Turquoise - Knowledge (XXG)

993: 3924: 1700: 3932: 1184: 1662: 882:) percolates through the copper porphyry. Dissolved oxygen in the water oxidizes the copper sulfides to soluble sulfates, and the acidic, copper-laden solution then reacts with aluminum and potassium minerals in the host rock to precipitate turquoise. This typically fills veins in volcanic rock or phosphate-rich sediments. Deposition usually takes place at a relatively low temperature, 90–195 °C (194–383 °F), and seems to occur more readily in arid environments. 1221: 1180:; even in the dry season, death from the collapse of the haphazardly exploited sandstone mine walls may occur. The colour of Sinai material is typically greener than that of Iranian material but is thought to be stable and fairly durable. Often referred to as "Egyptian turquoise", Sinai material is typically the most translucent, and under magnification, its surface structure is revealed to be peppered with dark blue discs not seen in material from other localities. 2075:, the sky-blue gemstones were earlier worn round the neck or wrist as protection against unnatural death. If they changed colour, the wearer was thought to have reason to fear the approach of doom. Meanwhile, it has been discovered that the turquoise certainly can change colour, but that this is not necessarily a sign of impending danger. The change can be caused by the light, or by a chemical reaction brought about by cosmetics, dust or the acidity of the skin. 800: 1631: 4815: 4248: 1670: 2438: 969: 1245: 2572: 2385: 2135: 36: 4803: 1647: 2721:, should be applied before putting on turquoise jewellery, and they should not be worn to a beach or other sun-bathed environment. After use, turquoise should be gently cleaned with a soft cloth to avoid a buildup of residue, and should be stored in its own container to avoid scratching by harder gems. Turquoise can also be adversely affected if stored in an airtight container. 2633: 2542:(sodium silicate) to produce a wetting effect and improve durability. Plastic and water glass treatments are far more permanent and stable than waxing and oiling, and can be applied to material too chemically or physically unstable for oil or wax to provide sufficient improvement. Conversely, stabilization and bonding are rejected by some as too radical an alteration. 1237: 4060: 142: 1464:, which are secondary phosphate minerals similar in appearance to turquoise. A significant portion of the Nevada material is also noted for its often attractive brown or black limonite veining, producing what is called "spiderweb matrix". While a number of the Nevada deposits were first worked by Native Americans, the total 2344:

appear radically different in both colour (usually a uniform dark blue) and texture (usually granular or sugary). Glass and plastic will have a much greater translucency, with bubbles or flow lines often visible just below the surface. Staining between grain boundaries may be visible in dyed imitations.

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is the country's other major producer, with more than 120 mines which have yielded significant quantities of turquoise. Unlike elsewhere in the US, most Nevada mines have been worked primarily for their gem turquoise and very little has been recovered as a byproduct of other mining operations. Nevada

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and other dyes (often in conjunction with bonding treatments) to "enhance” its appearance, make uniform or completely change the colour, is regarded as fraudulent by some purists, especially since some dyes may fade or rub off on the wearer. Dyes have also been used to darken the veins of turquoise.

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applied to most gem turquoise to improve its colour and lustre; if the material is of high quality to begin with, very little of the wax or oil is absorbed and the turquoise therefore does not rely on this impermanent treatment for its beauty. All other factors being equal, untreated turquoise will

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as the cement filling interstices between fragments. Because of the geology of the Nevada deposits, a majority of the material produced is hard and dense, being of sufficient quality that no treatment or enhancement is required. While nearly every county in the state has yielded some turquoise, the

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where unblemished and vein-free material is ideal (regardless of how complementary the veining may be). Uniformity of colour is desired, and in finished pieces the quality of workmanship is also a factor; this includes the quality of the polish and the symmetry of the stone. Calibrated stones—that

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Historically, light waxing and oiling were the first treatments used in ancient times, providing a wetting effect, thereby enhancing the colour and lustre. This treatment is more or less acceptable by tradition, especially because treated turquoise is usually of a higher grade to begin with. Oiled

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turquoise production since the 1870s has been estimated at more than 600 short tons (540 t), including nearly 400 short tons (360 t) from the Carico Lake mine. In spite of increased costs, small scale mining operations continue at a number of turquoise properties in Nevada, including the

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using a number of tests, relying primarily on non-destructive, close examination of surface structure under magnification; a featureless, pale blue background peppered by flecks or spots of whitish material is the typical surface appearance of natural turquoise, while manufactured imitations will

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in which turquoise is found can often be seen as splotches or a network of brown or black veins running through the stone in a netted pattern; this veining may add value to the stone if the result is complementary, but such a result is uncommon. Such material is sometimes described as "spiderweb

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will attack the finish and may alter the colour of turquoise gems, as will skin oils, as will most commercial jewellery cleaning fluids. Prolonged exposure to direct sunlight may also discolour or dehydrate turquoise. Care should therefore be taken when wearing such jewels: cosmetics, including

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A proprietary process was created by electrical engineer and turquoise dealer James E. Zachery in the 1980s to improve the stability of medium to high-grade turquoise. The process can be applied in several ways: either through deep penetration on rough turquoise to decrease porosity, by shallow

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of this region, because of their considerable use and wearing of turquoise, have found that backing increases the durability of thinly cut slabs and cabochons of turquoise. They observe that if the stone is not backed it will often crack. Backing of turquoise is not widely known outside of the

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ceased turquoise mining in August 2012. The mine chose to send all ore to the crusher and to concentrate on copper production due to the rising price of copper on the world market. The price of natural untreated Sleeping Beauty turquoise has risen dramatically since the mine's closing. The

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Turquoise was among the first gems to be mined, and many historic sites have been depleted, though some are still worked to this day. These are all small-scale operations, often seasonal owing to the limited scope and remoteness of the deposits. Most are worked by hand with little or no

1955:, where a greener hue is said to be preferred. Most of the pieces made today, with turquoise usually roughly polished into irregular cabochons set simply in silver, are meant for inexpensive export to Western markets and are probably not accurate representations of the original style. 1366:

The turquoise occurs as vein or seam fillings, and as compact nuggets; these are mostly small in size. While quite fine material is sometimes found, rivalling Iranian material in both colour and durability, most American turquoise is of a low grade (called "chalk turquoise"); high

930:, which freed aluminum and phosphate to combine with copper from oxidized copper sulfides to form turquoise. This process took place at a relatively shallow depth, and by 1965 the mines had "bottomed" at a depth averaging just 9 meters (30 ft) below the surface. 2261:(it does differ in chemical composition owing to a binder used, meaning it is best described as a simulant rather than a synthetic). Gilson turquoise is made in both a uniform colour and with black "spiderweb matrix" veining not unlike the natural Nevada material. 2553:

Perhaps the most extreme of treatments is "reconstitution", wherein fragments of fine turquoise material, too small to be used individually, are powdered and then bonded with resin to form a solid mass. Very often the material sold as "reconstituted turquoise" is

1363:, New Mexico is thought to be the location of the oldest mines; prior to the 1920s, the state was the country's largest producer; it is more or less exhausted today. Only one mine in California, located at Apache Canyon, operates at a commercial capacity today. 1054: 2501:

treatment of finished turquoise to enhance color, or both. The treatment can enhance color and improve the turquoise's ability to take a polish. Such treated turquoise can be distinguished in some cases from natural turquoise, without destruction, by

2652:). Whatever the colour, for many applications, turquoise should not be soft or chalky; even if treated, such lesser material (to which most turquoise belongs) is liable to fade or discolour over time and will not hold up to normal use in jewellery. 1782:

until the 18th century. A common belief shared by many of these civilizations held that turquoise possessed certain prophylactic qualities; it was thought to change colour with the wearer's health and protect him or her from untoward forces.

