German revolutions of 1848–1849

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Napoleon in 1814, Prussia took over the west bank of the Rhineland. Its government treated the Rhinelanders as subjects and alien peoples, and it began to reinstate the hated feudal structures. Much of the revolutionary impulse in the Rhineland in 1848 was colored by a strong anti-Prussian feeling. The Rhinelanders took careful note of the announcement by King Frederick William IV on 18 March 1848, in Berlin that a United Diet would be formed and that other democratic reforms would be instituted. Elections for the United Diet were indirect. The elections were conducted on the basis of universal male suffrage, and they were to choose the members of the United Diet. Rhinelanders remained hopeful regarding this progress and did not participate in the early round of uprisings that were occurring in other parts of Germany.

1832: 1147:, and the survivors of Willich's Corps crossed over the frontier into the safety of Switzerland. Engels did not reach Switzerland until 25 July 1849. He sent word of his survival to Marx and friends and comrades in London, England. A refugee in Switzerland, Engels began to write about his experiences during the revolution. He published the article, "The Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution." Due to the Prussian Army's ease in crushing the uprising, many South German states came to believe that Prussia, not Austria, was going to be the new power in the region. The suppression of the uprising in Baden and the Palatinate was the end of the German revolutionary uprisings that had begun in the spring of 1848. 449: 1711:, a dancer and actress unacceptable to the aristocracy and the Church. She tried to launch liberal reforms through a Protestant prime minister, which outraged the state's Catholic conservatives. On 9 February, conservatives came out onto the streets in protest. This 9 February 1848, demonstration was the first in that revolutionary year. It was an exception among the wave of liberal protests. The conservatives wanted to be rid of Lola Montez, and had no other political agenda. Liberal students took advantage of the Lola Montez affair to stress their demands for political change. All over Bavaria, students started demonstrating for constitutional reform, just as students were doing in other cities. 856:) were separated only by the Rhine. The uprising in Baden and the Palatinate took place largely in the Rhine Valley along their mutual border, and are considered aspects of the same movement. In May 1849, the Grand Duke was forced to leave Karlsruhe, Baden and seek help from Prussia. Provisional governments were declared in both the Palatinate and Baden. In Baden conditions for the provisional government were ideal: the public and army were both strongly in support of constitutional change and democratic reform in the government. The army strongly supported the demands for a constitution; the state had amply supplied arsenals, and a full exchequer. The Palatinate did not have the same conditions. 1371:, of my company, an exceptionally small man, spoke out at the Council of War and declared that it would be a disgrace if we surrendered to the Revolutionaries without a blow. Thereupon it was resolved to put up a fight. Our main position was to be on the first floor, led, up to by four stone staircases, each of which was allotted to a company. Our firearms, which had been placed in hiding already, were taken out again, and we began to block up the entrances to the staircases. Unfortunately we had no ammunition! This lack was in some degree made good by such officers as were sportsmen and had some powder and shot to distribute, so that firing might have been done by each of the companies; 1359:. The outbreak began at different parts of the city at two o'clock in the afternoon of the 18th, our attention being called to it by the circumstance that shots were fired at the sentinels in front of the Franz Regiment's barracks, which adjoined those of the Cadet Corps. The report went that the Cadet Corps, that breeding place of reaction, was to be up rooted ! This put our superior officers in a very awkward predicament; all connection with the outer world was cut off, and the Franz Regiment, which had been quartered next door to us, had been moved away, so we had to decide for ourselves what to do. General 2200:

however, that the Assembly needed to gain agreement of the monarchs, who were highly reactionary. In addition, only the Kingdom of Prussia had the military force necessary to effect this unification. Many in the Assembly, including Gagern, distrusted the intentions of the Prussian state and its absolutist government. Fearful of losing their positions as servants of the monarchs, the moderate liberals quickly concluded that only negotiations would lead to political progress. The Prussian army ignored the demands for reforms and chased the rump assembly out of Frankfurt in 1849.

219: 208: 161: 150: 1026: 1442: 1265: 1983: 230: 172: 1276:, leaving one person dead and many injured. On 18 March, a large demonstration occurred. After two shots were fired, fearing that some of the 20,000 soldiers would be used against them, demonstrators erected barricades, and a battle ensued until troops were ordered 13 hours later to retreat, leaving hundreds dead. Afterwards, Frederick William attempted to reassure the public that he would proceed with reorganizing his government. The King also approved arming the citizens. 264: 185: 864: 1484: 1550:

and the nobility had exercised over the area previously. The soil of the Rhineland is not the best for agriculture, but forestry has traditionally been a strong industry there. The relative lack of agriculture, late 18th-century elimination of the feudal structure, and the strong logging industry contributed to the industrialization of the Rhineland. With nearby sources of coal in the Mark, and access via the Rhine to the

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realized. They were unwilling to give up any power in its pursuit. As princes quelled rebellions in their territories, they followed the example of Prussia, recalling their elected deputies from the Assembly. Only Prussia, with its overwhelming military might, was able to protect the Frankfurt Assembly from military attack by the princes. But Prussia had its own interests in mind.

1140:, a former Prussian military officer. He was also a member of the Communist League and supported revolutionary change in Germany. The newly formed Willich Corps combined with other revolutionary groups to form an army of about 30,000 strong; it fought to resist the highly trained Prussian troops. Engels fought with the Willich Corps for their entire campaign in the Palatinate. 1120:, at the Second Democratic Congress held in Berlin from 26 October through 30 October 1848. Because of his commitments to the provisional government, D'Ester was unable to attend an important meeting in Paris on behalf of the German Central Committee. He wanted to provide Marx with the mandate to attend the meeting in his place. Marx and Engels met with D'Ester in the town of 2231:, supporters of Austria versus supporters of Prussia. The major conflict that caused the collapse of the Assembly was the stand-off between demands of the moderates to write a democratic constitution and liberals' reliance on negotiation with reactionary monarchs to produce reforms. The various interest groups began to gather outside the Assembly to decide on their tactics. 1522:. In all, about 2,500 combatants manned the barricades during the May Uprising. On 9 May 1849, together with the leaders of the uprising, Wagner left Dresden for Switzerland to avoid arrest. He spent a number of years in exile abroad, in Switzerland, Italy, and Paris. Finally the government lifted its ban against him and he returned to Germany. 1073:

collected on the Palatinate side, but Brentano's government collected it on the Baden side. Due to the continued lack of coordination, Mieroslawski lost battles in Waghausle and Ubstadt in Baden. He and his troops were forced to retreat across the mountains of southern Baden, where they fought a last battle against the Prussians in the town of

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did not find a fully organized state or a full exchequer. Arms in the Palatinate were limited to privately held muskets, rifles and sporting guns. The provisional government of the Palatinate sent agents to France and Belgium to purchase arms but they were unsuccessful. France banned sales and export of arms to either Baden or the Palatinate.

780:, to the provisional parliament. In the minority and frustrated with the lack of progress, Hecker and Struve walked out in protest on 2 April 1848. The walkout and the continuing revolutionary upsurge in Germany spurred the provisional parliament to action; they passed a resolution calling for an All-German National Assembly to be formed. 1736:. The aim of the revolution was to improve the economic and political situation of ordinary citizens in Liechtenstein, primarily fuelled by the worsening economy in the country in the years prior. On 22 March 1848, the people's committee appointed a three-person committee to lead the Liechtenstein revolutionary movement, which included 2188:

group of radical members wanted the assembly to declare itself as a law-giving parliament. They were unable to overcome this fundamental division, and did not take any definitive action toward unification or the introduction of democratic rules. The assembly declined into debate. While the French revolution drew on an existing

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petty bourgeoisie, were starting to vacillate. Rather than working to organize and direct the various factions of protests, they began to draw back from the revolutionary movement, especially the destruction of property. The Committee of Public Safety tried to calm the reformist movement and quell the demonstrations.

2072:, and the office of head of state ("Emperor of the Germans") was to be hereditary and held by the respective King of Prussia. The latter proposal was carried by a mere 290 votes in favour, with 248 abstentions. The constitution was recognized by 29 smaller states but not by Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, 1760:

was formed on 7 March 1849 with 24 elected representatives and acted as the first democratic representation in Liechtenstein, with Schädler was elected as District Administrator. However, after the failure of the German revolutions, Aloys II once again instated absolute power over Liechtenstein on 20

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Following the revolution, a constitutional council was elected on 27 July 1848 in response to popular demand from the revolutionaries, of which Schädler was elected as its president. The primary task of the council was the creation the draft for a new Liechtenstein constitution, of which the work was

1627:. The uprising in Düsseldorf was suppressed the following day on 10 May 1849. In the town of Elberfeld, the uprising showed strength and persistence, as 15,000 workers took to the streets and erected barricades; they confronted the Prussian troops sent to suppress the unrest and to collect a quota of 1578:

In 1848, Prussia controlled the Rhineland as part of "Western Prussia", having first acquired territory in this area in 1614. During the Napoleonic Era, as noted above, the Rhineland west of the Rhine had been incorporated into France and its feudal structures dismantled. But, following the defeat of

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Brentano ordered the day-to-day affairs of the uprising in Baden, and Mieroslawski directed a military command on the Palatinate side. They did not coordinate well. For example, Mieroslawski decided to abolish the long-standing toll on the Mannheim-Ludwigshaven bridge over the Rhine River. It was not

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Ferdinand appointed new, nominally liberal, ministers. The Austrian government drafted a constitution in late April 1848. The people rejected this, as the majority was denied the right to vote. The citizens of Vienna returned to the streets from 26 May through 27, 1848, erecting barricades to prepare

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was greeted with great consternation in Germany, and debated in the Assembly, but it was powerless to control Prussia. On 16 September 1848, the Frankfurt National Assembly approved of the Malmö Treaty by a majority vote. Public support for the National Assembly declined sharply following this vote,

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Meanwhile, the rulers of the German states gradually realised that their positions were no longer under threat. The King of Bavaria had stepped down, but that was only partly the result of pressure from below. As the threat of an armed uprising receded, the monarchs realized unification would not be

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as the first President of the Assembly. He had strong support from the Center-Right Unionist party and some influence with moderates of the left, such that he could control perhaps 250 of the deputies of the Frankfurt Assembly. Gagern strongly supported unification of the German states. He insisted,

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in Berlin and offered him the crown of the Emperor under this new constitution. Frederick William told the delegation that he felt honoured but could only accept the crown with the consent of his peers, the other sovereign monarchs and free cities. But later, in a letter to a relative in England, he

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The Rhineland shared a common history with the Rhenish Hesse, Luxembourg and the Palatinate of having been under the control of Revolutionary and then Napoleonic France from 1795. His rule established social, administrative and legislative measures taken that broke up the feudal rule that the clergy

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Arrived at the Schloss, led by General von Below, himself afoot, we were ushered through "Portal No. I" into the Castle Yard, where General von Prittwitz was to be seen mounted on a chestnut with some officers round about him. We had now to down arms and we began almost to freeze in the cold morning

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Democrats of the Palatinate and across Germany considered the Baden-Palatinate insurrection to be part of the wider all-German struggle for constitutional rights. Franz Sigel, a second lieutenant in the Baden army, a democrat and a supporter of the provisional government, developed a plan to protect

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Baden was the first state in Germany to have popular unrest, despite Baden being one of the most liberal states in Germany. After the news of the February Days in Paris reached Baden, there were several unorganized instances of peasants burning the mansions of local aristocrats and threatening them.

