495:
528:, with its east side facing plains. Like many other capitals of the time, the city was built at the confluence of two rivers. The city was about 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) wide east to west, and 4,500 metres (14,800 ft) wide north to south. Of the cities walls, only the earthen foundation remains, but it is known that they ranged between being 18 metres (59 ft) and 34 metres (112 ft) wide. Two gates can be seen, one on the west side and the other on the north side. Four pounded-earth terraces were attached to the walls, some near the gates. A small hill, called Huangshan, is inside the walls, in the north section of the city. The
52:
602:
407:. For this reason, they were considered to be a "disease in the heart and belly" by the Zhao kings. From 307 BC on, Zhao attacked Zhongshan almost every year, until, in 301, the king of Zhongshan was forced to take refuge in Qi. During this time Qi declared war on and invaded Chu; seeing that Qi was occupied with a war of their own, Zhao pushed deep into Zhongshan, and fully conquered them.
228:(北狄), while others only list them as not being Zhou or Han. Zhongshan occupies roughly the same place as the earlier Xianyu state. The two countries, being Zhongshan and Xianyu, have a muddled history, as the term Zhongshan begins somewhat before the term Xianyu ends. Zhongshan, meaning central mountains, is first mentioned in 506
523:
The capital city, Lingshou contained many ruins, including the foundations of palaces, workshops for bronze and ceramic, marketplaces, and cemeteries. The cemeteries around
Lingshou contain some 125 tombs, and dozens more are scattered throughout the country. The city is believed to have been founded
559:
A key religious area, Guocun, was located some 4 kilometers southwest of
Lingshou, and contained 142 sacrificial pits. These pits were roughly 1.5 metres (4 ft 11 in) by 0.7 metres (2 ft 4 in) in area, and between 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) and 12 metres (39 ft) deep. In
532:
says that this hill is what gives the
Zhongshan, meaning "central mountain", their name. The hill is believed to have been used as a watchtower. For further fortification, a small city was built 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) to the east. This small city/fort was 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) by 1,050
502:
The tombs of the two kings, Cheng and Cuo, were the first find of any
Zhongshan architecture, and are considered the richest find of any Chinese state of the 4th century BC. They are the largest of any tombs of the Zhongshan to date. Both of their main chambers had been looted, however their storage
578:
The characters and style of
Zhongshan Chinese is closest to the Chinese of the Qi, but was also influenced by the more southern Chinese states. Their style of calligraphy were very slender and graceful, while also being very taut. It is believed that this style of calligraphy was chosen by King Cuo
284:
troops, led by general Yue Yang. It is said that Yue Yang's son was living in
Zhongshan when war was declared, and was taken hostage. He was paraded before Yue Yang in order to weaken morale, but when this failed, they killed his son and made him into stew, before sending part of said stew to Yue
247:
and Jin, the two states were located in almost exactly the same place, and there is no historical record of Xianyu being conquered. It is considered possible that the name change marks a transition from a loosely-controlled confederation of Di tribes, to a more centralized state. One challenge to
555:
The ideology of
Zhongshan was heavily influenced by Confucian ideals, but it is believed that these ideals were used by the King to legitimize his rule, and his foreign policy, rather than being truly believed by the ruling class. This can be seen in their use of Confucian ideology regarding the
378:
for himself, objected to this, saying: "I am ashamed to be a king if the ruler of
Zhongshan can be one too". He later went on to say: "I am a state of ten thousand chariots and Zhongshan is one of a thousand chariots, how dare she assume a title the equal of mine?". An important part of this
316:
credits this to shrewd diplomacy, saying: "In the rises and falls of the
Warring States, Zhongshan seems to be the unnoticed hub and lynchpin." Despite their small size, they demonstrated impressive resilience and strength; they are the only small nation to be given their own chapter in the
533:
metres (3,440 ft). The remains of the pounded earth and buildings of the centre-western part still stand. This city was used to defend the only angle from which to attack
Lingshou, which was clearly placed based upon military considerations, rather than economic or political.