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is usually opaque, but may be semitranslucent in thin sections. Colour is as variable as the mineral's other properties, ranging from white to a powder blue to a sky blue and from a blue-green to a yellowish green. The blue is attributed to

1448:. Nevada has produced a wide diversity of colours and mixes of different matrix patterns, with turquoise from Nevada coming in various shades of blue, blue-green, and green. Some of this unusually-coloured turquoise may contain significant 907:. The overlying beds were presumably the source of the copper, which precipitated as turquoise in nodules, horizontal seams, or vertical joints in the sandstone beds. The classical Iranian deposits are found in sandstones and limestones of 1391:

Mine as of 2015 still operates alongside a copper mine outside of the city. Other mines include the Blue Bird mine, Castle Dome, and Ithaca Peak, but they are mostly inactive due to the high cost of operations and federal regulations. The

1508:). There are some American mines which produce materials of high enough quality that no treatment or alterations are required. Any such treatments which have been performed should be disclosed to the buyer on sale of the material. 1403:

ceased operations in 1974 and never had a turquoise contractor. All Bisbee turquoise was "lunch pail" mined. It came out of the copper ore mine in miners' lunch pails. Morenci and Turquoise Peak are either inactive or depleted.

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is currently the most important producer of turquoise by value. Several mines exist in the state, two of them famous for their unique colour and quality and considered the best in the industry: the Sleeping Beauty Mine in

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and waxed stones are prone to "sweating" under even gentle heat or if exposed to too much sun, and they may develop a white surface film or bloom over time. (With some skill, oil and wax treatments can be restored.)

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excavations of Egypt from the mid-19th century through the early 20th. These excavations, including that of Tutankhamun's tomb, created great public interest in the western world, subsequently influencing jewellery,

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over the mother rock, are very small; 1 mm (0.04 in) is considered large. Until the 1980s Virginia was widely thought to be the only source of distinct crystals; there are now at least 27 other localities.

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can detect these treatments using a variety of testing methods, some of which are destructive, such as the use of a heated probe applied to an inconspicuous spot, which will reveal oil, wax or plastic treatment.

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in many different ways, some more permanent and radical than others. Controversy exists as to whether some of these treatments should be acceptable, but one can be more or less forgiven universally: This is the

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lead–zinc ore field.In Spain, turquoise has been found as a minor mineral in the variscite deposits exploited during prehistoric times in Palazuelos de las Cuevas (Zamora) and in Can Tintorer, Gavá (Barcelona).

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Turquoise is nearly always cryptocrystalline and massive and assumes no definite external shape. Crystals, even at the microscopic scale, are rare. Typically the form is a vein or fracture filling, nodular, or

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In many cultures of the Old and New Worlds, this gemstone has been esteemed for thousands of years as a holy stone, a bringer of good fortune or a talisman. The oldest evidence for this claim was found in

1145:. There are six mines in the peninsula, all on its southwest coast, covering an area of some 650 km (250 sq mi). The two most important of these mines, from a historical perspective, are 2640:

Hardness and richness of colour are two of the major factors in determining the value of turquoise; while colour is a matter of individual taste, generally speaking, the most desirable is a strong

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and Southwestern United States jewellery trade. Backing does not diminish the value of high quality turquoise, and indeed the process is expected for most thinly cut American commercial gemstones.

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Kostov, R. I.; Chapman, J.; Gaydarska, B.; Petrov, I.; Raduntcheva, A. (2007). "Turquoise – archaeomineralogical evidences from the Orlovo prehistoric site (Haskovo district, Southern Bulgaria)".

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to a base of stronger foreign material for reinforcement. These stones are termed "backed", and it is standard practice that all thinly cut turquoise in the Southwestern United States is backed.

2505:, which can detect its elevated potassium levels. In some instances, such as with already high-quality, low-porosity turquoise that is treated only for porosity, the treatment is undetectable. 2526:

Material treated with plastic or water glass is termed "bonded" or "stabilized" turquoise. This process consists of pressure impregnation of otherwise unsaleable chalky American material by

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jewellery produced by the Navajo and other Southwestern Native American tribes today is a rather modern development, thought to date from around 1880 as a result of European influences.

847:, in which veins of copper sulfide fill joints and fractures in the rock. Deposition takes place mostly in the potassic alteration zone, which is characterized by conversion of existing 2926: 3672: 3294:"Role of Potassic Alteration for Porphyry Cu Mineralization: Implication for the Absence of Porphyry Cu Deposits in Japan: Role of potassic alteration in porphyry system" 3963: 3862:

Schwarzinger, Bettina; Schwarzinger, Clemens (May 2017). "Investigation of turquoise imitations and treatment with analytical pyrolysis and infrared spectroscopy".

3781: 3633: 2558:, with little or no natural stone, made entirely from resins and dyes. In the trade reconstituted turquoise is often called "block turquoise" or simply "block". 3090: 2237:

products (composed of various copper and aluminium compounds) have been developed: examples of the latter include "Viennese turquoise", made from precipitated

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The epoxy binding technique was first developed in the 1950s and has been attributed to Colbaugh Processing of Arizona, a company that still operates today.

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in silver rings, bracelets, often in the Native American style, or as tumbled or roughly hewn beads in chunky necklaces. Lesser material may be carved into

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has been a minor source of turquoise for 3,000 years or more. Gem-quality material, in the form of compact nodules, is found in the fractured, silicified

2008:, was so liked by the Ancient Egyptians that it became (arguably) the first gemstone to be imitated, the fair structure created by an artificial glazed 1168:. Copper and iron workings are present in the area. Large-scale turquoise mining is not profitable today, but the deposits are sporadically quarried by 3748: 1248:

Untreated turquoise, Nevada, US. Rough nuggets from the McGinness Mine, Austin. Blue and green cabochons showing spiderweb, Bunker Hill Mine, Royston

2332:. While rarely encountered today, odontolite was once mined in large quantities—specifically for its use as a substitute for turquoise—in southern 3821:

Fritsch, Emmanuel; McClure, Shane F.; Ostrooumov, Mikhail; Andres, Yves; Moses, Thomas; Koivula, John I.; Kammerling, Robert C. (Spring 1999).

1153:, believed to be among the oldest of known mines. The former mine is situated about 4 kilometres from an ancient temple dedicated to the deity 989:

mechanization. However, turquoise is often recovered as a byproduct of large-scale copper mining operations, especially in the United States.

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The Aztecs viewed turquoise as an embodiment of fire and gave it properties such as heat and smokiness. They inlaid turquoise, together with

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Like most other opaque gems, turquoise has been devalued by the introduction of treatments, imitations, and synthetics into the market. The

5099: 2502: 2272:, both white in their natural states, and the former also having natural (and convincing) black veining similar to that of turquoise. Dyed 3558:] (in Spanish). Zaragoza, Spain: Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas de Madrid. Fundación Gómez Pardo. pp. 347–348. 4853: 4284: 2196: 3583: 1504:

to a certain degree. These treatments include innocuous waxing and more controversial procedures, such as dyeing and impregnation (see

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is also common. Turquoise is distinguished from chrysocolla, the only common mineral with similar properties, by its greater hardness.

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and surrounding region are believed to have prospered greatly from their production and trading of turquoise objects. The distinctive

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novelties, turquoise did not become important as an ornamental stone in the West until the 14th century, following a decline in the

1456:, which is the cause of the beautiful bright green to yellow-green shades. Some of the green to green-yellow shades may actually be 1371:

levels mean greens and yellows predominate, and a typically friable consistency in the turquoise's untreated state precludes use in

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is less common, and much less convincing. Other natural materials occasionally confused with or used in lieu of turquoise include:

210: 3647: 4085: 3005: 2970: 3893: 3481: 704:. Despite its low hardness relative to other gems, turquoise takes a good polish. Turquoise may also be peppered with flecks of 2677:

and other opaque gems, turquoise is commonly sold at a price according to its physical size in millimetres rather than weight.