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to obtain arms for the insurgents. Workers from Solingen stormed the arsenal at Gräfrath and obtained arms and cartridges for the insurgents. (As noted above under the heading on "The Palatinate") Frederick Engels was active in the uprising in Elberfeld from 11 May 1849 until the end of the revolt.

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The members of the Committee for Public Safety could not agree on a common plan, let alone control the various groups taking part in the uprising. The awakened working classes were pursuing their goals with single-minded determination. Citizen-military forces (paramilitary) organized to support the

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affected all males under the age of 40 years, and such a call up was to be done only in time of war, not in peacetime, when it was considered illegal. The Prussian King dissolved the Second Chamber of the United Diet because on 27 March 1849 it passed an unpopular constitution. The entire citizenry

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for the civilian victims of the uprising. He and his ministers and generals wore the revolutionary tricolor of black, red, and gold. Polish prisoners, who had been jailed for planning a rebellion in formerly Polish territories now ruled by Prussia, were liberated and paraded through the city to the

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The Frankfurt Assembly had no powers to raise taxes and relied completely on the goodwill of the monarchs. As many of the members held influential provincial positions, their reluctance to call for radical reforms or annoy their employers meant that they could not raise funds for armed forces, nor

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reflected the many different interests of the German ruling classes. Its members were unable to form coalitions and push for specific goals. The first conflict arose over the goals of the assembly. The moderate liberals wanted to draft a constitution to present to the monarchs, whereas the smaller

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The achievements of the revolutionaries of March 1848 were reversed in all of the German states and by 1851, the Basic Rights had also been abolished nearly everywhere. In the end, the revolution fizzled because of the divisions between the various factions in Frankfurt, the calculating caution of

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The Palatinate traditionally contained more upper-class citizens than other areas of Germany, and they resisted the revolutionary changes. In the Palatinate, the army did not support the revolution, and it was not well supplied. When the insurrectionary government took over in the Palatinate, they

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was a catalyst to revolution throughout the German states. Popular demands were made for an elected representative government and for the unification of Germany. Fear on the part of the princes and rulers of the various German states caused them to concede in the demand for reform. They approved a

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on 18 May 1848. The deputies consisted of 122 government officials, 95 judges, 81 lawyers, 103 teachers, 17 manufacturers and wholesale dealers, 15 physicians, and 40 landowners. A majority of the Assembly were liberals. It became known as the "professors' parliament", as many of its members were

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Engels remained in the Palatinate, where in 1849 he joined citizens at the barricades of Elberfeld in the Rhineland, preparing to fight the Prussian troops expected to attack the uprising. On his way to Elberfeld, Engels took two cases of rifle cartridges which had been gathered by the workers of

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Ferdinand returned to Vienna from Innsbruck on 12 August 1848. Soon after his return, the working-class populace hit the streets again on 21 August to protest high unemployment and the government's decree to reduce wages. On 23 August 1848, Austrian troops opened fire on unarmed demonstrators and

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The upper bourgeoisie were frightened by the armed working classes taking to the streets. They began to separate themselves from the movement for constitutional reform and the Committee of Public Safety, describing the leaders as bloodthirsty terrorists. Leaders of the Committee, who were mostly

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Since the revolutionary events of 1830, Saxony had been ruled as a constitutional monarchy with a two-chamber legislature and an accountable ministry. This constitution continued to serve as the basis of the Saxon government until 1918. The Revolution of 1848 brought more popular reforms in the

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principles, while the working class sought radical improvements to their working and living conditions. As the middle class and working class components of the Revolution split, the conservative aristocracy defeated it. Liberals were forced into exile to escape political persecution, where they

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and Holstein were unsure of what was occurring in Copenhagen. They revolted to found a separate and autonomous province with closer relations with the German states. On 24 March 1848, they set up a new provisional, autonomous government in Holstein and raised a Schleswig-Holstein army of 7,000

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had been sent to Vienna by his left-wing political colleagues on a fact-finding mission to see how Austria's government was rolling back liberal achievements by military force. Blum participated in the street fighting, was arrested and executed on 9 November, despite his claim to immunity from

2016:"). This was an attempt to create a provisional executive power, but it did not get very far since most states failed to fully recognize the new government. The National Assembly lost reputation in the eyes of the German public when Prussia carried through its own political intentions in the 974:. Refusing to shoot insurgent forces who stormed the arsenal on 14 June 1848, Natzmer became a hero to insurgents across Germany. He was sentenced to 15 years in prison for refusing orders to shoot, but in 1849, he escaped prison and fled to the Palatinate to join its insurgent forces. 783:

On 8 April 1848, a law allowing universal suffrage and an indirect (two-stage) voting system was agreed to by the assembly. A new National Assembly was selected, and on 18 May 1848, 809 delegates (585 of whom were elected) were seated at St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt to convene the

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enforce laws they might pass. The hundred or so radicals, who believed that an armed uprising was necessary, lost interest and left the assembly to try to raise forces at a local level to bring about a 'real' revolution. Without a bureaucracy, they could not raise any money.

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were heavily industrialized, with a number of different industries represented. At the beginning of the 19th century, more than 90% of the population of the Rhineland was engaged in agriculture (including lumbering), but by 1933, only 12% were still working in agriculture

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was placed in charge of the peoples' militia. Ludwik Mieroslawski, a Polish-born national who had taken part in the military operations during the Polish uprising of 1830–1831, was placed in charge of the military operation on the Palatinate side of the Rhine River.

2334:. Peasant revolts in 1848–1849 involved more participants than the national revolutions of the period. Most importantly, they were successful bringing the final abolition of serfdom or its remnants across the German Confederation, the Austrian Empire and 1108:, then serving as a member of the provisional government in Baden and the Palatinate. He was a physician, democrat and socialist who had been a member of the Cologne community chapter of the Communist League. D'Ester had been elected as a deputy to the 1401:, by order of General von Prittwitz. We set out just as day was breaking. In the Königstrasse we passed three or four deserted barricades; we could see that most of the windows in the street were broken and that all the houses showed marks of bullets. 1590:

The Prussian government mistook this quietude in the Rhineland for loyalty to the autocratic Prussian government. The Prussian government began offering military assistance to other states in suppressing the revolts in their territories and cities,

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were members of the burghers or liberal bureaucracy. They set about the task of writing a constitution "by agreement with the Crown", but on 9 November, before it had completed its work, the Assembly was adjourned and "for its own safety" moved to

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there. On 29 September 1848, the Austrian troops were defeated by the Hungarian revolutionary forces. On 6 October through 7, 1848, the citizens of Vienna had demonstrated against the emperor's actions against forces in Hungary, resulting in the

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Austria and Prussia withdrew their delegates from the Assembly, which was now little more than a debating club. The radical members were forced to go to Stuttgart, where they sat from 6–18 June as a rump parliament until it too was dispersed by

60: 1136:. The Prussian troops arrived and crushed the uprising in August 1849. Engels and some others escaped to Kaiserslautern. While in Kaiserslautern on 13 June 1849, Engels joined an 800-member group of workers being formed as a military corps by 1465:

On 22 May 1848, another elected assembly sat for the first time in Berlin. They were elected under the law of 8 April 1848, which allowed for universal manhood suffrage and a two-stage voting system. Most of the deputies elected to the

1718:. Ludwig complained that "I could not rule any longer, and I did not want to give up my powers. In order to not become a slave, I became a lord." Although some popular reforms were introduced, the government regained full control. 373:, each of which had distinct revolutions. They were also inspired by the street demonstrations in Paris, France, led by workers and artisans which took place through 22 to 24 February, 1848, and resulted in the abdication of King 1599:. Soon the Prussians discovered that they needed additional troops in this effort. Taking the loyalty of the Rhineland for granted, in the spring of 1849 the Prussian government called up a large portion of the army reserve—the 803:, a journalist who was the leader of the Baden democrats. The arrests caused outrage and a rise in protests. A full-scale uprising broke out on 12 April 1848. The Bavarian government suppressed the revolutionary forces led by 1367:—and some of them were no good as officers, so it was small wonder if a lack of vigour or decision was displayed. It was under debate whether we should not abstain from any attempt at resistance, when the senior lieutenant, 459:

On 13 March 1848, university students mounted a large street demonstration in Vienna, and it was covered by the press across the German-speaking states. Following the important, but relatively minor, demonstrations against

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By 1848, a large industrial working class, the proletariat, had developed and, owing to Napoleonic France, the level of education was relatively high and it was politically active. While in other German states the liberal

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Early in the morning of the 19th—it may have been about 4 o'clock, the shooting had been followed by silence throughout the city—we were given the alarm and had to don our cloaks and fall in with our guns and march to the

2298:, the Habsburgs were ready to deal with the German states. Unable to muster an army and lacking broader support, the Assembly could not resist Austrian power. The Frankfurt National Assembly was dissolved on 31 May 1849. 769:, charged with the task of drafting a new constitution, to be called the "Fundamental Rights and Demands of the German People." The majority of the delegates to the provisional parliament were constitutional monarchists. 1261:, taken by surprise, verbally yielded to all the demonstrators' demands, including parliamentary elections, a constitution, and freedom of the press. He promised that "Prussia was to be merged forthwith into Germany." 361:

of 1832, when public unrest began to grow in the face of heavy taxation and political censorship. The Hambacher Fest is also noteworthy for the Republicans adopting the black-red-gold colours used on today's national

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in Bavaria on 9 February 1848 (see below), the first major revolt of 1848 in German lands occurred in Vienna on 13 March 1848. The demonstrating students in Vienna had been restive and were encouraged by a sermon of

2031:"), or should it exclude Austria, with leadership falling to Prussia ("smaller German solution")? Finally, this question was settled when the Austrian Chancellor introduced a centralised constitution for the entire 2273:

Prussia sent an army to support this independence movement, and ignored the Frankfurt National Assembly when Great Britain and Russia applied international pressure to end the war. The Prussians signed a peace at

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Starting on 18 May 1848, the Frankfurt Assembly worked to find ways to unite the various German states and to write a constitution. The Assembly was unable to pass resolutions and dissolved into endless debate.

