2786:
2765:
2762:
2760:Further reading
2757:
2744:
2740:
2733:
2720:
2719:
2715:
2698:
2695:
2674:
2673:
2669:
2659:
2657:
2643:
2642:
2638:
2619:Wayback Machine
2610:
2606:
2599:
2583:
2582:
2567:
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2526:
2524:
2515:
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2419:
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2373:
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2367:
2358:
2341:
2334:
2332:
2316:10.21061/ph.173
2296:
2295:
2286:
2272:Wayback Machine
2252:
2248:
2243:
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2230:
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2133:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2080:
2079:
2075:
2062:
2058:
2048:
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2037:
2036:
2032:
2001:10.2307/3985463
1986:
1985:
1981:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1952:
1945:
1932:
1931:
1922:
1906:
1905:
1890:
1852:
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1847:
1837:
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1821:
1812:Wayback Machine
1803:
1796:
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1784:
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1763:
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1701:
1700:
1691:
1681:
1679:
1666:
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1661:
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1649:
1636:
1635:
1631:
1627:, July 29, 2012
1625:Wayback Machine
1616:
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1600:
1550:
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1492:
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1401:
1388:
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1371:
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1357:
1347:
1345:
1332:Evans, Robert.
1331:
1330:
1323:
1316:
1303:
1302:
1298:
1288:
1286:
1277:
1276:
1272:
1218:
1217:
1213:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1144:Tambora culture
1116:
1074:An eruption of
1059:An eruption of
1021:Paektu Mountain
999:Hatepe eruption
979:Minoan eruption
969:
949:
946:
944:
942:
940:
938:
773:J. M. W. Turner
765:J. M. W. Turner
730:High levels of
728:
727:
726:
725:
724:
718:
709:
708:
707:
706:(ca. 1808–1810)
701:
692:
691:
682:
657:
517:
447:Napoleonic Wars
443:
334:
313:
203:volcanic winter
192:Atlantic Canada
180:
158:Napoleonic Wars
134:volcanic winter
106:volcanic winter
47:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2945:
2943:
2935:
2934:
2929:
2924:
2919:
2917:Gothic fiction
2914:
2909:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2879:
2869:
2868:
2865:
2864:
2847:
2846:External links
2844:
2843:
2842:
2837:978-0691150543
2836:
2815:
2790:
2785:978-0312676452
2784:
2761:
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1920:
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1543:
1516:(2): 230–259.
1500:
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1428:
1411:
1381:
1355:
1321:
1315:978-0801818509
1314:
1296:
1270:
1211:
1159:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1152:
1147:
1141:
1138:Little Ice Age
1135:
1132:Global cooling
1129:
1126:Dalton Minimum
1123:
1115:
1112:
1111:
1110:
1098:Mount Pinatubo
1094:
1087:
1072:
1057:
1046:
1031:
1013:
1012:in El Salvador
1002:
995:
985:
975:
968:
965:
935:
789:following the
719:
712:
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710:
702:
695:
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693:
686:
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684:
683:
681:
678:
656:
653:
516:
513:
501:Giétro Glacier
442:
439:
342:Yangtze Valley
333:
330:
312:
309:
301:solar activity
297:Dalton Minimum
290:Little Ice Age
283:Berkeley Earth
275:
274:
264:
262:Ryukyu Islands
254:
244:
233:
196:Western Europe
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110:
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2598:0-679-60059-0
2594:
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2585:Shelley, Mary
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2461:0-87332-096-4
2457:
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2430:
2426:
2425:New Scientist
2422:
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1911:
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1860:
1856:
1849:
1846:
1838:September 28,
1833:
1829:
1823:
1820:
1816:
1815:Extreme Earth
1813:
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1356:
1343:
1340:. p. 2.
1339:
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1284:
1280:
1274:
1271:
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1238:
1234:
1231:(9): 094019.
1230:
1226:
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1212:
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1199:
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1040:
1039:Mount Rinjani
1036:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1011:
1007:
1006:winter of 536
1003:
1000:
996:
994:
990:
986:
984:
980:
976:
974:
971:
970:
966:
964:
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922:
918:
917:
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911:
906:
902:
898:
897:
892:
888:
887:Villa Diodati
884:
880:
876:
872:
867:
865:
861:
857:
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849:
844:
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834:
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