260:, in which it states that the new state of Zhongshan came some time after this. Some theories postulate that this new state was a continuation of the earlier Xianyu, and others saying the ruling family of the new Zhongshan came from a line of the
288:
Zhongshan invaded Yan in 315, after Yan's king, Zi Kuai, abdicated his throne to his chancellor, Zi Zhi. Qi and Zhongshan both separately invaded Yan. Zhongshan seized copper mines in this war, which had previously belonged to the
415:
Due to commonality of finds of iron agricultural tools in the southern part of Zhongshan, compared to the commonality of animal skeletons in the northern part, it is believed that the southern land's economy was mostly
1809:
455:
coins of Zhao are rare, with only 100 of them, combined, found. This reflects the hostile relations Zhao had with Zhongshan, and the good relations Yan had with Zhongshan. Indeed, even the similarities of the
1804:
1799:
383:), which would very likely have been mentioned in the insult if it were true. The fact that Zhongshan was invited to the five state alliance is seen as another proof of them being Chinese, as a barbarian (
507:, with a few coming from the northern nomads, but the luxury goods were largely of the Zhongshan style. This split, between archeological evidence supporting the thesis that they were a Chinese people (
264:. Because of this, there is no definitive answer as to the ethnicity of Zhongshan, or even to the ethnicity of the royal family; however, it is known that the country's population was mixed.
464:
knife coins seems to suggest their friendly relationship, as they were of similar size and of equal weight, with both weighing fifteen grams, meaning that they would be interchangeable.
515:
minority, an outside group that has been heavily influenced by Chinese culture, and the other seeing them as a Chinese people that were influenced by non-Chinese, nomadic peoples.
387:) country would never be invited to such an alliance. After this, King Wei of Qi asked Wei and Zhao to join him in attacking Zhongshan, to force them to abolish their title of
566:
disk. These pits, and their contents, are very similar to the sacrificial pits of Jin, where they are believed to have been used ceremonially, to form "oaths of alliances" (
439:
The level of trade, and the relationship, Zhongshan had with other states can be roughly ascertained from the amount of a currency was found in the ruins of Lingshou: the
524:
in 380, and to have remained the capital until 296, when Zhongshan was conquered. The city is strategically placed, surrounded on its west, north and south sides by the
547:
describes Sikou to mean an officer in charge of penal codes and convicts, suggesting that Zhongshan's tile production was reliant on, at least in part, convict labor.
308:
Zhongshan was unusual in that despite being such a small nation, it managed to survive for a long time, considering that many countries, large and small, of the
1254:
560:
each of these pits, an animal, usually sheep, goats, or cattle, was found with its legs tied together, and was buried with a jade item, usually a pendant or
300:, finished a military reform, adopting the uniforms and tactics of the Hu nomads, they invaded Zhongshan. After ten years of war Zhao annexed them in 296.
494:
210:, which managed to survive for almost 120 years despite its small size. The origins of its founder are a matter of contention between scholars.
280:
BC, during the reign of Duke Wu, traditionally considered the founding of the country itself. Soon after this, in 407, Zhongshan was conquered by
503:
chambers were still intact, and contained a large number of artifacts. Many of these ritual vessels found in these tombs were from surrounding
51:
1219:
1200:
1181:
1162:
1143:
285:
Yang, which he drank in front of the Zhongshan messenger to show resolve. Shortly after, in 381, Zhongshan won its independence back.
1247:
511:), and textual sources claiming them as a non-Chinese people, has caused two fields of thought; one side seeing the Zhongshan as a
593:
the soldiers of Zhongshan wore iron armor, and wielded iron staffs. They were said to be able to field up to a thousand chariots.
319:
160:
1392:
220:
256:
gave the land to his eldest son Ji, and the state was based upon this. However this theory is contradicted by a line of the
1457:
436:, which took the form of a 15 gram bronze knife shaped coin. It is known that these coins were made in at least Lingshou.
1452:
1240:
570:). The connection of the two has been seen as evidence of a strong Jin cultural influence upon the elites of Zhongshan.
24:
1714:
1271:
243:
There are three reasons Zhongshan is often considered a continuation of Xianyu: Both had similar relationships with
403:
The state of Zhao surrounded Zhongshan almost entirely, with only Zhongshan's northeastern border being outside of
20:
1819:
1502:
1482:
541:
The official that was in charge of managing the tile-making workers in pottery workshops was called a Sikou. The
395:, to these states, and successfully sowed discord and distrust amongst them, and no such alliance was formed.
629:
379:
statement can be seen in his reason for denouncing them claiming kingship is not that they were non-Chinese (
1263:
483:
203:
1814:
1641:
634:
479:
309:
207:
96:
474:
1744:
1719:
1663:
1650:
610:
486:, and the capital city was found shortly after, in 1976, only a mile to the east of King Cuo's tomb.