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conscripts. In the end, the troops collected only about 40 conscripts from Elberfeld. A Committee of Public Safety was formed in the town, to organize the citizens in revolt. Members of the Committee included

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Hewitson, Mark (2010). "'The Old Forms are Breaking Up, ... Our New Germany Is Rebuilding Itself': Constitutionalism, Nationalism and the Creation of a German Polity During the Revolutions of 1848–49".

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In May 1849, a resurgence of revolutionary activity occurred in Baden. As this was closely connected to the uprising in the Palatinate, it is described below, in the section titled, "The Palatinate."

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By late 1848, the Prussian aristocrats and generals had regained power in Berlin. They had not been defeated permanently during the incidents of March, but had only retreated temporarily. General

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Afraid of suffering the same fate as Louis-Philippe of France, some of the German monarchs acquiesced to the demands of the revolutionaries, at least temporarily. In the south and west, large

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The revolutions spread from France across Europe; demonstrations against the government erupted soon thereafter in both Austria and Germany, beginning with large protests on 13 March 1848, in

879:, a lawyer, democrat and deputy in the Frankfurt Assembly, as the head of the military department in the Palatinate. The first Commander in Chief of the military forces of the Palatinate was 1909:, in the Grand Duchy of Baden, on 6 March 1848, a group of German liberals began to make plans for an election to a German national assembly. This provisional Parliament met on 31 March, in 1413:, and others in the Castle Yard. The streets through which we had passed, and the open places outside the Schloss, had, of course, been empty. Now we saw many waggons and bodies of troops 4622: 552: 476:, the troops fired on the demonstrating students, killing several of them. The new working class of Vienna joined the student demonstrations, developing an armed insurrection. The Diet of 2152:

and Baden were short-lived, as the local militaries, aided by Prussian troops, crushed them quickly. Leaders and participants, if caught, were executed or sentenced to long prison terms.

469:, a liberal priest, on Sunday, 12 March 1848, in their university chapel. The student demonstrators demanded a constitution and a constituent assembly elected by universal male suffrage. 2027:

Should the new united Germany include the German-speaking areas of Austria and thus separate these territories constitutionally from the remaining areas of the Habsburg Empire ("greater

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demanded Metternich's resignation. With no forces rallying to Metternich's defense, Ferdinand reluctantly complied and dismissed him. The former chancellor went into exile in London.

1748:. Together, they managed to maintain order in Liechtenstein and formed a constitutional council. Liechtenstein was a member of the National Assembly in Frankfurt until April 1849. 3807: 3775: 3743: 1866: 1178: 545: 1612:

of the Rhineland, including the petty bourgeoisie, the grand bourgeoisie and the proletariat, rose up to protect the political reforms which they believed were slipping away.

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pushed forward to the Marschallbrücke and averted all possibility of danger for us. The noise of the fighting died down now a little, only to revive again in the evening. The

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Mieck, Ilja (1992). "Preußen von 1807–1850. Reformen, Restauration und Revolution" [Prussia 1807–1850. Reforms, Restoration and Revolution]. In Büsch, Otto (ed.).

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Ludwig tried to institute a few minor reforms but they proved insufficient to quell the storm of protests. On 16 March 1848, Ludwig I abdicated in favor of his eldest son

269: 396:, and his going into exile in Britain. Because of the date of the Vienna demonstrations, the protests throughout Germany are usually called the March Revolution (German: 2057:

Although the achievements of the March Revolution were rolled back in many German states, the discussions in Frankfurt continued, increasingly losing touch with events.

2192:, the democratic and liberal forces in Germany of 1848 were confronted with the need to build a nation state and a constitution at the same time, which overtaxed them. 1687:

On 10 May 1849, he was in Solingen and making his way toward Elberfeld. He obtained two cases of cartridges from the arsenal at Gräfrath and carried them to Elberfeld.

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Despite Sigel's plan, the new insurgent government did not go on the offensive. The uprising in Karlsruhe and the Grand Duchy of Baden was eventually suppressed by the

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into a Constituent Assembly to be elected by the people. Other concessions were less substantial, and generally addressed the reorganizing and unification of Germany.

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The Assembly members were highly motivated for reform, but the major divides among them became obvious and inhibited progress; for instance, advocates of

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On 13 March, after warnings by the police against public demonstrations went unheeded, the army charged a group of people returning from a meeting in the

4861: 978:, a former Prussian officer, also joined Palatinate forces. Organizing the artillery and providing services in the ordnance shops was Lieutenant Colonel 761: 424: 728:. After news broke of revolutionary victories in February 1848 in Paris, uprisings occurred throughout Europe, including Austria and the German states. 503:

In late September 1848, Emperor Ferdinand, who was also King Ferdinand V of Hungary, decided to send Austrian and Croatian troops to Hungary to crush a

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In December 1848 the "Basic Rights for the German People" proclaimed equal rights for all citizens before the law. On 28 March 1849, the draft of the

1339:, who in March 1848 was a sixteen-year-old student at the Royal Prussian Cadet Corps, gave a vivid description of the revolutionary events in Berlin: 1225: 317:, liberalism and parliamentarianism, demonstrated popular discontent with the traditional, largely autocratic political structure of the thirty-nine 1197: 2294:. Its strongest support came from the southern provinces, where there was a tradition of opposition to the local rulers. After Austria crushed the 2140:

wrote that he felt deeply insulted by being offered a crown "from the gutter", "disgraced by the stink of revolution, defiled with dirt and mud".

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without the prior consent of Parliament. A similar discrediting occurred when Austria suppressed a popular uprising in Vienna by military force.

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Finally, on 18 May 1848, the National Assembly opened its session in St. Paul's Church. Of the 586 delegates of the first freely elected German

1101:. Less than a year later, on 19 May 1849, the Prussian authorities closed down the newspaper because of its support for constitutional reforms. 472:

Emperor Ferdinand and his chief advisor Metternich directed troops to crush the demonstration. When demonstrators moved to the streets near the

1204: 4578: 4190: 3987: 3959: 3333: 2609: 1081:. Mieroslawski and the other survivors of the battle escaped across the frontier to Switzerland, and the commander went into exile in Paris. 1405:

air. It was very pleasant for us, therefore, when we were taken, troop by troop, into the kitchen, and given coffee. There was now a lively

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Disorder fomented by republican agitators continued in Baden. Fearing greater riots, the Baden government began to increase the size of its

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became Grand Duke. His reign brought liberal reforms in constitutional, civil and criminal law, and in education. In 1832 Baden joined the

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Encouraged by similar uprisings the same year, demonstrations emerged which caused increased opposition against the absolute monarchy of

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led the uprisings of 1848, in the Rhineland the proletariat was asserting its interests openly against the bourgeoisie as early as 1840.

1211: 1727: 1554:, the west bank of the Rhine in the Rhineland became the premier industrial area in Germany in the 19th century. By 1848, the towns of 5021: 1975: 1969: 1963: 1957: 1945: 1938: 370: 94: 31: 1295: 445:

of this confederation. The (German) Austrian chancellor Klemens von Metternich had dominated Austrian politics from 1815 until 1848.

5538: 4745: 4553: 4530: 4462: 4410: 4213: 4165: 4138: 4034: 3401: 2445: 2109: 1892: 1733: 1646:, a lawyer and a liberal who was also the public prosecutor in Elberfeld. Members of the Palatinate provisional government included 1244: 1193: 2122:"): representation was proportional to taxes paid, so that more than 80% of the electorate controlled only one-third of the seats. 1928:, so many were professors (94), teachers (30) or had a university education (233) that it was called a "professors' parliament" (" 305:

that broke out in many European countries. They were a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the

5281: 4898: 5444: 1514:

from 3–9 May 1849, he supported the provisional government. Others participating in the Uprising were the Russian revolutionary

5286: 4947: 2136: 2089: 1500: 1376: 1258: 751:, and other German states. The surprisingly strong popular support for these movements forced rulers to give in to many of the 223: 212: 4881: 1305: 998:

the reform movement in Karlsruhe and the Palatinate. He recommended using a corps of the Baden army to advance on the town of

5508: 5271: 5166: 4840: 2249:. Like many other events of 1848, the Danish conflict was sparked by a street demonstration. On 21 March 1848, the people of 2113: 2101: 2097: 1870: 1770: 1454:

academics in addition to their other responsibilities. The one working-class member was Polish and, like colleagues from the

1182: 5054: 2156:

the liberals, the failure of the left to marshal popular support and the overwhelming superiority of the monarchist forces.

1363:

was a feeble old man, Lieut.-Colonel Richter and our company commanders were all elderly—most of them had taken part in the

189: 1682:. On 17 May through 18, 1849, a group of workers and democrats from Trier and neighboring townships stormed the arsenal at 1510:

passionately engaged himself in the revolution in Dresden, supporting the democratic-republican movement. Later during the

5296: 4911: 1105: 492:. Ferdinand issued two manifestos on 16 May 1848, and 3 June 1848, which gave concessions to the people. He converted the 4876: 883:, a former Austrian officer who commanded the national guard in Vienna during the 1848 uprising. He was soon replaced by 5513: 5503: 4906: 4866: 4738: 4157: 1811:

against the Prussian forces. It began on 20 March 1848, and resulted in Prussia demoting the Grand Duchy to an ordinary

1449:

A Constituent National Assembly was elected from various German states in late April and early May 1848 and gathered in

1426: 739:, an assembly of people from Baden adopted a resolution demanding a bill of rights. Similar resolutions were adopted in 721: 717: 504: 5291: 5235: 4833: 2287: 2017: 1997:, the assembly started on its ambitious plan to create a modern constitution as the foundation for a unified Germany. 1757: 880: 868: 773: 5256: 1855: 1218: 2898: 2896: 2879: 2877: 2290:

had been founded partly following the revolutionary events in Vienna, Austria, which resulted in the fall of Prince

5498: 5493: 5326: 5064: 5037: 4806: 4545: 4454: 4402: 4259: 4225: 2246: 2093: 2085: 1820: 1796: 1467: 1109: 1074: 1874: 1859: 1375:

we secured from the Franz Regiment's barracks. However, things were not to become serious, for a battalion of the

1171: 5361: 5276: 5186: 5016: 4811: 1792: 1007: 911: 799:

and to seek assistance from neighboring states. The Baden government sought to suppress the revolts by arresting

740: 378: 3434: 3432: 5439: 5316: 4570: 3951: 2433: 2278:, requiring them to remove all Prussian troops from the two duchies and agree to all other Danish demands. The 2270:

soldiers. Unification opinion in the German states supported annexing the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein.