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that has historically been thought to have been altered by turquoise or similar phosphate minerals such as the iron phosphate

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and howlite to turn green, while a heated probe may give rise to the pungent smell so indicative of plastic. Differences in

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dead aim. In Navajo culture it is used for "a spiritual protection and blessing." Among these peoples turquoise was used in

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This deposit is blue naturally and turns green when heated due to dehydration. It is restricted to a mine-riddled region in

4064: 339: 2086:, where it was mined. Her titles included "Lady of Turquoise", "Mistress of Turquoise", and "Lady of Turquoise Country". 5849: 4806: 4775: 2071:, where grave furnishings with turquoise inlay were discovered, dating from approximately 3000 BCE. In the ancient 820: 100: 3973:

The Turquoise: A study of its history, mineralogy, geology, ethnology, archaeology, mythology, folklore, and technology

3107: 992: 5874: 5869: 5859: 5844: 4078: 3396: 2253:. Most of these products differ markedly from natural turquoise in both physical and chemical properties, but in 1972 1313: 1269: 72: 3325: 3087: 2745: – Alumino-silicate mineral whose blue colour is due to a sulfide species and not copper, with a deep blue color 2582: 2145: 3455: 2593: 2402: 2156: 1634:

Trade in turquoise crafts, such as this freeform pendant dating from 1000 to 1040, is believed to have brought the

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and possibly earlier; however, probably the most well-known pieces incorporating the gem are those recovered from

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The pastel shades of turquoise have endeared it to many great cultures of antiquity: it has adorned the rulers of

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of imported turquoise, along with coral, was (and still is) used extensively in the silver and gold jewellery of

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The Egyptians were the first to produce an artificial imitation of turquoise, in the glazed earthenware product

5146: 4968: 4785: 1984: 1425: 1329: 1309: 1305: 1285: 1281: 938: 225: 3822: 2457:). As is so often the case with any precious stones, full disclosure about treatment is frequently not given. 5777: 5151: 4870: 4846: 4277: 2661: 1699: 1481: 1301: 1273: 1253: 946: 200: 86: 3403: 2791: 1963: 1470: 1341: 1114: 5677: 2054:. While strong sky blues remain superior in value, mottled green and yellowish material is popular with 1906: 1767: 1421: 1360: 1337: 1289: 819:

Turquoise deposits probably form in more than one way. However, a typical turquoise deposit begins with

662: 294: 2739: – Metamorphic rock containing lazurite, prized for its intense blue color, with a deep blue color 588:

from French in the 1560s. According to the same source, the gemstone was first brought to Europe from

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is, stones adhering to standard jewellery setting measurements—may also be more sought after. Like

2368: 2254: 2242: 2238: 1875: 1770:'s influence which allowed the use of turquoise in secular jewellery. It was apparently unknown in 1661: 1516:

Turquoise prehistoric artifacts (beads) are known since the fifth millennium BCE from sites in the

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1020–1140) show the typical colour range and mottling of American turquoise. Some likely came from

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of the time. Turquoise, already favoured for its pastel shades since around 1810, was a staple of

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tribes cherished turquoise for its amuletic use; the latter tribe believe the stone to afford the

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counties) are (or were) especially rich. The deposits of California and New Mexico were mined by

1345: 1229: 852: 827:. This takes place when hydrothermal fluids leach copper from a host rock, which is typically an 284: 1066: 926:

rock. Supergene alteration fractured the rock and converted some of the minerals in the rock to

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has been an important source of turquoise for at least 2,000 years. It was initially named by

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always command a higher price. Bonded and reconstituted material is worth considerably less.

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inlay, in sculptural works, and was fashioned into toroidal beads and freeform pendants. The

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in New Mexico, are typical supergene deposits formed from copper porphyries. The deposits in

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Anthony, John W.; Bideaux, Richard A.; Bladh, Kenneth W.; Nichols, Monte C., eds. (2000).

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following the establishment of the Mughal Empire there, its influence seen in high purity

1493: 1445: 1400: 1134: 1098: 1094: 1023: 886: 844: 593: 2371:), and other physical and optical properties are also considered as means of separation. 245: 3270: 2804: 1232:. Cerrillos turquoise was widely used by Native Americans prior to the Spanish conquest. 1093:

at the mountain's base. These workings are the oldest known, together with those of the

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In an attempt to recoup profits and meet demand, some American turquoise is treated or

1437: 1383: 1333: 1177: 1008: 875: 824: 756: 646: 573: 534: 220: 93: 2437: 1988:. Set in gold, the gem was fashioned into beads, used as inlay, and often carved in a 1559:. Most Chinese material is exported, but a few carvings worked in a manner similar to 1469:

Godber, Orvil Jack and Carico Lake mines in Lander County, the Pilot Mountain Mine in

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Turquoise in Mexico and North America: Science, Conservation, Culture and Collections

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for those born in the month of December. The turquoise is also a stone in the Jewish

2068: 1959: 1859: 1855: 1799: 1775: 1751: 1723: 1650: 1349: 1150: 1122: 832: 721: 682: 601: 401: 274: 232: 2756: – Hydrated aluminium phosphate of pale green color due to trivalent chromium ( 933:

Turquoise deposits are widespread in North America. Some deposits, such as those of

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In 1912, the first deposit of distinct, single-crystal turquoise was discovered at

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Some destructive tests may be necessary; for example, the application of diluted

1974:'s iconic burial mask which was liberally inlaid with the stone. It also adorned 5760: 5650: 5489: 5439: 5434: 5350: 5192: 5068: 5018: 4893: 4888: 4580: 4491: 4348: 4210: 2733: – Turquoise from copper mines near Bisbee, Arizona, with a deep blue color 2730: 2571: 2539: 2535: 2384: 2305: 2293: 2203: 2134: 2118: 2106: 2098: 2094: 2051: 2042: 2024: 1975: 1967: 1846:

were used to bond the turquoise to the objects' base material; this was usually

1823: 1811: 1739: 1731: 1704: 1579: 1441: 1053: 916: 804: 749: 729: 411: 35: 3875: 5594: 5539: 5414: 5327: 5295: 5285: 5187: 5136: 5073: 5048: 4923: 4728: 4702: 4460: 4454: 4167: 4132: 3478:"Precious and semi-precious minerals and their roots in ancient Persian texts" 2893: 2718: 2325: 2273: 2195: 2090: 1591: 1552: 1297: 1261: 1200: 1118: 737: 725: 717: 577: 572:

meaning "Turkish" because the mineral was first brought to Europe through the

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pieces. In contemporary Western use, turquoise is most often encountered cut

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Slab of turquoise in matrix showing a large variety of different colouration

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Turquoise is treated to enhance both its colour and durability (increased

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national stone for millennia, extensively used to decorate objects (from

1607: 1525: 1521: 1489: 1461: 1429: 1277: 1082: 1062: 1001: 950: 919: 908: 848: 840: 709: 697: 667: 654: 553:, has been used as a guiding reference for evaluating turquoise quality. 546: 538: 527: 4036:(5th ed.). Great Britain: Butterworth-Heinemann. pp. 254–263. 3841: 2813: 2786: 1412: 5803: 5713: 5625: 5534: 5499: 5484: 5469: 5454: 5444: 5317: 5251: 5202: 5141: 4998: 4973: 4938: 4744: 4671: 4555: 4482: 4431: 4338: 4328: 3552:

Minerales y Minas de España. Vol. VII. Fosfatos, Arseniatos y Vanadatos

2705: 2531: 2409: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 2313: 2265: 2230: 2055: 2009: 1971: 1926: 1867: 1839: 1615: 1556: 1416: 1378: 1372: 1257: 1169: 1070: 981: 957: 927: 912: 808: 638: 470: 466: 3310: 3293: 3141: 3108:"Turquoise - Etymology, origin and meaning of turquoise by etymonline" 1428:. Most of the turquoise deposits in Nevada occur along a wide belt of 1050:

because its intense blue colour was also a symbol of heaven on earth.

