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169:, in which a new form of yellow rice was discovered. This led to a team of six researchers—Yoshito Kobayashi, K. Uraguchi, Masashi Miyake, Mamoru Saito, Takashi Tatsuno, and Makoto Enomoto—to pool resources in order to study this new type of yellow rice. After seven months, they discovered the presence of two different mycotoxins, one with a distinct yellow
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led to the strengthening of rice hygiene standards by the Rice
Utilization Institute, which later became the Food Control Bureau Institute. The collaborative investigations that followed the discoveries of each of the three yellow rice strains resulted in the founding of the Japanese Association for
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on toxicity. While thermal detoxification has shown promising results (heating citrinin with water at 130 °C can significantly decrease its effects), heating it too much can actually stimulate the production of more toxin chemicals. Spices, on the other hand, have been used for most of human
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The first mycotoxin was researched further by
Tatsuno and Shoji Shibata at the University of Tokyo and was eventually named luteoskyrin. The second toxin was much more difficult to assess, given its scarcity in comparison to luteoskyrin in the rice samples. Both Tatsuno and Shingo Marumo of
396:. Despite the lack of regulations, there have been various studies on how to reduce the growth of citrinin producing fungi and the subsequent production of citrinin. These studies have mainly focused on the thermal decontamination and detoxification of citrinin and the effects of
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should not be sold. There is no current worldwide legislation or guidelines on how much citrinin is allowed to be in grains due to its instability in foodstuffs. The lack of regulation of citrinin may also be due to the fact that while studies have shown that it does act as a
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Symposium on
Mycotoxins in Human Health: The Proceedings of a Symposium held in Pretoria from 2nd to 4th September 1970 under the auspices of the South African Medical Research Council with the collaboration of the South African Council for Scientific and Industrial
302:. The discovery of mycotoxins in rice led to the reinforcement of rice hygiene standards. This led to a drastic decrease in shoshin-kakke cases in Japan in the early 20th century. Initially, this decrease was thought to be the discovery of
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In order to test the effects of the
Islandia Yellow Rice, a study was conducted at the University of Tokyo by the researchers Kobayashi, Uraguchi, Miyake, Saito, Tatsuno, and Enomoto. These six researchers found that upon long-term
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has also been studied for its antimicrobial properties. In a 2013 study, a clove solution was shown to decrease citrinin production by approximately 60%. Not all spices and herbs have had this effect on citrinin production.
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Uraguchi, K.; Saito, M.; Noguchi, Y.; Takahashi, K.; Enomoto, M.; Tatsuno, T. (1972). "Chronic toxicity and carcinogenicity in mice of the purified mycotoxins, luteoskyrin and cyclochlorotine".
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proposed chemical structures for this elusive mycotoxin and upon further discussion, it was found that the two researchers had, in fact, discovered the same compound and subsequently named it
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Despite the lack of international regulation on mycotoxins in rice, the contamination scare following World War II did influence Japan's food safety guidelines. The discovery of
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Mycotoxicology in 1973. Due to these extensive efforts by researchers, no human deaths have been reported as a result of
Islandia Yellow Rice or Citrinum Yellow Rice.
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agents. This has led to several studies investigating whether spices and herbs can affect mycotoxins such as citrinin. One study has revealed that in the presence of
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In the aftermath of World War II, Japan was forced to import approximately 1 million pounds of rice from various countries. A large portion of this was from
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Xu, Bao-jun; Jia, Xiao-qin; Gu, Li-juan; Sung, Chang-keun (2006). "Review on the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the mycotoxin citrinin".
298:. Several mycotoxins had already been discovered, but these were grains that infected rice in the field rather than after harvest, such as
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604:"Effect of aqueous extracts of Mentha arvensis (mint) and Piper betle (betel) on growth and citrinin production from toxigenic
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116:). Citrinum yellow rice and Islandia yellow rice are not known to have caused any adverse effects in human populations.
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Aiko, Visenuo; Mehta, Alka (22 September 2013). "Inhibitory Effect of Clove (Syzygium aromaticum) on the Growth of
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agent, it is less toxic than other mycotoxins such as aflatoxin and ochratoxin. Citrinin does, however, have
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Hiroshi
Tsunoda discovered a third strain of yellow rice in 1951 and by 1954 had identified it in rice from
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by the
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then used the isolated compound to induce heart-attack paralysis in laboratory animals.
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Mycotoxins in rice was not an unknown problem in Japan before the discovery of
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species found in imported rice, with 20% of imports being contaminated.
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of rice tainted with the mycotoxins luteoskyrin and cyclochlorotine,
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and is thought to be one of the culprits involved in the
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Panda, Pragyanshree; Aiko, Visenuo; Mehta, Alka (2014).
188:Chemical structure of mycotoxin cyclochlorotine
108:in 1964, after the research was interrupted by
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45:. There might be a discussion about this on
180:Chemical structure of mycotoxin luteoskyrin
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367:found in rice, it was recommended to the
65:Learn how and when to remove this message
541:. The Macmillan Press LTD. p. 115.
350:Chemical structure of mycotoxin citrinin
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564:Food and Cosmetics Toxicology
100:), and Islandia yellow rice (
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662:and Citrinin Production".
394:Balkan endemic nephropathy
343:from the cyclochlorotine.
88:with different strains of
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363:Due to the high rates of
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137:rice and inferred that
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536:Ian, Purchase (1971).
355:Citrinum yellow rice (
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310:Islandia yellow rice (
205:Citrinum yellow rice (
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157:Islandia yellow rice (
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701:Agriculture in Japan
660:Penicillium citrinum
606:Penicillium citrinum
493:– via J-STAGE.
329:acute liver necrosis
269:was the most common
255:Penicillium citrinum
35:confusing or unclear
369:Japanese government
151:University of Tokyo
92:fungi—Yellow rice (
43:clarify the article
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41:Please help
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423:Piper betle
386:deleterious
382:hepatotoxic
378:nephrotoxic
373:P. citrinum
357:P. citrinum
333:tumorigenic
296:Penicillium
275:Penicillium
267:P. citrinum
207:P. citrinum
98:P. citrinum
90:Penicillium
690:Categories
443:References
259:metabolite
139:mycotoxins
37:to readers
483:: 19–23.
341:cirrhosis
321:ingestion
143:paralysis
120:Discovery
114:paralysis
55:July 2016
642:26028728
539:Research
430:Overview
365:citrinin
337:fibrosis
304:vitamins
263:citrinin
239:Colombia
633:4444863
584:4342127
390:kidneys
273:of the
261:called
243:Ecuador
235:America
219:Vietnam
171:pigment
84:grains
33:may be
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402:spices
281:Impact
135:molded
417:Clove
398:herbs
271:fungi
251:Japan
231:Spain
223:Burma
215:China
167:Egypt
106:Japan
638:PMID
580:PMID
543:ISBN
400:and
380:and
339:and
331:and
249:and
247:Peru
227:Iran
82:rice
672:doi
628:PMC
620:doi
572:doi
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