2262: 2005: 1986: 1737: 1715: 1472: 1025: 680: 645: 374: 1257:

In March 1848, crowds of people gathered in Berlin to present their demands in an "address to the king". King

512:. As a result, Emperor Ferdinand I fled Vienna on 7 October 1848, taking up residence in the fortress town of 5382: 5261: 5195: 5175: 5137: 4926: 4650: 4625:[March Revolution 1848: When the king orders to "clean the palace square", a bloody battle begins]. 4522: 3979: 2105: 2100:

of his own which was based upon the work of the Assembly yet maintained the ultimate authority of the king.

2069: 1541:

community. In mid-century, some lived in cities, but many developed substantial farms to the west in Texas.

1511: 1368: 1364: 1113: 989: 947: 808: 597: 592: 493: 437:

in 1806, it was succeeded by a similarly loose coalition of states known as the German Confederation at the

4683: 2104:

and amended frequently in the following years, the constitution provided for an appointed upper house, the

1639: 1635: 5331: 5306: 5217: 4970: 4871: 4604: 4313:

Mattheisen, Donald J. (1983). "History as Current Events: Recent Works on the German Revolution of 1848".

3325:

A Field Marshal's Memoirs: From the Diary, Correspondence and Reminiscences of Alfred, Count von Waldersee

3277: 2692: 2690: 2688: 2686: 2684: 2291: 2145: 2063: 2001: 1914: 1808: 1651: 1441: 1264: 1029: 1019: 876: 766: 695: 665: 650: 635: 607: 393: 389: 234: 52: 3533: 2717: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2709: 2667: 2665: 2529: 2527: 1301: 1065: 675: 670: 660: 5311: 4623:"Märzrevolution 1848: Als der König befiehlt, "den Schlossplatz zu säubern", beginnt ein blutiger Kampf" 3834: 3367: 3365: 2023:

Nonetheless, discussions on the future constitution had started. The main questions to be decided were:

1659: 1095:, Germany, to observe the events of the region. From 1 June 1848, Engels and Marx became editors of the 1049: 655: 640: 2279: 1753: 1643: 1064:, a journalist and a democrat in Baden; and Gustav Struve, another journalist and democrat from Baden. 690: 685: 620: 1675: 1647: 1393:, amidst the same kind of continuous but unsystematic fighting which the Guards also had encountered. 979: 5434: 5413: 5356: 5336: 5321: 5204: 5157: 5042: 4691: 2385: 2319: 1925: 1784: 1438:. Some 40,000 people accompanied these fallen demonstrators to their burial place at Friedrichshain. 1336: 1328: 975: 785: 744: 713: 602: 408: 306: 278: 141: 117: 5377: 1982: 1679: 5301: 5226: 5213: 4821: 4761: 3714: 2372: 2196: 2149: 2039: 1994: 1704: 1343:

Those March days of 1848 left the most lasting impression on us young soldiers. From the so-called

1053: 923: 892: 849: 792:, a right-center journalist, was among those elected as deputy to the Frankfurt National Assembly. 412: 302: 252: 48: 1112:

in 1848. D'Ester had been elected to the Central committee of the German Democrats, together with

963: 5402: 5089: 5006: 5001: 4996: 4501: 4383: 4375: 4338: 4242: 3947:

The Nation in the Village: The Genesis of Peasant National Identity in Austrian Poland, 1848–1914

2258: 2184: 2128: 2073: 1144: 1060:, a journalist and a democrat from Baden. Leaders of the constitutional forces in Baden included 1044:, a lawyer and democrat from Baden, headed its government, wielding absolute power. He appointed 967: 907: 853: 827: 537: 438: 3162: 3160: 1056:

was appointed as Minister of the Interior. Other members of the provisional government included

2242:, the German Navy, on 14 June 1848, which was significant to Germany's future power and reach. 2045:

Should it be a federation of relatively independent states or have a strong central government?

1324: 970:. Hermann von Natzmer was the former Prussian officer who had been in charge of the arsenal of 5346: 5266: 5109: 5011: 4574: 4549: 4526: 4493: 4481: 4458: 4431: 4406: 4367: 4330: 4285: 4209: 4186: 4161: 4134: 4115: 4094: 4067: 4040: 4030: 3983: 3955: 3914: 3397: 3329: 3236: 3095: 2605: 2451: 2441: 2437: 2394: 2254: 2123: 1812: 1572: 1530: 1496: 1425:

On 21 March, the King proceeded through the streets of Berlin to attend a mass funeral at the

1273: 888: 831: 777: 430: 322: 3770: 3323: 2183:

The Revolution of 1848 failed in its attempt to unify the German-speaking states because the

5127: 5118: 4485: 4359: 4322: 4301: 4277: 4234: 3856: 2218: 2168: 1741: 1534: 1084: 983: 884: 804: 700: 570: 533: 404: 2245:

The powerlessness of the Frankfurt Assembly, however, was reflected in the debate over the

1483: 951: 863: 263: 5429: 5408: 5395: 4989: 4984: 4893: 2315: 2210: 2032: 2028: 1515: 1390: 1117: 1041: 939: 812: 748: 584: 509: 452: 366:

as a symbol of the Republican movement and of the unity among the German-speaking people.

363: 326: 318: 310: 193: 66: 840:

in the Rhineland on 6 May 1849. However, the uprisings soon spread to the Grand Duchy of

4133:. New German-American Studies/Neue Deutsch-Amerikanische Studien. New York: Peter Lang. 2601:

The Survival of the Habsburg Empire: Radetzky, the Imperial Army and the Class War, 1848

1815:. Nevertheless, both Prussian-held Polish-speaking territories of Province of Posen and 5469: 5424: 5388: 2426: 2363: 2307: 2172: 2011: 1951: 1937:

There were few practical politicians. Some 400 delegates can be identified in terms of

1776: 1671: 1663: 1507: 1435: 1386: 1372: 1137: 1121: 1057: 915: 903: 836:

When the revolutionary upsurge revived in the spring of 1849, the uprisings started in

800: 358: 338: 4472:

Robertson, Priscilla (1969). "Students on the Barricades: Germany and Austria, 1848".

765:

provisional parliament, which was convened from 31 March 1848, until 4 April 1848, in

137: 17: 5482: 5420: 5069: 4785: 4515: 4448: 4387: 4150: 2358: 2331: 2159:

Many disappointed German patriots went to the United States, among them most notably

1918: 1804: 1563: 1414: 1398: 1350: 1045: 1037: 935: 902:

Other noteworthy military officers serving the provisional government in the city of

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in Westphalia and the Rhineland. This action was opposed: the order to call up the

1538: 1519: 1410: 927: 626: 521: 466: 274: 4694:[Constitution of the German Empire ("Constitution of St. Paul's Church")] 3738: 2148:

troops. Armed uprisings in support of the constitution, especially in Saxony, the

1819:

were formally integrated into Germany only 17 years later, upon foundation of the

986:

and one of the founders of the Cologne Workers Association in 1848, editor of the

4564: 4425: 4396: 4176: 3973: 3945: 2599: 2004:, support of local issues over pan-German issues, and Austro-Prussian conflicts. 1799:

in the late 18th century. The Greater Poland Uprising of 1848, also known as the

5351: 4780: 4007: 2311: 2228: 2164: 2160: 2050: 1989:

proclamation to the German people upon appointment as Administrator of the Realm

1844: 1708: 1655: 1582: 1430:

acclaim of the people. The 254 persons killed during the riots were laid out on

1160: 1133: 1078: 955: 943: 931: 488:, where they spent the next few months surrounded by the loyal peasantry of the 461: 4256:

Restoration, Revolution, Reaction: Economics and Politics in Germany, 1815–1871

2253:

protested in the streets to demand a liberal Constitution. The majority in the

377:

and his exile to Britain. In France the revolution of 1848 became known as the

5099: 5048: 4775: 4712: 3240: 2283:

and the radical republicans publicly stated their opposition to the Assembly.

2250: 1906: 1431: 1087:

took part in the uprising in Baden and the Palatinate. On 10 May 1848, he and

1061: 919: 796: 789: 725: 333: 4497: 4435: 4371: 4334: 4289: 4044: 3099: 2455: 1331:

gave an account of the events of March 1848 in Berlin as seen by the soldiers

429:

In 1848, Austria was the predominant German state. After the collapse of the

5450: 4790: 4297: 4098: 4071: 2421: 2368: 2224: 1910: 1783:

were German states, the respective roughly corresponding territories of the

1780: 1616: 1551: 1360: 1088: 1015: 1011: 1003: 999: 959: 845: 837: 485: 342: 4566:

Defining Germany: The 1848 Frankfurt Parliamentarians and National Identity

1800: 1707:

lost prestige because of his open relationship with his favourite mistress

716:

had a liberal constitution from 1811 until reaction resulted in Grand Duke

4223:

Hamerow, Theodore S. (1954). "History and the German Revolution of 1848".

4060:

Hans Kudlich, zum hundertsten Geburtstage des schlesischen Bauernbefreiers

3802: 4939: 4921: 4627: 4281: 4064:

Hans Kudlich, on the hundredth birthday of the Silesian peasant liberator

2323: 2275: 2092:

immediately rejoined the old forces. In November, the king dissolved the

1642:, another lawyer and democrat, elected as chairman of the Committee, and 1624: 1620: 1601: 1129: 736: 434: 2195:

When the Frankfurt Assembly opened on 18 May 1848, the deputies elected

1529:

In 1849, many Saxon residents emigrated to the United States, including

4505: 4379: 4342: 4246: 4182: 2335: 2327: 1700: 1559: 1492: 1418: 1185: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1092: 517: 513: 473: 321:

of the Confederation that inherited the German territory of the former

4730: 4648:[German March Revolution of 1848: a success despite failure]. 3975:

Freedom's Price: Serfdom, Subjection, and Reform in Prussia, 1648–1848

2306:

Nationalism did not become the usual way of founding and legitimising

1503:

to engage in electoral reform, social justice and for a constitution.