681:

of turquoise varies from 1.61 to 1.65 on the three crystal axes, with

5703: 5609: 5569: 5544: 5479: 5464: 5360: 5345: 5340: 5256: 5207: 5197: 4913: 4878: 4663: 4626: 4623: 4619: 4503: 4487: 4386: 4070: 3496:. tehran: Institute of Humanities and Cultural Studies. p. 156. 2333: 2317: 2297: 2281: 2277: 2210: 2110: 2079: 2020: 2005: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1883: 1871: 1831: 1815: 1791: 1759: 1755: 1754:. Despite being one of the oldest gems, probably first introduced to 1685:, a more mundane version used for decoration such as in mosaics, and 1611: 1465: 1407: 1356: 1317: 1240:

Bisbee turquoise commonly has a hard chocolate brown coloured matrix.

1165: 1154: 1130: 1102: 1047: 1042:". In Iranian architecture, the blue turquoise was used to cover the 973: 897: 856: 836: 812: 788: 733: 705: 489: 477: 3975:. Glorieta, NM: National Academy of Sciences, The Rio Grande Press. 2704:

mineral, turquoise is inherently fragile and sensitive to solvents;

2121:

also considered it to be a valuable and culturally important stone.

1524:– the source for the raw material is possibly related to the nearby 874:

mineral, not present in the original copper porphyry. It forms when

3191: 1681:

god of fire. The Aztecs differentiated turquoise based on quality:

1355:

using stone tools, some local and some from as far away as central

526:. It is rare and valuable in finer grades and has been prized as a 5682: 5672: 5662: 5645: 5640: 5630: 5589: 5419: 5399: 5335: 5267: 5008: 4983: 4928: 4603: 4570: 4476: 4466: 4425: 4353: 2631: 2527: 2436: 2321: 2194: 2114: 2105:

chapter 28. The stone is also considered sacred to the indigenous

2001: 1948: 1914: 1835: 1827: 1779: 1771: 1747: 1727: 1716: 1698: 1691: 1678: 1668: 1660: 1645: 1629: 1599: 1595: 1568: 1564: 1548: 1532: 1243: 1235: 1219: 1182: 1090: 1052: 1031: 991: 967: 923: 798: 741: 630: 610: 518: 2264:

The most common imitation of turquoise encountered today is dyed

1905:, and other important buildings both inside and out, such as the 5554: 5529: 5524: 5474: 5236: 4758: 4692: 4685: 4637: 4436: 4391: 4333: 4302:

Gemmological classifications by E. Ya. Kievlenko (1980), updated

3231:

Vigier, Emmanuelle; Querré, Guirec; Cassen, Serge, eds. (2019).

1922: 1918: 1851: 1847: 1819: 1803: 1787: 1560: 1453: 1449: 1440:

at a bearing of about 15° and extends from the northern part of

1368: 1078: 1043: 1019: 860: 685:

0.040, biaxial positive, as measured from rare single crystals.

671: 550: 542: 4835: 4266: 4074: 3650:. Washington, DC: National Gallery of Art. 1999. Archived from 2693: 2689: 2565: 2479:

Since finer turquoise is often found as thin seams, it may be

2378: 2213:, are occasionally confused with or used to imitate turquoise. 2128: 2033: 1913:. The Persian style and use of turquoise was later brought to 1843: 29: 3480:, Second International Congress of Science and Earth, Tehran 3292:

Watanabe, Yasushi; Sato, Ryuya; Sulaksono, Adi (April 2018).

1567:, gem-quality deposits purportedly exist in the mountains of 604: 4831: 4262: 2328:

or "bone turquoise", coloured blue naturally by the mineral

3610:

The fate of earthly things : Aztec gods and god-bodies

2082:

was associated with turquoise, as she was the patroness of

843:. The copper is redeposited in more concentrated form as a 748:. Intergrowth with other secondary copper minerals such as 3994:. Stuttgart & New York, NY: Arnoldsche Art Publisher. 3750:

Turquoise : the world story of a fascinating gemstone

3026:"Early trade in highland Iran: A view from a source area" 1089:

between layers of limonite and sandstone and amongst the

960:

and go down at least as deep as 54 meters (177 ft).

289:

Perfect on {001}, good on {010}, but cleavage rarely seen

3397:"Historic preservation in the Cerrillos mining district" 2199:

Some natural blue to blue-green materials, such as this

1011:

in partially decomposed volcanic rock in arid climates.

863:

at a temperature of 400–600 °C (752–1,112 °F)

3948:

King, J.C.H., Max Carocci, Caroline Cartwright (2012).

3070:. Vol. II (7th ed.). Wiley. pp. 946–951. 2225:

were also used, and in modern times more sophisticated

1665:

Backswords, inlaid with turquoise. Russia, 17th century

1444:, southward down to the California border southwest of 661:

of turquoise is typically waxy to subvitreous, and its

2089:

In Western culture, turquoise is also the traditional

1176:. In the rainy winter months, miners face a risk from 1125:, and possibly before then, turquoise was used by the 19:

This article is about the mineral. For the color, see

3992:

Goldsmith's Art: 5000 Years of Jewelry and Hollowware

3798:. Collector's Guide. Vol. 17. 2003. p. 184. 2113:

peoples of the American Southwest. The pre-Columbian

4034:

Gems: Their Sources, Descriptions and Identification

3577: 3575: 1065:, the 2,012 m (6,601 ft) mountain peak of 5753: 5696: 5618: 5389: 5326: 5265: 5227: 5220: 5180: 5082: 5036: 5029: 4869: 4768: 4656: 4594: 4541: 4532: 4445: 4405: 4362: 4317: 4307: 4219: 4196: 4108: 3169:. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand. pp. 425–426. 2906:"Turquoise: Turquoise mineral information and data" 732:replace feldspar, apatite, other minerals, or even 580:, the word dates to the 14th century with the form 446: 433: 420: 410: 400: 368: 360: 350: 338: 328: 318: 305: 293: 283: 273: 258: 253: 231: 219: 209: 199: 163: 153: 148: 134: 60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4010: 3753:(Updated ed.). Layton, Utah. pp. 36–41. 2850: 565:dates to the 17th century and is derived from the 3823:"The identification of Zachery-treated turquoise" 3673:"How turquoise became synonymous with New Mexico" 1575:in the east and west of the region respectively. 1432:activity that coincides with the state's zone of 641:, and all of its properties are highly variable. 3269:. University of Central Michigan. Archived from 3160: 3158: 2925:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown ( 803:"Big Blue", a large turquoise specimen from the 2849:Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis (1985). 2367:, light absorption (as evident in a material's 1854:and shell were also used. Like the Aztecs, the 1814:, into provocative (and presumably ceremonial) 2233:, and various assembled, pressed, bonded, and 1962:use of turquoise stretches back as far as the 1085:is host to the turquoise, which is found both 972:Massive Kingman blue turquoise in matrix with 629:of just under 6, or slightly more than window 4847: 4278: 4086: 3395:Kretzmann, John A.; Moiola, Lloyd A. (2014). 3114:. Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from 3066:Palache, C.; Berman, H.; Frondel, C. (1951). 1689:, a special version embued with qualities of 1038:", which is pronounced in Modern Persian as " 728:forms have been reported. Turquoise may also 637:mineral, turquoise almost never forms single 584:, meaning "Turkish", which was replaced with 8: 3962:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3355: 3353: 3351: 3349: 3347: 3234:La parure en callaïs du néolithique européen 3019: 3017: 3015: 1473:, and several properties in the Royston and 670:copper while the green may be the result of 3864:Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 3732:The Supreme Council of Antiquities (2007). 3431:"Turquoise Mining History: Cerrillos Hills" 2600:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 2163:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 5224: 5033: 4854: 4840: 4832: 4802: 4538: 4314: 4285: 4271: 4263: 4093: 4079: 4071: 3887: 3885: 3780:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3632:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2908:. Archived from the original on 2006-11-12 1007:Deposits typically take the form of small 625:The finest of turquoise reaches a maximum 140: 4017:(revised ed.). Sterling Publishing. 3407: 3309: 2844: 2842: 2840: 2838: 2836: 2834: 2832: 2812: 2620:Learn how and when to remove this message 2425:Learn how and when to remove this message 2183:Learn how and when to remove this message 2004:. Turquoise, associated with the goddess 120:Learn how and when to remove this message 3112:Online Etymology Dictionary (Etymonline) 2882: 2880: 2878: 1941:script which was then inlaid with gold. 1555:reported turquoise found in present-day 1164:that is, or was originally, overlain by 778: 774: 770: 766: 545:turquoise mined near the modern city of 520: 514: 506: 501: 495: 187: 183: 179: 175: 3612:(First ed.). Austin. p. 105. 3237:. Oxford: Archaeopress Publishing Ltd. 2949: 2947: 2945: 2943: 2941: 2939: 2937: 2777: 2668:, but is not highly appreciated in the 3955: 3773: 3625: 3083: 3081: 3079: 3077: 3061: 3059: 2918: 2257:introduced one fairly close to a true 1256:is a significant source of turquoise; 696:is white to greenish to blue, and its 131: 3808: 3360:King, R. J. (May 2002). "Turquoise". 3192:"Color in gems: The new technologies" 7: 2787:"IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols" 2598:adding citations to reliable sources 2503:energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy 2407:adding citations to reliable sources 2161:adding citations to reliable sources 878:(rain or snow melt infiltrating the 688:Crushed turquoise is soluble in hot 653:. With lower hardness comes greater 58:adding citations to reliable sources 3584:"Turquoise – The Gemstone of Tibet" 1097:. Iran also has turquoise mines in 1030:" meaning "victory", and later the 708:or interspersed with dark, spidery 2660:matrix"; it is most valued in the 2441:An early turquoise mine in Madan, 1730:(and possibly other Pre-Columbian 1578:Other notable localities include: 14: 3024:Beale, Thomas W. (October 1973). 2648:(in reference to the eggs of the 4813: 4801: 4246: 4058: 3374:10.1046/j.1365-2451.2002.00345.x 3006:Gemological Institute of America 2990:from the original on 2012-02-11. 2971:Mineralogical Society of America 2570: 2383: 2133: 2000:, and in later pieces, coloured 1746:, and to some extent in ancient 34: 4415:Yellow, Green, Violet Sapphires 3734:Bulletin of the Egyptian Museum 3550:Calvo Rebollar, Miguel (2015). 3140:. RRUFF Project. Archived from 2681: 2555: 2394:needs additional citations for 2050:, such as those crafted by the 1929:) and in such buildings as the 1703:The iconic gold burial mask of 1505: 1224:A fine turquoise specimen from 1191:(Anasazi) turquoise and orange 1137:. This region was known as the 674:impurities (replacing copper.) 45:needs additional citations for 3703:"Does Turquoise Change Color?" 2296:(especially when impregnating 2245:; and "neolith", a mixture of 1933:. Persian turquoise was often 1907:Medresseh-i Shah Husein Mosque 530:for millennia due to its hue. 1: 3952:. British Museum, London, UK. 3796:Sharing the Art of New Mexico 3533:Geology and Mineral Resources 3042:10.1080/00438243.1973.9979561 1889:In Persia, turquoise was the 1204: 835:rock with a moderate to high 592:or another Turkic territory. 16:Opaque, blue-to-green mineral 4807:List of gemstones by species 4776:List of individual gemstones 4437:Precious White and Fire Opal 3679:. 2022-02-03. Archived from 2355:odontolite and magnesite to 2339:These fakes are detected by 941:Counties in Colorado or the 3556:Minerals and mines of Spain 3068:Dana's System of Mineralogy 3002:"Turquoise Quality Factors" 2857:(20th ed.). New York: 1477:areas of Esmerelda County. 1415:, fracture fillings and in 1057:Persian turquoise from Iran 839:content that is relatively 755:Turquoise forms a complete 596:referred to the mineral as 5901: 3929:www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk 3876:10.1016/j.jaap.2017.05.002 3608:Bassett, Molly H. (2015). 3494:mineralogy in Ancient Iran 1970:'s tomb, most notably the 1695:and valued for its beauty. 1492:. The crystals, forming a 1160:The turquoise is found in 605: 25:Turquoise (disambiguation) 18: 5885:Minerals in space group 2 5791: 4799: 4791:List of sapphires by size 4300: 4242: 3925:"Aztec turquoise mosaics" 3492:zawush, Muhammad (1996). 3476:Farmani, Anousheh (2015) 3326:"Hydrothermal Alteration" 2485:Native indigenous peoples 1937:with devotional words in 1921:jewellery (together with 1707:, inlaid with turquoise, 1673:Turquoise mosaic mask of 1653:turquoise nose ornament. 1226:Los Cerrillos, New Mexico 791:iron replaces aluminium. 139: 4786:List of emeralds by size 3265:Dietrich, R. V. (2004). 3165:Sinkankas, John (1964). 1551:province. Additionally, 576:. However, according to 5356:Nickel silver (alpacca) 3923:British Museum (2000). 3894:"Tantalizing Turquoise" 3747:Lowry, Joe Dan (2018). 3190:Rossman, G. R. (1981). 