339:
1552:
1432:
1427:
1306:
297:
253:
233:
1497:
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273:
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1177:
1158:
1139:
525:
472:
Much of the knowledge of Zhongshan architecture comes from the remains of their capital city,
331:
248:
this theory of continuation is that after Zhongshan was conquered in 407-406, by the state of
236:
minister, as a hostile neighboring state. The last mention of the Xianyu, meanwhile, is in 489
1602:
668:
589:
421:
366:
180:
1612:
67:
1537:
556:
ruler being heavenly mandated, in order to attack Yan, and seize cities and materials.
504:
371:
1793:
1764:
1729:
1582:
1487:
1477:
1442:
1356:
1326:
290:
293:, but which had been taken by Yan in war. Zhongshan's troops were led by Sima Zhou.
1739:
1734:
1688:
1607:
1592:
1587:
1572:
1567:
1557:
1532:
1517:
1397:
1382:
1331:
1296:
1174:
The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 B.C
343:
261:
153:
119:
1774:
1759:
1749:
1709:
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1678:
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359:
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249:
78:
1724:
1704:
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1507:
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1372:
1341:
1316:
1311:
355:
244:
1402:
561:
512:
443:
knife coins from Yan were plentiful, with some 374 being found, whereas the
240:
BC, when Zhao Yang, a Jin minister, leads a military campaign against them.
1232:
218:
The origin of the Zhongshan state is disputed; some sources, such as the
1622:
188:
185:
543:
193:
272:
The first major event of Zhongshan was the capital being placed at
1422:
1417:
674:
493:
225:
1754:
1597:
1236:
364:. This alliance allowed the states in it to claim the title of
857:
855:
1810:
States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century BC
482:. In the late 1970s, the tombs of both kings were found in
350:, in order to defend themselves against larger states like
1805:
States and territories established in the 4th century BC
1800:
States and territories established in the 5th century BC
1212:
Material Culture, Power, and Identity in Ancient China
886:
884:
882:
765:
763:
761:
1136:
East Asia: a cultural, social, and political history
16:
Former country during Warring States period of China
1697:
1649:
1640:
1365:
1279:
1270:
945:
943:
930:
928:
926:
901:
899:
116:
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92:
84:
74:
61:
32:
794:
792:
790:
748:
746:
721:
719:
717:
692:
690:
1134:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne (2014).
1117:
478:, and from the tombs of King Cheng, and his son
224:, label the state as being founded and ruled by
1172:Loewe, Michael; Shaughnessy, Edward L. (1999).
374:, who had 11 years earlier taken the title of
1248:
861:
8:
1155:Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations
1646:
1276:
1255:
1241:
1233:
420:, and the northern land's was mostly from
50:
29:
600:
56:State of Zhongshan was in northern China
686:
296:In 306, after the state of Zhao, under
1093:
370:(a title roughly equivalent to King).
391:, however, King Cuo sent an advisor,
115:
105:
101:
7:
1105:
1081:
1069:
1057:
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1021:
1009:
997:
985:
973:
961:
949:
934:
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905:
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846:
834:
822:
810:
798:
781:
769:
752:
737:
725:
708:
696:
14:
579:himself, to emphasize his power.
432:Zhongshan used a currency called
320:Strategies of the Warring States
158:
1214:. Cambridge University Press.
1176:. Cambridge University Press.
221:Records of the Grand Historian
198:
1:
1153:Higham, Charles F.W. (2004).
613:
1118:Loewe & Shaughnessy 1999
312:lived very short lifespans.
1836:
21:Zhongshan (disambiguation)
18:
1193:Zhongguo da baike quanshu
862:Ebrey & Walthall 2014
498:A map of one of the tombs
184:
133:
129:
102:
49:
44:
206:that existed during the
330:BC, Zhongshan formed a
1264:Ancient Chinese states
606:
499:
484:Pingshan County, Hebei
468:Archeology and culture
334:, allying itself with
1210:Wu, Xiaolong (2017).
1191:Wu, Rongceng (1980).
604:
497:
310:Warring States period
208:Warring States period
75:Common languages
605:The seal of King Cuo
118:• Conquered by
19:For other uses, see
825:, pp. 156–157.
298:King Wuling of Zhao
254:Marquess Wen of Wei
108:• Established
25:中山 (disambiguation)
607:
500:
34:State of Zhongshan
1787:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1636:
1635:
1221:978-1-107-13402-7
1157:. Facts On File.