2135:

On 2 April 1849, a delegation of the National Assembly met with King

1586:

Arbeiterdelegation 1848 vor dem Magistrat by Johann Peter Hasenclever

1555: 971: 895:

was given supreme command of the armed forces in the Palatinate, and

385: 70: 4489: 4326: 4238: 2428:

The revolution of 1848–49: articles from the Neue Rheinische Zeitung

2035:, thus delegates had to give up their hopes for a "Greater Germany". 4363: 4427:

Germany in Power and Eclipse: The Background of German Development

3721:

Jahrbuch des Historischen Vereins für das Fürstentum Liechtenstein

2088:

led the troops who recaptured Berlin for the old powers, and King

1981: 1830: 1581: 1482: 1455: 1440: 1323: 1263: 1024: 862: 841: 520:. On 2 December 1848, Ferdinand abdicated in favour of his nephew 489: 447: 346: 262: 3396:] (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin: de Gruyter. p. 233. 2261:

were German-speaking. However, the Duke of both duchies was King

1048:

as War Minister. Later, Eichfeld was replaced as War Minister by

4350:

O'Boyle, Lenore (1961). "The Democratic Left in Germany, 1848".

3830: 3048:, pp. 176, 728, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2266: 1683: 415:, written constitutions, arming of the people and a Parliament. 4943: 4734: 4713:"Historical Atlas of Europe (21 March 1848): March Revolutions" 3296:, pp. 147–239, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3205:, pp. 202–204, Letter from Engels to Jenny Marx (25 July 1849). 2941:, pp. 195–196, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2631: 2629: 2627: 2625: 1666:

were among the other of the leaders of the Elberfeld uprising.

541: 4646:"Deutsche Märzrevolution von 1848: ein Erfolg trotz Scheitern" 4012:

Bauernbefreier Hans Kudlich und seine Denkmäler, Gedenkstätten

3260:, pp. 202–204, Letter from Engels to Jenny Marx (25 July 1849) 1838: 1278: 1154: 4206:

The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction

2314:. In the mid-19th century, over 90% of the population in the 2068:

constitution was finally passed. The new Germany was to be a

994:

and a member of the Rhenish District Committee of Democrats.

357:

The groundwork of the 1848 uprising was laid as early as the

4602:[Speech: Remembering the March Revolution of 1848]. 4204:

Evans, R. J. W.; Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds. (2000).

2855:, p. 1193, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 1917:. Its members called for free elections to an assembly for 4027:

Hans Kudlich : (1823–1917) : cesta života a mýtu

3691:, p. 164, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3624:, p. 160, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3608:, p. 162, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3592:, p. 158, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3576:, p. 156, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3523:, p. 157, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3476:, p. 155, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3426:, p. 154, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3122:, p. 186, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3032:, p. 180, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3013:, p. 184, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2976:, p. 174, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2925:, p. 195, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2811:, p. 189, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2792:, p. 172, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2776:, p. 175, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 1615:

On 9 May 1849, uprisings occurred in the Rhenish towns of

1595:. Dresden, the Palatinate, Baden, Wűrttemberg, Franconia, 2839:, p. 17, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2469: 2467: 2465: 4121:

Revolutionary Spring: Fighting for a New World 1848–1849

4066:] (in German). Verlag der Buchdruckerei K. Pickert. 2391:

Revolutionary Spring: Fighting for a New World 1848–1849

2265:, the last absolute monarch of Denmark. The citizens of 1018:. Sigel failed to account for dealing with the separate 1002:

and declare the Hohenzollern Republic, then to march on

369:

Activism for liberal reforms spread through many of the

2424:; Engels, Friedrich (1972). "Foreword (S.Z. Leviova)". 2238:

The Frankfurt National Assembly did agree to found the

1803:

Uprising, was an unsuccessful military insurrection of

3831:"Emigrant's Map and Guide for Routes to North America" 2652: 2650: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2338:. The leader of the anti-serfdom peasant movement was 1143:

The Prussians defeated this revolutionary army at the

2502: 2500: 2498: 2496: 2494: 2042:, have an elected monarch, or even become a republic? 1124:. Marx obtained the mandate and headed off to Paris. 484:

for an army attack. Ferdinand and his family fled to

341:. Many emigrated to the United States, settling from 3855:

Staas, Christian; Ullrich, Volker (24 August 2010).

2112:, elected by universal manhood suffrage but under a 2049:

Soon events began to overtake discussions. Delegate

1670:

uprising. Military leaders of these forces included

1104:

In late 1848, Marx and Engels intended to meet with

5370: 5244: 5078: 5030: 4977: 4854: 4799: 4768: 4424:Pollock, James Kerr; Thomas, Homer Leonard (1952). 1445:

The dead are laid out on the Gendarmenmarkt, Berlin

1353:we could see the erection of the barricades on the 4514: 4149: 3808:Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein 3776:Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein 3744:Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein 2425: 2375:, and his eventual downfall in the 1848 uprisings. 2054:prosecution as a member of the National Assembly. 811:on 20 April 1848, ending what became known as the 407:and mass demonstrations took place. They demanded 293:), the opening phase of which was also called the 4544:. New Approaches to European History. Cambridge: 1993:Under the chairmanship of the liberal politician 281:, the first national parliament in German history 4087:Hans Kudlich, der bauernbefreier des jahres 1848 4010:[Hans Kudlich – the peasant liberator]. 1835:National assembly's meeting in St. Paul's Church 1132:, when those workers had stormed the arsenal at 4600:"Rede: Erinnern an die Märzrevolution von 1848" 4306:Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works 1006:. After inciting Stuttgart and the surrounding 41: 4178:The 1848 Revolutions in German-speaking Europe 1761:July 1852 and disbanded the district council. 757:(demands of March) almost without resistance. 4955: 4746: 3863:(in German). No. 3/2010. pp. 22–28. 3557: 3497: 3485: 3454: 2820: 2635: 1499:, the people took to the streets asking King 1298:to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies 553: 8: 4093:] (in German). Verlagsanstalt Moldavia. 2343: 2330:or some lingering elements of the system of 2216: 2208: 2117: 2061: 2009: 1941:– usually named after their meeting places: 1929: 1628: 1606: 1380: 1354: 1344: 1096: 987: 752: 720:revoking the constitution in 1825. In 1830, 332:The middle-class elements were committed to 4521:. Oxford History of Modern Europe. Oxford: 4091:Hans Kudlich, the peasant liberator of 1848 2416: 2414: 1873:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1650:, serving as Minister of the Interior, and 940:Otto Julius Bernhard von Corvin-Wiersbitzki 875:The provisional government first appointed 767:St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt am Main 325:after its dismantlement as a result of the 4962: 4948: 4940: 4753: 4739: 4731: 4025:Kladiwa, Pavel; Pokludová, Andrea (2012). 3927: 3895:. Copenhagen: Host & Son. p. 211. 3874: 3716:Liechtensteiner Ärzte des 19. Jahrhunderts 3684: 3665: 3649: 3633: 3617: 3601: 3585: 3569: 3516: 3469: 3438: 3419: 3371: 3352: 3305: 3289: 3269: 3253: 3214: 3198: 3182: 3166: 3147: 3131: 3115: 3073: 3057: 3041: 3025: 3006: 2985: 2969: 2950: 2934: 2918: 2902: 2883: 2864: 2848: 2832: 2804: 2785: 2769: 2753: 2737: 2721: 2696: 2671: 2581: 2565: 2549: 2533: 2008:was chosen as a temporary head of state (" 2000:From the beginning the main problems were 1791:had been under Prussian control since the 1308:this issue before removing this message. 560: 546: 538: 425:Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire 59: 38: 3700: 2518: 2485: 2326:. Most of them suffered the indignity of 2296:Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states 1954:– Right centre/Liberal-conservative (120) 1893:Learn how and when to remove this message 1245:Learn how and when to remove this message 3865:Interview with historian August Winkler. 3769:Rheinberger, Rudolf (31 December 2011). 3656:, pp. 713, 722, 739, Biographical notes. 1638:, a democrat and a lawyer in Elberfeld; 4131:Germans and the Revolution of 1848–1849 4129:Davis Randers-Pehrson, Justine (1999). 3904: 3902: 3640:, pp. 722–723, 732, Biographical notes. 2410: 899:was given field command of the troops. 887:, a former Polish staff general in the 807:with the aid of Prussian troops at the 329:. This process began in the mid-1840s. 3764: 3762: 3732: 3730: 1451:St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt am Main 388:. This resulted in the resignation of 30:For other revolutions in Germany, see 27:German part of the Revolutions of 1848 4621:Duderstedt, Andreas (18 March 2023). 4450:Revolutions of 1848: A Social History 3801:Frommelt, Fabian (31 December 2011). 3796: 3794: 3737:Quaderer, Rupert (31 December 2011). 3276:, pp. 214–216, Letter from Engels to 2171:. Such emigrants became known as the 1268:Barricades at Alexander Platz, Berlin 441:in 1815. Austria served as President 7: 3094:. Progress Publishers. p. 166. 2656: 2506: 2473: 2132:elected under the new constitution. 1871:adding citations to reliable sources 1518:and the German working-class leader 1399:Schloss (the Royal Palace in Berlin) 1183:adding citations to reliable sources 1077:, on the frontier between Baden and 1010:, the military corps would march to 353:Events leading up to the revolutions 113:introduction of liberal constitution 4542:The European Revolutions, 1848–1851 4208:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4029:(in Czech). University of Ostrava. 4008:"Hans Kudlich – der Bauernbefreier" 3893:A History of the Kingdom of Denmark 3390:Handbuch der preußischen Geschichte 3233:Frederick Engels : a biography 1728:Revolution of 1848 in Liechtenstein 1302:create a more balanced presentation 966:, Friedrich Karl, Franz Hecker and 257:~400,000 among peasants and workers 5022:States of the German Confederation 4692:"Verfassung des Deutschen Reiches" 4680:History of Modern Germany Lectures 3235:. Zeit im Bild. pp. 205–207. 3090:Fedoseev, Petr Nikolaevic (1973). 3064:, pp. 713, 735, Biographical note. 2604:. Addison-Wesley Longman Limited. 914:, Captain Rudolph von Manteuffel, 889:Polish insurgent army of 1830–1831 313:. The revolutions, which stressed 32:German revolution (disambiguation) 25: 2572:, p. 457, "Revolution in Vienna". 2302:Peasant success of the revolution 1194:"German revolutions of 1848–1849" 111:Establishment of German state and 5524:1849 in the German Confederation 5519:1848 in the German Confederation 5463: 4644:Maksan, Oliver (18 March 2023). 4308:. New York: International Press. 2257:and in the southern part of the 1921:– and the German states agreed. 1843: 1545:The Rhineland or Rhenish Prussia 1283: 1159: 1014:and set up camp in the state of 228: 217: 206: 183: 170: 159: 148: 136: 5489:German revolutions of 1848–1849 4676:"1848: Revolution and Reaction" 3944:Stauter-Halsted, Keely (2015). 2090:Frederick William IV of Prussia 1501:Frederick Augustus II of Saxony 1170:needs additional citations for 287:German revolutions of 1848–1849 42:German Revolutions of 1848–1849 4315:The American Historical Review 3857:"Deutschlands sonderbarer Weg" 3322:Waldersee, Alfred von (2019). 1827:National Assembly in Frankfurt 1771:Greater Poland Uprising (1848) 1537:, and created what became the 1335:In his memoirs, Field Marshal 433:, which had been dissolved by 301:), were initially part of the 69:: Cheering revolutionaries in 1: 5297:Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust 4447:Robertson, Priscilla (1952). 4352:The Journal of Modern History 4270:The English Historical Review 4014:(in German). 3 February 2014. 2371:'s affair with Bavarian King 1972:– Left/Liberal democrats (60) 848:. The state of Baden and the 392:as chief minister to Emperor 291:Deutsche Revolution 1848/1849 4158:University of Michigan Press 4109:General and cited references 3771:"Schädler, Karl (1804–1872)" 3713:Rheinberger, Rudolf (1991). 3394:Handbook of Prussian History 3138:, p. 718, Biographical note. 3080:, p. 728, Biographical note. 2992:, p. 714, Biographical note. 2957:, p. 710, Biographical note. 2909:, p. 729, Biographical note. 2890:, p. 719, Biographical note. 2871:, p. 195, Biographical note. 2367:lavishly depicts the famous 2114:three-class system of voting 1765:Greater Poland and Pomerelia 5534:1849 in the Austrian Empire 5529:1848 in the Austrian Empire 5445:Schleswig–Holstein question 5292:Friedrich Daniel Bassermann 4474:Political Science Quarterly 4175:Hahn, Hans Joachim (2001). 2348:('liberator of peasants'). 2288:Frankfurt National Assembly 2018:Schleswig-Holstein Question 1487:The May uprising in Dresden 881:Daniel Fenner von Fenneberg 869:Battle of Kirchheimbolanden 844:, when a riot broke out in 774:Friedrich Karl Franz Hecker 5555: 5327:Karl August von Hardenberg 5065:North German Confederation 5038:Confederation of the Rhine 4546:Cambridge University Press 4540:Sperber, Jonathan (2005). 4513:Sheehan, James J. (1990). 4455:Princeton University Press 4260:Princeton University Press 4254:Hamerow, Theodore (1967). 4226:American Historical Review 2342:, subsequently revered as 2310:across Europe until after 2126:was a member of the first 2094:Prussian National Assembly 1821:North German Confederation 1797:Second Partition of Poland 1775:While technically neither 1768: 1752:done primarily by him and 1725: 1468:Prussian National Assembly 1110:Prussian National Assembly 1106:Karl Ludwig Johann D'Ester 825: 772:Baden sent two democrats, 762:March Revolution in Vienna 531: 422: 29: 5460: 5055:German Empire (1848–1849) 4706:: 101–147. 28 April 1849. 4517:German History, 1770–1866 4152:Germany: A Modern History 3558:Pollock & Thomas 1952 3498:Pollock & Thomas 1952 3486:Pollock & Thomas 1952 3455:Pollock & Thomas 1952 3231:Gemkow, Heinrich (1972). 2821:Pollock & Thomas 1952 2636:Pollock & Thomas 1952 2179:Failure of the revolution 2108:, and a lower house, the 1978:– Far left/Democrats (40) 1948:– Right/Conservative (40) 982:. He was a member of the 912:Alexander Schimmelpfennig 581: 245: 240:No centralised leadership 199: 129: 85:February 1848 – July 1849 77: 58: 46: 5539:19th-century revolutions 5440:Greater Austria proposal 4571:Harvard University Press 3952:Cornell University Press 3534:"The Revolution of 1848" 3445:, pp. 662–663, Note 139. 2556:, pp. 642–643, Note 298. 2434:International Publishers 2263:Frederick VII of Denmark 2110:House of Representatives 2038:Should Germany become a 2006:Archduke John of Austria 1473:Brandenburg an der Havel 735:On 27 February 1848, in 726:(Prussian) Customs Union 375:Louis-Philippe of France 5383:Austro-Prussian rivalry 5196:"Blood and Iron" speech 5167:Greater Poland uprising 5138:Frankfurter Wachensturm 4563:Vick, Brian E. (2002). 4523:Oxford University Press 4403:Charles Scribner's Sons 4148:Dill, Marshall (1970). 4124:. Penguin Random House. 