3167:Mineralogy for amateurs 2662:Southwest United States 1778:period, and unknown in 1420:chief producers are in 1254:Southwest United States 1172:peoples using homemade 1081:. Weathered and broken 956:and geologically young 947:Cochise County, Arizona 821:hydrothermal deposition 633:. Characteristically a 4013:Gemstones of the World 3435:www.cerrilloshills.org 2963:Handbook of Mineralogy 2792:Mineralogical Magazine 2637: 2446: 2214: 1992:motif, accompanied by 1719: 1696: 1666: 1658: 1657:Collection, Lima, Peru 1643: 1411:turquoise is found as 1249: 1241: 1233: 1212: 1058: 1004: 985: 816: 23:. For other uses, see 5865:Symbols of New Mexico 5697:Other natural objects 4354:Natural marine pearls 4009:Schumann, W. (2000). 3971:Pogue, J. E. (1915). 2859:John Wiley & Sons 2635: 2440: 2198: 2062:Cultural associations 1768:Roman Catholic Church 1702: 1672: 1664: 1649: 1633: 1247: 1239: 1223: 1186: 1056: 995: 971: 911:age were intruded by 802: 211:Strunz classification 5172:Wire wrapped jewelry 5152:Repoussé and chasing 4473:, pink, yellow-green 4067:at Wikimedia Commons 4032:Webster, R. (2000). 3701:Shepardson, Mathew. 3454:King, R. J. (2002). 3273:on December 20, 2004 3211:10.5741/GEMS.17.2.60 2853:Manual of Mineralogy 2785:Warr, L. N. (2021). 2594:improve this section 2403:improve this article 2251:copper(II) phosphate 2157:improve this section 1139:Country of Turquoise 54:improve this article 5850:Copper(II) minerals 5714:Ebonite (vulcanite) 4820:Minerals portal 4392:Precious Black Opal 4253:Minerals portal 4065:Turquoise (mineral) 3990:Schadt, H. (1996). 3892:Harriss, Joseph A. 3842:10.5741/GEMS.35.1.4 3830:Gems & Gemology 3683:on February 3, 2022 3199:Gems & Gemology 3138:"Turquoise R050554" 3097:. minerals.usgs.gov 2967:Chantilly, Virginia 2814:10.1180/mgm.2021.43 2805:2021MinM...85..291W 2655:The mother rock or 2369:absorption spectrum 2239:aluminium phosphate 1978:and great sweeping 1876:Ancestral Puebloans 1750:since at least the 1113:Since at least the 902:upper Carboniferous 891:lower Carboniferous 324:Waxy to subvitreous 5875:Symbols of Arizona 5870:Triclinic minerals 5860:Phosphate minerals 5845:Aluminium minerals 5059:Jewellery designer 4642:Opaque iridescent 4533:Jewelry-Industrial 4479:yellow, blue, pink 4102:Phosphate minerals 3648:"China Exhibition" 3518:Minerals of Nevada 3093:2007-05-20 at the 2638: 2562:Valuation and care 2447: 2221:. Later glass and 2215: 1720: 1697: 1667: 1659: 1644: 1426:Esmeralda counties 1250: 1242: 1234: 1230:Smithsonian Museum 1213: 1195:inlay pieces from 1059: 1005: 986: 855:and deposition of 853:potassium feldspar 817: 740:is fossil bone or 645:testing shows its 426:Fusible in heated 361:Optical properties 158:Phosphate minerals 5832: 5831: 5749: 5748: 5619:Organic gemstones 5216: 5215: 4829: 4828: 4657:Industrial stones 4652: 4651: 4528: 4527: 4260: 4259: 4198:Cryptocrystalline 4063:Media related to 3935:on March 11, 2007 3590:on March 19, 2007 3565:978-84-95063-96-0 3311:10.1111/rge.12165 3030:World Archaeology 2980:978-0-9622097-3-4 2868:978-0-471-80580-9 2630: 2629: 2622: 2496:Zachery treatment 2466:Waxing and oiling 2443:Khorasan Province 2435: 2434: 2427: 2349:hydrochloric acid 2193: 2192: 2185: 2084:Serabit el-Khadim 2012:product known as 1878:(Anasazi) of the 1147:Serabit el-Khadim 1075:Khorasan Province 1073:, the capital of 978:Mineral Park mine 885:Turquoise in the 690:hydrochloric acid 643:X-ray diffraction 635:cryptocrystalline 453: 452: 249: 130: 129: 122: 104: 21:Turquoise (color) 5892: 5276:Britannia silver 5225: 5034: 4856: 4849: 4842: 4833: 4818: 4817: 4816: 4805: 4804: 4781:List of diamonds 4539: 4315: 4287: 4280: 4273: 4264: 4251: 4250: 4249: 4095: 4088: 4081: 4072: 4062: 4047: 4028: 4016: 4005: 3986: 3967: 3961: 3953: 3944: 3942: 3940: 3931:. Archived from 3909: 3908: 3906: 3905: 3896:. Archived from 3889: 3880: 3879: 3859: 3853: 3852: 3850: 3848: 3827: 3818: 3812: 3806: 3800: 3799: 3792: 3786: 3785: 3779: 3771: 3769: 3767: 3744: 3738: 3737: 3729: 3723: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3713:on 11 March 2018 3709:. Archived from 3698: 3692: 3691: 3689: 3688: 3669: 3663: 3662: 3660: 3659: 3644: 3638: 3637: 3631: 3623: 3605: 3599: 3598: 3596: 3595: 3586:. Archived from 3582:Watson, Martin. 3579: 3570: 3569: 3547: 3541: 3540: 3528: 3522: 3521: 3514: 3508: 3507: 3489: 3483: 3474: 3468: 3467: 3451: 3445: 3444: 3442: 3441: 3427: 3421: 3420: 3418: 3416: 3411: 3401: 3392: 3386: 3385: 3357: 3342: 3341: 3339: 3337: 3322: 3316: 3315: 3313: 3298:Resource Geology 3289: 3283: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3253: 3251: 3228: 3222: 3221: 3219: 3217: 3196: 3187: 3181: 3180: 3162: 3153: 3152: 3150: 3149: 3134: 3128: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3104: 3098: 3085: 3072: 3071: 3063: 3054: 3053: 3021: 3010: 3009: 2998: 2992: 2991: 2989: 2965:. Vol. IV. 2960: 2951: 2932: 2930: 2924: 2916: 2914: 2913: 2902: 2901: 2900: 2884: 2873: 2872: 2856: 2846: 2827: 2826: 2816: 2782: 2766: 2765: 2764: 2749:List of minerals 2625: 2618: 2614: 2611: 2605: 2574: 2566: 2430: 2423: 2419: 2416: 2410: 2387: 2379: 2365:refractive index 2361:specific gravity 2188: 2181: 2177: 2174: 2168: 2137: 2129: 2038:Egyptian Revival 1960:Ancient Egyptian 1826:as their base), 1818:objects such as 1636:Ancestral Pueblo 1518:Eastern Rhodopes 1353:Native Americans 1330:Esmeralda County 1206: 1189:Ancestral Pueblo 786: 730:pseudomorphously 679:refractive index 608: 607: 525: 486:chemical formula 370:Refractive index 352:Specific gravity 311: 279:Massive, nodular 243: 240: 195: 170: 169:(repeating unit) 144: 132: 125: 118: 114: 111: 105: 103: 62: 38: 30: 5900: 5899: 5895: 5894: 5893: 5891: 5890: 5889: 5835: 5834: 5833: 5828: 5787: 5745: 5734:Spondylus shell 5692: 5614: 5385: 5371:Stainless steel 5322: 5306:Sterling silver 5266:Precious metal 5261: 5229:Precious metals 5212: 5176: 5078: 5025: 4865: 4860: 4830: 4825: 4814: 4812: 4795: 4764: 4648: 4590: 4534: 4524: 4441: 4401: 4358: 4303: 4296: 4291: 4261: 4256: 4247: 4245: 4238: 4229:Santabarbaraite 4215: 4192: 4104: 4099: 4055: 4050: 4044: 4031: 4025: 4008: 4002: 3989: 3983: 3970: 3954: 3947: 3938: 3936: 3922: 3918: 3916:Further reading 3913: 3912: 3903: 3901: 3891: 3890: 3883: 3861: 3860: 3856: 3846: 3844: 3825: 3820: 3819: 3815: 3807: 3803: 3794: 3793: 3789: 3772: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3746: 3745: 3741: 3731: 3730: 3726: 3716: 3714: 3700: 3699: 3695: 3686: 3684: 3671: 3670: 3666: 3657: 3655: 3646: 3645: 3641: 3624: 3620: 3607: 3606: 3602: 3593: 3591: 3581: 3580: 3573: 3566: 3549: 3548: 3544: 3530: 3529: 3525: 3516: 3515: 3511: 3504: 3491: 3490: 3486: 3475: 3471: 3453: 3452: 3448: 3439: 3437: 3429: 3428: 3424: 3414: 3412: 3409:10.1.1.505.2557 3399: 3394: 3393: 3389: 3359: 3358: 3345: 3335: 3333: 3330:Geology Science 3324: 3323: 3319: 3291: 3290: 3286: 3276: 3274: 3264: 3263: 3259: 3249: 3247: 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516: 508: 503: 497: 488: 394: 389: 386: 381: 378: 309: 242: 238: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 168: 167: 126: 115: 109: 106: 63: 61: 51: 39: 28: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5898: 5896: 5888: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5837: 5836: 5830: 5829: 5827: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5806: 5801: 5796: 5795:Related topics 5792: 5789: 5788: 5786: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5769: 5763: 5757: 5755: 5751: 5750: 5747: 5746: 5744: 5743: 5738: 5737: 5736: 5726: 5721: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5700: 5698: 5694: 5693: 5691: 5690: 5685: 5680: 5675: 5670: 5665: 5660: 5659: 5658: 5653: 5643: 5638: 5633: 5628: 5622: 5620: 5616: 5615: 5613: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5592: 5587: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5567: 5562: 5557: 5552: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5467: 5462: 5457: 5452: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5417: 5412: 5407: 5402: 5396: 5394: 5387: 5386: 5384: 5383: 5378: 5373: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5353: 5348: 5343: 5338: 5332: 