1036:, pp. 51–52.
1012:, pp. 49–50.
964:, pp. 17–18.
849:, pp. 16–17.
784:, pp. 64–65.
772:, pp. 31–32.
740:, pp. 32–34.
711:, pp. 30–31.
587:According to the
526:Taihang Mountains
332:vertical alliance
304:Foreign relations
174:
173:
170:
169:
166:
165:
1827:
1820:History of Hebei
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422:animal husbandry
329:
279:
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30:
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1202:978-750000277-2
1190:
1184:
1183:978-052147030-8
1171:
1165:
1164:978-143810996-1
1152:
1146:
1145:978-113360647-5
1133:
1129:
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1120:, p. 1029.
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897:
893:, p. 1590.
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657:Primary sources
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327:
306:
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159:
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66:
57:
45:414/381–296 BCE
40:
37:
35:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1642:Warring States
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1122:
1110:
1098:
1096:, p. 413.
1086:
1084:, p. 183.
1074:
1062:
1060:, p. 176.
1050:
1048:, p. 175.
1038:
1026:
1014:
1002:
990:
978:
966:
954:
939:
922:
910:
895:
878:
876:, p. 163.
866:
851:
839:
837:, p. 166.
827:
815:
813:, p. 156.
803:
786:
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537:Social classes
535:
520:
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505:warring states
491:
488:
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466:
429:
426:
412:
409:
400:
397:
372:King Wei of Qi
305:
302:
269:
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215:
212:
202:) was a small
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97:Warring States
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93:Historical era
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1406:
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1399:
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1379:
1376:
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1235:
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1198:
1194:
1189:
1185:
1179:
1175:
1170:
1166:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1138:. Wadsworth.
1137:
1132:
1131:
1126:
1119:
1114:
1111:
1108:, p. 15.
1107:
1102:
1099:
1095:
1090:
1087:
1083:
1078:
1075:
1072:, p. 56.
1071:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1051:
1047:
1042:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1027:
1024:, p. 50.
1023:
1018:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1003:
1000:, p. 23.
999:
994:
991:
988:, p. 18.
987:
982:
979:
976:, p. 19.
975:
970:
967:
963:
958:
955:
952:, p. 49.
951:
946:
944:
940:
937:, p. 17.
936:
931:
929:
927:
923:
920:, p. 53.
919:
914:
911:
908:, p. 52.
907:
902:
900:
896:
892:
887:
885:
883:
879:
875:
870:
867:
864:, p. 23.
863:
858:
856:
852:
848:
843:
840:
836:
831:
828:
824:
819:
816:
812:
807:
804:
801:, p. 55.
800:
795:
793:
791:
787:
783:
778:
775:
771:
766:
764:
762:
758:
755:, p. 31.
754:
749:
747:
743:
739:
734:
731:
728:, p. 32.
727:
722:
720:
718:
714:
710:
705:
702:
699:, p. 16.
698:
693:
691:
687:
681:
676:
673:
670:
669:Lüshi Chunqiu
667:
664:
661:
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643:
636:
633:
631:
628:
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612:
609:
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590:Lüshi Chunqiu
582:
580:
573:
571:
569:
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564:
557:
550:
548:
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536:
534:
531:
530:Shui Jing Zhu
527:
518:
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489:
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98:
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83:
80:
77:
73:
69:
64:
60:
53:
48:
43:
31:
26:
22:
1815:Zhou dynasty
1769:
1745:Western Zhou
1720:Eastern Zhou
1698:Minor states
1651:Seven states
1617:
1366:Minor states
1280:Major states
1272:Zhou dynasty
1229:
1211:
1192:
1173:
1154:
1135:
1113:
1101:
1089:
1077:
1065:
1053:
1041:
1029:
1017:
1005:
993:
981:
969:
957:
913:
869:
842:
830:
818:
806:
777:
733:
704:
588:
586:
577:
567:
562:
558:
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522:
508:
501:
473:
471:
461:
457:
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448:
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433:
431:
414:
404:
402:
388:
384:
380:
375:
365:
360:
325:
318:
307:
295:
287:
271:
257:
242:
219:
217:
197:
176:
175:
154:Zhao (state)
141:Succeeded by
140:
1413:Western Guo
1408:Eastern Guo
1094:Higham 2004
663:Zhan Guo Ce
418:agriculture
314:Guo Songtao
79:Old Chinese
1794:Categories
652:References
647:King Shang
644:King Qieci
630:Duke Cheng
393:Zhang Deng
88:Duke, King
85:Government
1770:Zhongshan
1618:Zhongshan
682:Citations
637:: 323–309
626:Duke Huan
513:sinicized
232:BC, by a
199:Zhōngshān
177:Zhongshan
1433:Han (SE)
1428:Han (NW)
635:King Cuo
623:Duke Wen
583:Military
574:Language
551:Religion
480:King Cuo
475:Lingshou
428:Currency
276:, in 414
68:Lingshou
1623:Zhoulai
1613:Zhongli
1106:Wu 2017
1082:Wu 2017
1070:Wu 2017
1058:Wu 2017
1046:Wu 2017
1034:Wu 2017
1022:Wu 2017
1010:Wu 2017
998:Wu 2017
986:Wu 2017
974:Wu 2017
962:Wu 2017
950:Wu 2017
935:Wu 2017
918:Wu 2017
906:Wu 2017
891:Wu 1980
874:Wu 2017
847:Wu 2017
835:Wu 2017
823:Wu 2017
811:Wu 2017
799:Wu 2017
782:Wu 2017
770:Wu 2017
753:Wu 2017
738:Wu 2017
726:Wu 2017
709:Wu 2017
697:Wu 2017
611:Duke Wu
568:mengshi
462:chengbo
434:chengbo
411:Economy
268:History
214:Origins
181:Chinese
125:296 BCE
112:414/381
62:Capital
1218:
1199:
1180:
1161:
1142:
677:(太史公書)
671:(呂氏春秋)
639:
618:
597:Rulers
544:Zhouli
519:Cities
509:Huaxia
451:, and
449:baihua
445:gandan
358:, and
346:, and
328:
326:In 323
291:Donghu
278:
238:
230:
196::
194:pinyin
183::
65:Gu (顧)
1765:Zheng
1478:Liang
1443:Huang
1423:Guzhu
1418:Gumie
1357:Zheng
1127:Books
675:Shiji
665:(戰國策)
490:Tombs
381:Huaxi
258:Shiji
226:Beidi
204:state
1755:Yiqu
1740:Teng
1735:Song
1689:Zhao
1608:Zeng
1598:Yiqu
1593:Ying
1588:Yang
1573:Xing
1568:Xian
1558:Teng
1553:Tang
1538:Shěn
1533:Shēn
1518:Quan
1503:Peng
1483:Liao
1398:Deng
1383:Chao
1332:Song
1297:Chen
1216:ISBN
1197:ISBN
1178:ISBN
1159:ISBN
1140:ISBN
460:and
405:Zhao
399:Zhao
389:wang
376:wang
367:wang
344:Zhao
262:Zhou
120:Zhao
70:(靈壽)
23:and
1775:Zou
1760:Yue
1750:Wey
1730:Shu
1715:Dai
1710:Cai
1684:Yan
1679:Wei
1674:Qin
1664:Han
1659:Chu
1628:Zou
1548:Tan
1543:Sui
1528:Ruo
1523:Rui
1493:Luo
1473:Lai
1463:Jia
1448:Huo
1438:Hua
1393:Dai
1388:Dao
1378:Bei
1352:Yue
1347:Yan
1337:Wey
1327:Shu
1322:Qin
1307:Jin
1302:Chu
1292:Cao
1287:Cai
616:414
458:yan
453:lin
441:yan
361:Chu
352:Qin
348:Yan
340:Han
336:Wei
282:Wei
250:Wei
234:Jin
38:中山國
1796::
1725:Lu
1705:Ba
1669:Qi
1603:Yu
1583:Xǔ
1578:Xu
1563:Xi
1513:Qǐ
1508:Pi
1498:Na
1488:Lü
1468:Ju
1458:Ji
1453:Ji
1373:Ba
1342:Wu
1317:Qi
1312:Lu
1195:.
942:^
925:^
898:^
881:^
854:^
789:^
760:^
745:^
716:^
689:^
641:BC
620:BC
614:c.
563:bi
447:,
424:.
385:Yi
356:Qi
354:,
342:,
338:,
323:.
274:Gu
252:,
245:Qi
192:;
1403:E
1256:e
1249:t
1242:v
1224:.
1205:.
1186:.
1167:.
1148:.
189:山
186:中
179:(
27:.
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