3980:Oxford University Press 3891:Lauring, Palle (1960). 3719:. Vol. 89. Vaduz: 2247:Danish Conflict of 1848 2070:constitutional monarchy 1512:May Uprising in Dresden 1458:, not taken seriously. 1427:Friedrichshain cemetery 1369:Besserer von Dahlfingen 1098:Neue Rheinische Zeitung 948:Johann Gottfried Kinkel 809:Battle on the Scheideck 629:(9 May – 23 July 1849): 618:(21–25 September 1848): 5396:Das Lied der Deutschen 5332:Klemens von Metternich 5307:Johann Gottlieb Fichte 5017:Kingdom of Württemberg 4971:Unification of Germany 3928:Marx & Engels 1977 3875:Marx & Engels 1977 3685:Marx & Engels 1977 3666:Marx & Engels 1977 3650:Marx & Engels 1977 3634:Marx & Engels 1977 3618:Marx & Engels 1977 3602:Marx & Engels 1977 3586:Marx & Engels 1977 3570:Marx & Engels 1977 3538:German-American Corner 3517:Marx & Engels 1977 3470:Marx & Engels 1977 3439:Marx & Engels 1977 3420:Marx & Engels 1977 3372:Marx & Engels 1977 3353:Marx & Engels 1977 3306:Marx & Engels 1977 3290:Marx & Engels 1977 3278:Jakob Lukas Schabelitz 3270:Marx & Engels 1977 3254:Marx & Engels 1977 3215:Marx & Engels 1977 3199:Marx & Engels 1977 3183:Marx & Engels 1977 3167:Marx & Engels 1977 3148:Marx & Engels 1977 3132:Marx & Engels 1977 3116:Marx & Engels 1977 3092:Karl Marx: A Biography 3074:Marx & Engels 1977 3058:Marx & Engels 1977 3042:Marx & Engels 1977 3026:Marx & Engels 1977 3007:Marx & Engels 1977 2986:Marx & Engels 1977 2970:Marx & Engels 1977 2951:Marx & Engels 1977 2935:Marx & Engels 1977 2919:Marx & Engels 1977 2903:Marx & Engels 1977 2884:Marx & Engels 1977 2865:Marx & Engels 1977 2849:Marx & Engels 1977 2833:Marx & Engels 1977 2805:Marx & Engels 1977 2786:Marx & Engels 1977 2770:Marx & Engels 1977 2754:Marx & Engels 1977 2738:Marx & Engels 1977 2722:Marx & Engels 1977 2697:Marx & Engels 1977 2672:Marx & Engels 1977 2582:Marx & Engels 1977 2566:Marx & Engels 1977 2550:Marx & Engels 1977 2534:Marx & Engels 1977 2344: 2217: 2209: 2118: 2064:Paulskirchenverfassung 2062: 2010: 1990: 1930: 1836: 1652:Theodor Ludwig Greiner 1640:Ernst Hermann Höchster 1629: 1607: 1587: 1526:government of Saxony. 1488: 1446: 1423: 1381: 1377:1st Regiment of Guards 1355: 1345: 1332: 1269: 1097: 1033: 1020:Free City of Frankfurt 1008:Kingdom of Württemberg 990:Neue Kölnische Zeitung 988: 877:Joseph Martin Reichard 872: 753: 456: 397: 394:Ferdinand I of Austria 298: 290: 282: 235:Klemens von Metternich 200:Commanders and leaders 194:German revolutionaries 53:unification of Germany 18:1848 German Revolution 5509:Rebellions in Germany 5312:Johann Gustav Droysen 5282:Frederick William III 4395:Palmer, Alan (1976). 4085:Walter, Hans (1907). 4058:Koberg, Karl (1923). 3972:Eddie, S. A. (2013). 3835:World Digital Library 1985: 1960:– Centre/Liberal (40) 1834: 1636:Karl Nickolaus Riotte 1585: 1495:, the capital of the 1486: 1444: 1341: 1327: 1267: 1042:Lorenz Peter Brentano 1028: 866: 451: 390:Prince von Metternich 266: 213:Frederick Augustus II 5435:German reunification 5357:Wilhelm von Humboldt 5322:John, King of Saxony 5287:Frederick William IV 5236:Treaty of Versailles 5205:Second Schleswig War 5176:Punctation of Olmütz 5158:Frankfurt Parliament 5043:German Confederation 4686:on 10 December 2005. 4651:Neue Zürcher Zeitung 3911:A History of Prussia 2386:Bourgeois revolution 2320:German Confederation 2215:versus advocates of 2137:Frederick William IV 2119:Dreiklassenwahlrecht 1931:Professorenparlament 1867:improve this section 1785:Grand Duchy of Posen 1337:Alfred von Waldersee 1329:Alfred von Waldersee 1259:Frederick William IV 1179:improve this article 976:Gustav Adolph Techow 786:Frankfurt Parliament 505:democratic rebellion 409:freedom of the press 307:German Confederation 279:Frankfurt parliament 224:Frederick William IV 142:German Confederation 118:German Confederation 5514:Revolutions of 1848 5504:Protests in Germany 5302:Heinrich von Gagern 5227:Franco-Prussian War 5214:Austro-Prussian War 4762:Revolutions of 1848 4700:Reichs-Gesetz-Blatt 4605:Der Bundespräsident 3934:, p. 638, Note 271. 3703:, pp. 180–181. 3672:, p. 664, Note 149. 3488:, pp. 414–415. 3154:, p. 666, Note 164. 2760:, p. 580, Note 342. 2703:, p. 625, Note 167. 2588:, p. 643, Note 298. 2540:, p. 637, Note 264. 2521:, pp. 206–236. 2488:, pp. 188–205. 2476:, pp. 104–105. 2357:The second half of 2197:Heinrich von Gagern 2080:Backlash in Prussia 2040:hereditary monarchy 1995:Heinrich von Gagern 1966:– Left centre (100) 1809:Ludwik Mierosławski 1066:John Phillip Becker 1032:burns, 15 June 1849 924:Friedrich von Beust 893:Ludwik Mieroslawski 587:(13–27 April 1848): 569:Battles during the 413:freedom of assembly 379:February Revolution 303:Revolutions of 1848 253:German Federal Army 107:Rebellion quelled 49:Revolutions of 1848 5470:Germany portal 5403:Die Wacht am Rhein 5187:Dresden Conference 5090:Congress of Vienna 5007:Kingdom of Prussia 5002:Kingdom of Hanover 4997:Kingdom of Bavaria 4282:10.1093/ehr/ceq276 4276:(516): 1173–1214. 4116:Clark, Christopher 3915:Barnes & Noble 3328:. Borodino Books. 2728:, p. 606, Note 10. 2678:, p. 606, Note 12. 2352:In popular culture 2280:Armistice of Malmö 2259:Duchy of Schleswig 2185:Frankfurt Assembly 1991: 1939:political factions 1837: 1660:Franz Heinrch Zitz 1588: 1489: 1447: 1333: 1270: 1145:Battle of Rinnthal 1050:Rudolph Mayerhofer 1034: 968:Herman von Natzmer 954:, Karl Emmermann, 908:Friedrich Strasser 873: 854:Kingdom of Bavaria 852:(then part of the 828:Elberfeld uprising 457: 439:Congress of Vienna 405:popular assemblies 319:independent states 283: 277:, hung inside the 166:Kingdom of Prussia 73:, on 19 March 1848 5499:Conflicts in 1849 5494:Conflicts in 1848 5476: 5475: 5414:Lützow Free Corps 5347:Otto von Bismarck 5267:Eduard von Simson 5110:Wartburg Festival 5012:Kingdom of Saxony 4937: 4936: 4674:Rempel, Gerhard. 4580:978-0-674-00911-0 4302:Engels, Friedrich 4192:978-0-582-35765-5 3989:978-0-19-966275-3 3961:978-1-5017-0223-5 3739:"Revolution 1848" 3723:. pp. 54–55. 3378:, p. 605, Note 9. 3335:978-1-163-18135-5 2611:978-0-582-50711-1 2598:Sked, A. (1979). 2395:Christopher Clark 2255:Duchy of Holstein 2124:Otto von Bismarck 1964:Württemberger Hof 1915:St. Paul's Church 1903: 1902: 1895: 1813:Province of Posen 1754:Michael Menzinger 1644:Alexis Heintzmann 1573:petty bourgeoisie 1533:. They landed in 1531:Michael Machemehl 1497:Kingdom of Saxony 1365:War of Liberation 1322: 1321: 1300:. Please help to 1292:This section may 1255: 1254: 1247: 1229: 832:Palatine uprising 778:Gustav von Struve 710: 709: 431:Holy Roman Empire 323:Holy Roman Empire 261: 260: 155:Kingdom of Saxony 125: 124: 16:(Redirected from 5546: 5468: 5467: 5466: 5417: 5233: 5224: 5211: 5202: 5193: 5184: 5173: 5164: 5155: 5148: 5134: 5128:Hambach Festival 5125: 5119:Carlsbad Decrees 5116: 5107: 5096: 5087: 4993: 4964: 4957: 4950: 4941: 4755: 4748: 4741: 4732: 4727: 4725: 4723: 4707: 4697: 4687: 4682:. Archived from 4663: 4661: 4659: 4640: 4638: 4636: 4617: 4615: 4613: 4588: 4559: 4536: 4520: 4509: 4468: 4443: 4430:. Van Nostrand. 4420: 4391: 4346: 4321:(5): 1219–1237. 4309: 4293: 4263: 4250: 4219: 4200: 4171: 4155: 4144: 4125: 4103: 4102: 4082: 4076: 4075: 4055: 4049: 4048: 4022: 4016: 4015: 4004: 3998: 3997: 3969: 3941: 3935: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3906: 3897: 3896: 3888: 3882: 3872: 3866: 3864: 3852: 3846: 3845: 3843: 3841: 3827: 3821: 3820: 3818: 3816: 3798: 3789: 3788: 3786: 3784: 3766: 3757: 3756: 3754: 3752: 3734: 3725: 3724: 3710: 3704: 3698: 3692: 3682: 3673: 3663: 3657: 3647: 3641: 3631: 3625: 3615: 3609: 3599: 3593: 3583: 3577: 3567: 3561: 3555: 3549: 3548: 3546: 3544: 3530: 3524: 3514: 3501: 3495: 3489: 3483: 3477: 3467: 3458: 3452: 3446: 3436: 3427: 3417: 3408: 3407: 3385: 3379: 3369: 3360: 3350: 3344: 3343: 3319: 3313: 3303: 3297: 3287: 3281: 3280:(24 August 1849) 3267: 3261: 3251: 3245: 3244: 3228: 3222: 3212: 3206: 3196: 3190: 3180: 3174: 3164: 3155: 3145: 3139: 3129: 3123: 3113: 3104: 3103: 3087: 3081: 3071: 3065: 3055: 3049: 3039: 3033: 3023: 3014: 3004: 2993: 2983: 2977: 2967: 2958: 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including the 295:March Revolution 233: 232: 231: 222: 221: 220: 211: 210: 209: 188: 187: 186: 176: 174: 173: 165: 163: 162: 154: 152: 151: 140: 97:, Central Europe 79: 78: 63: 39: 21: 5554: 5553: 5549: 5548: 5547: 5545: 5544: 5543: 5479: 5478: 5477: 5472: 5464: 5462: 5456: 5430:German question 5411: 5409:Flag of Germany 5378:Alsace–Lorraine 5366: 5252:Baron von Stein 5240: 5231: 5222: 5218:Peace of Prague 5209: 5200: 5191: 5182: 5171: 5162: 5153: 5146: 5132: 5123: 5114: 5105: 5094: 5085: 5074: 5026: 4990:Austria-Hungary 4987: 4985:Austrian Empire 4973: 4968: 4938: 4933: 4918:United Kingdom 4903:Ottoman Empire 4862:Austrian Empire 4850: 4795: 4764: 4759: 4721: 4719: 4711:Westera, Rick. 4710: 4695: 4690: 4673: 4670: 4657: 4655: 4643: 4634: 4632: 4620: 4611: 4609: 4598: 4595: 4593:Further reading 4581: 4562: 4556: 4539: 4533: 4512: 4490:10.2307/2147265 4471: 4465: 4446: 4423: 4413: 4394: 4349: 4327:10.2307/1904890 4312: 4296: 4266: 4253: 4239:10.2307/1842744 4222: 4216: 4203: 4193: 4174: 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311:Austrian Empire 229: 227: 226: 218: 216: 215: 207: 205: 192: 184: 182: 177:Austrian Empire 171: 169: 160: 158: 149: 147: 116:Dissolution of 112: 98: 67:Flag of Germany 64: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5552: 5550: 5542: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5481: 5480: 5474: 5473: 5461: 5458: 5457: 5455: 5454: 5447: 5442: 5437: 5432: 5427: 5425:Lesser Germany 5418: 5406: 5399: 5392: 5389:Burschenschaft 5385: 5380: 5374: 5372: 5368: 5367: 5365: 5364: 5359: 5354: 5349: 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5299: 5294: 5289: 5284: 5279: 5277:Franz Joseph I 5274: 5269: 5264: 5259: 5254: 5248: 5246: 5242: 5241: 5239: 5238: 5229: 5220: 5207: 5198: 5189: 5180: 5179: 5178: 5169: 5160: 5143: 5142: 5141: 5130: 5121: 5112: 5092: 5082: 5080: 5076: 5075: 5073: 5072: 5067: 5062: 5057: 5052: 5045: 5040: 5034: 5032: 5028: 5027: 5025: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4981: 4979: 4975: 4974: 4969: 4967: 4966: 4959: 4952: 4944: 4935: 4934: 4932: 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1349:alongside the 1320: 1319: 1304:. Discuss and 1291: 1289: 1282: 1253: 1252: 1167: 1165: 1158: 1152: 1149: 1138:August Willich 1122:Kaiserslautern 1091:traveled from 1058:Joseph Fickler 1054:Florian Mördes 916:Albert Clement 904:Kaiserslautern 871:, 14 June 1849 823: 822:The Palatinate 820: 801:Joseph Fickler 708: 707: 704: 703: 698: 693: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 643: 638: 632: 611: 610: 605: 600: 595: 589: 582: 579: 578: 567: 565: 564: 557: 550: 542: 532:Main article: 529: 526: 500:shot several. 455:, October 1848 423:Main article: 420: 417: 398:Märzrevolution 359:Hambacher Fest 354: 351: 339:Forty-Eighters 299:Märzrevolution 273:, possibly by 259: 258: 255: 248: 247: 243: 242: 237: 202: 201: 197: 196: 180: 179: 178: 167: 156: 132: 131: 127: 126: 123: 122: 121: 120: 114: 104: 100: 99: 93: 91: 87: 86: 83: 75: 74: 65:Origin of the 56: 55: 44: 43: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5551: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5522: 5520: 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5486: 5484: 5471: 5459: 5453: 5452: 5448: 5446: 5443: 5441: 5438: 5436: 5433: 5431: 5428: 5426: 5422: 5421:Pan-Germanism 5419: 5415: 5410: 5407: 5405: 5404: 5400: 5398: 5397: 5393: 5391: 5390: 5386: 5384: 5381: 5379: 5376: 5375: 5373: 5369: 5363: 5360: 5358: 5355: 5353: 5350: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5317:Archduke John 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5298: 5295: 5293: 5290: 5288: 5285: 5283: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5263: 5260: 5258: 5255: 5253: 5250: 5249: 5247: 5243: 5237: 5230: 5228: 5221: 5219: 5215: 5208: 5206: 5199: 5197: 5190: 5188: 5181: 5177: 5170: 5168: 5161: 5159: 5152: 5151: 5150: 5144: 5140: 5139: 5131: 5129: 5122: 5120: 5113: 5111: 5104: 5103: 5102: 5101: 5093: 5091: 5084: 5083: 5081: 5077: 5071: 5070:German Empire 5068: 5066: 5063: 5061: 5058: 5056: 5053: 5051: 5050: 5046: 5044: 5041: 5039: 5036: 5035: 5033: 5029: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5003: 5000: 4998: 4995: 4991: 4986: 4983: 4982: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4965: 4960: 4958: 4953: 4951: 4946: 4945: 4942: 4928: 4925: 4923: 4920: 4919: 4917: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4904: 4902: 4900: 4897: 4895: 4892: 4890: 4887: 4883: 4880: 4878: 4875: 4873: 4870: 4868: 4865: 4864: 4863: 4860: 4859: 4857: 4853: 4847: 4844: 4842: 4839: 4835: 4832: 4831: 4830: 4827: 4823: 4820: 4819: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4804: 4802: 4798: 4792: 4789: 4787: 4786:Republicanism 4784: 4782: 4779: 4777: 4774: 4773: 4771: 4767: 4763: 4756: 4751: 4749: 4744: 4742: 4737: 4736: 4733: 4718: 4714: 4709: 4705: 4702:(in German). 4701: 4693: 4689: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4672: 4671: 4667: 4653: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4630: 4629: 4624: 4619: 4607: 4606: 4601: 4597: 4596: 4592: 4586: 4582: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4567: 4561: 4557: 4555:0-521-83907-6 4551: 4547: 4543: 4538: 4534: 4532:0-19-822120-7 4528: 4524: 4519: 4518: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4470: 4466: 4464:0-691-00756-X 4460: 4456: 4452: 4451: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4428: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4412:0-684-14683-5 4408: 4404: 4400: 4399: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4265: 4261: 4258:. 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2313: 2309: 2301: 2299: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2284: 2281: 2277: 2271: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2243: 2241: 2236: 2232: 2230: 2226: 2221: 2220: 2213: 2212: 2205: 2201: 2198: 2193: 2191: 2186: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2157: 2153: 2151: 2147: 2141: 2138: 2133: 2131: 2130: 2125: 2120: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2079: 2077: 2075: 2071: 2066: 2065: 2058: 2055: 2052: 2044: 2041: 2037: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2025: 2024: 2021: 2019: 2014: 2013: 2007: 2003: 1998: 1996: 1988: 1984: 1977: 1974: 1971: 1970:Deutscher Hof 1968: 1965: 1962: 1959: 1956: 1953: 1950: 1947: 1944: 1943: 1942: 1940: 1935: 1932: 1927: 1922: 1920: 1916: 1912: 1908: 1897: 1894: 1886: 1883:December 2023 1876: 1872: 1868: 1862: 1861: 1857: 1852:This section 1850: 1846: 1841: 1840: 1833: 1826: 1824: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1807:troops under 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1772: 1764: 1762: 1759: 1755: 1749: 1747: 1743: 1742:Karl Schädler 1739: 1735: 1729: 1722:Liechtenstein 1721: 1719: 1717: 1716:Maximilian II 1712: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1694: 1692: 1688: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1667: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1631: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1613: 1609: 1604: 1603: 1598: 1594: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1574: 1568: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1544: 1542: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1527: 1523: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1509: 1504: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1485: 1478: 1476: 1474: 1469: 1463: 1459: 1457: 1452: 1443: 1439: 1437: 1433: 1428: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1411:aides-de-camp 1408: 1402: 1400: 1394: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1357: 1352: 1347: 1340: 1338: 1330: 1326: 1316: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1297: 1290: 1281: 1280: 1277: 1275: 1266: 1262: 1260: 1249: 1246: 1238: 1227: 1224: 1220: 1217: 1213: 1210: 1206: 1203: 1199: 1196: – 1195: 1191: 1190:Find sources: 1184: 1180: 1174: 1173: 1168:This section 1166: 1162: 1157: 1156: 1150: 1148: 1146: 1141: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1102: 1099: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1080: 1076: 1070: 1067: 1063: 1059: 1055: 1051: 1047: 1046:Karl Eichfeld 1043: 1039: 1038:Bavarian Army 1031: 1027: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 995: 992: 991: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 936:Gustav Struve 933: 929: 925: 921: 917: 913: 909: 905: 900: 898: 897:Franz Sznayde 894: 890: 886: 882: 878: 870: 865: 861: 857: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 833: 829: 821: 819: 816: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 793: 791: 787: 781: 779: 775: 770: 768: 763: 758: 755: 750: 746: 742: 738: 733: 729: 727: 723: 719: 715: 702: 699: 697: 694: 692: 689: 687: 684: 682: 679: 677: 674: 672: 669: 667: 664: 662: 659: 657: 654: 652: 649: 647: 644: 642: 639: 637: 634: 633: 631: 630: 628: 623: 622: 619: 617: 616:Struve Putsch 609: 606: 604: 601: 599: 596: 594: 591: 590: 588: 586: 580: 574: 563: 558: 556: 551: 549: 544: 543: 540: 535: 527: 525: 523: 519: 515: 511: 506: 501: 497: 495: 494:Imperial Diet 491: 487: 481: 479: 478:Lower Austria 475: 470: 468: 463: 454: 450: 446: 444: 440: 436: 432: 426: 418: 416: 414: 410: 406: 401: 399: 395: 391: 387: 382: 380: 376: 372: 371:German states 367: 365: 360: 352: 350: 348: 344: 340: 335: 330: 328: 324: 320: 316: 315:pan-Germanism 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 280: 276: 272: 271: 267:The painting 265: 256: 254: 250: 249: 244: 241: 238: 236: 225: 214: 204: 203: 198: 195: 191: 190:German Empire 181: 168: 157: 146: 145: 144: 143: 139: 134: 133: 128: 119: 115: 110: 109: 108: 105: 102: 101: 96: 95:German states 92: 89: 88: 84: 81: 80: 76: 72: 68: 62: 57: 54: 50: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 5449: 5401: 5394: 5387: 5342:Napoleon III 5262:Christian IX 5216: / 5145: 5136: 5098: 5060:Erfurt Union 5047: 4816: 4720:. Retrieved 4716: 4703: 4699: 4684:the original 4679: 4656:. Retrieved 4649: 4633:. Retrieved 4626: 4610:. Retrieved 4603: 4585:Google Books 4583:– via 4565: 4541: 4516: 4477: 4473: 4449: 4440:Google Books 4438:– via 4426: 4417:Google Books 4415:– via 4401:. New York: 4397: 4355: 4351: 4318: 4314: 4305: 4273: 4269: 4255: 4233:(1): 27–44. 4230: 4224: 4205: 4197:Google Books 4195:– via 4177: 4151: 4130: 4119: 4090: 4086: 4080: 4063: 4059: 4053: 4026: 4020: 4011: 4002: 3994:Google Books 3992:– via 3974: 3966:Google Books 3964:– via 3946: 3939: 3931: 3923: 3910: 3909:Koch, H. W. 3892: 3886: 3878: 3870: 3860: 3850: 3838:. Retrieved 3825: 3813:. Retrieved 3806: 3781:. Retrieved 3774: 3749:. Retrieved 3742: 3715: 3708: 3696: 3688: 3669: 3661: 3653: 3645: 3637: 3629: 3621: 3613: 3605: 3597: 3589: 3581: 3573: 3565: 3553: 3541:. Retrieved 3537: 3528: 3520: 3493: 3481: 3473: 3450: 3442: 3423: 3393: 3389: 3383: 3375: 3356: 3348: 3340:Google Books 3338:– via 3324: 3317: 3309: 3301: 3293: 3285: 3273: 3265: 3257: 3249: 3232: 3226: 3218: 3210: 3202: 3194: 3186: 3178: 3170: 3151: 3143: 3135: 3127: 3119: 3091: 3085: 3077: 3069: 3061: 3053: 3045: 3037: 3029: 3010: 2989: 2981: 2973: 2954: 2946: 2938: 2930: 2922: 2914: 2906: 2887: 2868: 2860: 2852: 2844: 2836: 2828: 2816: 2808: 2789: 2781: 2773: 2765: 2757: 2749: 2741: 2733: 2725: 2700: 2675: 2616:Google Books 2614:– via 2600: 2593: 2585: 2577: 2569: 2561: 2553: 2545: 2537: 2514: 2481: 2427: 2362: 2361:' 1955 film 2340:Hans Kudlich 2332:forced labor 2305: 2285: 2272: 2244: 2240:Reichsflotte 2237: 2233: 2206: 2202: 2194: 2190:nation state 2182: 2158: 2154: 2142: 2134: 2127: 2098:constitution 2083: 2076:and Saxony. 2059: 2056: 2048: 2022: 1999: 1992: 1936: 1923: 1904: 1889: 1880: 1865:Please help 1853: 1817:West Prussia 1789:West Prussia 1774: 1750: 1746:Ludwig Grass 1738:Peter Kaiser 1731: 1713: 1698: 1689: 1678:and Captain 1668: 1614: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1589: 1577: 1569: 1548: 1539:German Texan 1528: 1524: 1520:Stephen Born 1505: 1490: 1464: 1460: 1448: 1424: 1406: 1403: 1395: 1382:Leibregiment 1342: 1334: 1310: 1296:undue weight 1293: 1271: 1256: 1241: 1232: 1222: 1215: 1208: 1201: 1189: 1177:Please help 1172:verification 1169: 1142: 1126: 1103: 1083: 1071: 1035: 1030:Ludwigshafen 996: 964:Colonel Kurz 928:Eugen Oswald 901: 874: 858: 835: 817: 794: 782: 771: 759: 734: 730: 712: 676:Ladenburg II 651:Ludwigshafen 627:Baden Mutiny 625: 624: 614: 613: 583: 522:Franz Joseph 502: 498: 482: 471: 467:Anton Füster 458: 442: 428: 402: 383: 368: 356: 331: 294: 286: 284: 275:Philipp Veit 268: 239: 135: 130:Belligerents 106: 47:