5330: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5320: 5315: 5314: 5313: 5303: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5272: 5270: 5263: 5262: 5260: 5259: 5254: 5249: 5244: 5239: 5233: 5231: 5222: 5218: 5217: 5214: 5213: 5211: 5210: 5205: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5184: 5182: 5178: 5177: 5175: 5174: 5169: 5167:Wire sculpture 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5129: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5113: 5112: 5107: 5102: 5092: 5086: 5084: 5080: 5079: 5077: 5076: 5071: 5066: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5046: 5040: 5038: 5031: 5027: 5026: 5024: 5023: 5022: 5021: 5016: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4991: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4971: 4966: 4961: 4956: 4951: 4946: 4941: 4936: 4931: 4926: 4921: 4916: 4911: 4906: 4901: 4896: 4891: 4886: 4881: 4875: 4873: 4867: 4866: 4861: 4859: 4858: 4851: 4844: 4836: 4827: 4826: 4824: 4823: 4800: 4797: 4796: 4794: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4778: 4772: 4770: 4766: 4765: 4763: 4762: 4748: 4734: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4711: 4706: 4700: 4695: 4689: 4679: 4677:Petrified wood 4674: 4666: 4660: 4658: 4654: 4653: 4650: 4649: 4647: 4646: 4640: 4634: 4629: 4616: 4611: 4606: 4600: 4598: 4592: 4591: 4589: 4588: 4583: 4578: 4568: 4563: 4558: 4553: 4547: 4545: 4536: 4530: 4529: 4526: 4525: 4523: 4522: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4485: 4480: 4474: 4464: 4463:, polychromous 4458: 4451: 4449: 4443: 4442: 4440: 4439: 4434: 4429: 4422: 4417: 4411: 4409: 4403: 4402: 4400: 4399: 4394: 4389: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4368: 4366: 4360: 4359: 4357: 4356: 4351: 4346: 4341: 4336: 4331: 4325: 4323: 4312: 4305: 4304: 4301: 4298: 4297: 4292: 4290: 4289: 4282: 4275: 4267: 4258: 4257: 4243: 4240: 4239: 4237: 4236: 4231: 4225: 4223: 4217: 4216: 4214: 4213: 4208: 4202: 4200: 4194: 4193: 4191: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4160: 4155: 4153:Metatorbernite 4150: 4145: 4143:Hydroxyapatite 4140: 4135: 4130: 4125: 4120: 4114: 4112: 4106: 4105: 4100: 4098: 4097: 4090: 4083: 4075: 4069: 4068: 4054: 4053:External links 4051: 4049: 4048: 4042: 4029: 4023: 4006: 4000: 3987: 3981: 3968: 3945: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3911: 3910: 3881: 3854: 3813: 3801: 3787: 3760:978-1423650898 3759: 3739: 3724: 3693: 3664: 3639: 3618: 3600: 3571: 3564: 3542: 3523: 3509: 3502: 3484: 3469: 3446: 3422: 3387: 3368:(3): 110–114. 3343: 3317: 3304:(2): 195–207. 3284: 3257: 3243: 3223: 3182: 3175: 3154: 3129: 3099: 3073: 3055: 3036:(2): 133–148. 3011: 2993: 2979: 2933: 2874: 2867: 2828: 2799:(3): 291–320. 2776: 2775: 2773: 2770: 2769: 2768: 2762: 2751: 2746: 2740: 2734: 2726: 2723: 2650:American robin 2646:robin egg blue 2628: 2627: 2578: 2576: 2569: 2563: 2560: 2550: 2549:Reconstitution 2547: 2523: 2520: 2510: 2507: 2497: 2494: 2476: 2473: 2467: 2464: 2453:and decreased 2433: 2432: 2391: 2389: 2382: 2376: 2373: 2191: 2190: 2141: 2139: 2132: 2126: 2123: 2073:Persian Empire 2063: 2060: 2025:archaeological 1638:people of the 1627: 1626:History of use 1624: 1573:Nagari-Khorsum 1513: 1510: 1471:Mineral County 1342:Mineral County 1316:counties) and 1266:San Bernardino 1217: 1214: 1178:flash flooding 1141:by the native 1110: 1107: 1016: 1013: 965: 962: 876:meteoric water 796: 793: 782: 761:chalcosiderite 757:solid solution 647:crystal system 622: 619: 574:Ottoman Empire 558: 555: 535:robin egg blue 451: 450: 448: 444: 443: 437: 431: 430: 424: 418: 417: 414: 408: 407: 404: 398: 397: 392: 384: 376: 372: 366: 365: 362: 358: 357: 354: 348: 347: 342: 336: 335: 332: 326: 325: 322: 316: 315: 312: 303: 302: 297: 291: 290: 287: 281: 280: 277: 271: 270: 260: 256: 255: 254:Identification 251: 250: 235: 229: 228: 223: 221:Crystal system 217: 216: 213: 207: 206: 203: 197: 196: 191: 171: 161: 160: 155: 151: 150: 146: 145: 137: 136: 128: 127: 42: 40: 33: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5897: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5842: 5840: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5815: 5812: 5810: 5807: 5805: 5802: 5800: 5799:Body piercing 5797: 5794: 5793: 5790: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5773: 5770: 5767: 5764: 5762: 5759: 5758: 5756: 5752: 5742: 5739: 5735: 5732: 5731: 5730: 5727: 5725: 5722: 5720: 5717: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5701: 5699: 5695: 5689: 5688:Tortoiseshell 5686: 5684: 5681: 5679: 5676: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5657: 5654: 5652: 5649: 5648: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5637: 5634: 5632: 5629: 5627: 5624: 5623: 5621: 5617: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5581: 5578: 5576: 5573: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5563: 5561: 5558: 5556: 5553: 5550: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5466: 5463: 5461: 5458: 5456: 5453: 5451: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5425: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5406: 5403: 5401: 5398: 5397: 5395: 5393: 5388: 5382: 5379: 5377: 5374: 5372: 5369: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5357: 5354: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5333: 5331: 5329: 5325: 5319: 5316: 5312: 5309: 5308: 5307: 5304: 5302: 5299: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5273: 5271: 5269: 5264: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5248: 5245: 5243: 5240: 5238: 5235: 5234: 5232: 5230: 5226: 5223: 5219: 5209: 5206: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5185: 5183: 5179: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5123: 5120: 5118: 5115: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5101: 5098: 5097: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5087: 5085: 5081: 5075: 5072: 5070: 5067: 5065: 5062: 5060: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5045: 5044:Bench jeweler 5042: 5041: 5039: 5035: 5032: 5028: 5020: 5017: 5015: 5012: 5011: 5010: 5007: 5005: 5002: 5000: 4997: 4995: 4992: 4990: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4980: 4977: 4975: 4972: 4970: 4967: 4965: 4962: 4960: 4957: 4955: 4952: 4950: 4947: 4945: 4942: 4940: 4937: 4935: 4932: 4930: 4927: 4925: 4922: 4920: 4917: 4915: 4912: 4910: 4907: 4905: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4885: 4882: 4880: 4877: 4876: 4874: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4857: 4852: 4850: 4845: 4843: 4838: 4837: 4834: 4822: 4821: 4810: 4809: 4808: 4798: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4773: 4771: 4767: 4760: 4756: 4752: 4749: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4720: 4717: 4715: 4712: 4710: 4707: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4690: 4687: 4683: 4680: 4678: 4675: 4673: 4670: 4667: 4665: 4662: 4661: 4659: 4655: 4645: 4641: 4639: 4635: 4633: 4630: 4628: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4615: 4612: 4610: 4607: 4605: 4602: 4601: 4599: 4597: 4593: 4587: 4584: 4582: 4579: 4576: 4572: 4569: 4567: 4564: 4562: 4559: 4557: 4554: 4552: 4549: 4548: 4546: 4544: 4540: 4537: 4531: 4521: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4505: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4486: 4484: 4481: 4478: 4475: 4472: 4468: 4465: 4462: 4459: 4456: 4453: 4452: 4450: 4448: 4444: 4438: 4435: 4433: 4430: 4427: 4423: 4421: 4418: 4416: 4413: 4412: 4410: 4408: 4404: 4398: 4395: 4393: 4390: 4388: 4385: 4383: 4380: 4378: 4375: 4373: 4372:Pink sapphire 4370: 4369: 4367: 4365: 4361: 4355: 4352: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4344:Blue Sapphire 4342: 4340: 4337: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4326: 4324: 4322: 4321: 4316: 4313: 4310: 4306: 4299: 4295: 4288: 4283: 4281: 4276: 4274: 4269: 4268: 4265: 4255: 4254: 4241: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4227: 4226: 4224: 4222: 4218: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4203: 4201: 4199: 4195: 4189: 4188:Wycheproofite 4186: 4184: 4181: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4148:Lithiophilite 4146: 4144: 4141: 4139: 4136: 4134: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4118:Allanpringite 4116: 4115: 4113: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4096: 4091: 4089: 4084: 4082: 4077: 4076: 4073: 4066: 4061: 4057: 4056: 4052: 4045: 4043:0-7506-1674-1 4039: 4035: 4030: 4026: 4024:0-8069-9461-4 4020: 4015: 4014: 4007: 4003: 4001:3-925369-54-6 3997: 3993: 3988: 3984: 3982:0-87380-056-7 3978: 3974: 3969: 3965: 3959: 3951: 3946: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3921: 3920: 3915: 3900:on 2008-02-01 3899: 3895: 3888: 3886: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3858: 3855: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3824: 3817: 3814: 3811:, p. 34. 3810: 3805: 3802: 3797: 3791: 3788: 3783: 3777: 3762: 3756: 3752: 3751: 3743: 3740: 3736:. p. 24. 3735: 3728: 3725: 3712: 3708: 3704: 3697: 3694: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3668: 3665: 3654:on 2006-09-30 3653: 3649: 3643: 3640: 3635: 3629: 3621: 3619:9780292760882 3615: 3611: 3604: 3601: 3589: 3585: 3578: 3576: 3572: 3567: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3546: 3543: 3539:(7–8): 17–22. 3538: 3534: 3527: 3524: 3519: 3513: 3510: 3505: 3503:9789644260315 3499: 3495: 3488: 3485: 3482: 3479: 3473: 3470: 3466:(3): 110–111. 3465: 3461: 3460:Geology Today 3457: 3450: 3447: 3436: 3432: 3426: 3423: 3410: 3405: 3398: 3391: 3388: 3383: 3379: 3375: 3371: 3367: 3363: 3362:Geology Today 3356: 3354: 3352: 3350: 3348: 3344: 3331: 3327: 3321: 3318: 3312: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3288: 3285: 3272: 3268: 3261: 3258: 3246: 3244:9781789692815 3240: 3236: 3235: 3227: 3224: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3193: 3186: 3183: 3178: 3172: 3168: 3161: 3159: 3155: 3144:on 2017-05-02 3143: 3139: 3133: 3130: 3118:on 2021-12-08 3117: 3113: 3109: 3103: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3089: 3084: 3082: 3080: 3078: 3074: 3069: 3062: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3020: 3018: 3016: 3012: 3007: 3003: 2997: 2994: 2986: 2982: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2957: 2950: 2948: 2946: 2944: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2934: 2928: 2922: 2907: 2895: 2891: 2890: 2883: 2881: 2879: 2875: 2870: 2864: 2860: 2855: 2854: 2845: 2843: 2841: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2820: 2815: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2793: 2788: 2781: 2778: 2771: 2755: 2752: 2750: 2747: 2744: 2741: 2738: 2735: 2732: 2729: 2728: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2716: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2698: 2695: 2691: 2688: 2683: 2680:Turquoise is 2678: 2676: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2658: 2653: 2651: 2647: 2643: 2634: 2624: 2621: 2613: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2584: 2579:This section 2577: 2573: 2568: 2567: 2561: 2559: 2557: 2548: 2546: 2543: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2522:Stabilization 2521: 2519: 2516: 2515:Prussian blue 2508: 2506: 2504: 2495: 2493: 2491: 2486: 2482: 2474: 2472: 2465: 2463: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2444: 2439: 2429: 2426: 2418: 2408: 2404: 2398: 2397: 2392:This section 2390: 2386: 2381: 2380: 2374: 2372: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2345: 2342: 2337: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2262: 2260: 2256: 2255:Pierre Gilson 2252: 2248: 2244: 2243:copper oleate 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2224: 2220: 2212: 2209: 2205: 2202: 2197: 2187: 2184: 2176: 2166: 2162: 2158: 2152: 2151: 2147: 2142:This section 2140: 2136: 2131: 2130: 2124: 2122: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2087: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2074: 2070: 2069:Ancient Egypt 2061: 2059: 2057: 2053: 2049: 2045: 2044: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2026: 2022: 2017: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1986: 1981: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1964:First Dynasty 1961: 1956: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1900: 1896: 1892: 1887: 1885: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1861: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1837: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1822:(some with a 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1784: 1781: 1777: 1773: 1769: 1765: 1762:) with other 1761: 1757: 1753: 1752:Shang dynasty 1749: 1745: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1732:Mesoamericans 1729: 1725: 1724:Ancient Egypt 1718: 1715:and coloured 1714: 1710: 1706: 1701: 1694: 1693: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1671: 1663: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1642:great wealth. 1641: 1637: 1632: 1625: 1623: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1576: 1574: 1570: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1538: 1534: 1530: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1512:Other sources 1511: 1509: 1507: 1503: 1498: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1482:Lynch Station 1478: 1476: 1472: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1418: 1414: 1409: 1405: 1402: 1398: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1376: 1374: 1370: 1364: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1351: 1350:pre-Columbian 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1246: 1238: 1231: 1228:, US, at the 1227: 1222: 1216:United States 1215: 1210: 1209:Los Cerrillos 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1185: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1158: 1156: 1152: 1151:Wadi Maghareh 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1123:ancient Egypt 1120: 1116: 1115:First Dynasty 1108: 1106: 1104: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1055: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1014: 1012: 1010: 1003: 999: 996:Turquoise of 994: 990: 983: 979: 975: 970: 963: 961: 959: 955: 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 931: 929: 925: 921: 918: 914: 910: 906: 903: 899: 895: 892: 888: 883: 881: 877: 873: 869: 864: 862: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 834: 833:calc-alkaline 830: 826: 822: 814: 810: 806: 801: 794: 792: 790: 762: 758: 753: 751: 747: 743: 739: 735: 731: 727: 723: 719: 713: 711: 707: 703: 700:is smooth to 699: 695: 691: 686: 684: 683:birefringence 680: 675: 673: 669: 668:idiochromatic 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 644: 640: 636: 632: 628: 627:Mohs hardness 620: 618: 616: 612: 603: 602:Ancient Greek 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 568: 564: 556: 554: 552: 548: 544: 541:color of the 540: 536: 531: 529: 524: 512: 504: 494: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 472: 468: 465: 464:blue-to-green 461: 457: 449: 445: 442: 438: 436: 432: 429: 425: 423: 419: 415: 413: 409: 405: 403: 402:Birefringence 399: 395: 387: 379: 373: 371: 367: 363: 359: 355: 353: 349: 346: 343: 341: 337: 333: 331: 327: 323: 321: 317: 313: 308: 304: 301: 298: 296: 292: 288: 286: 282: 278: 276: 275:Crystal habit 272: 268: 264: 261: 257: 252: 247: 236: 234: 233:Crystal class 230: 227: 224: 222: 218: 214: 212: 208: 204: 202: 198: 172: 166: 162: 159: 156: 152: 147: 143: 138: 133: 124: 121: 113: 102: 99: 95: 92: 88: 85: 81: 78: 74: 71: – 70: 66: 65:Find sources: 59: 55: 49: 48: 43:This article 41: 37: 32: 31: 26: 22: 5824:Wearable art 5819:Phaleristics 5814:Metalworking 5719:Gutta-percha 5599: 5495:Lapis lazuli 5281:Colored gold 5162:Stonesetting 4811: 4755:Pyrophyllite 4724:Serpentinite 4705:(green mica) 4595: 4575:Baltic amber 4542: 4519: 4446: 4406: 4363: 4318: 4244: 4205: 4138:Fluorapatite 4128:Brazilianite 4033: 4012: 3991: 3972: 3949: 3939:November 15, 3937:. 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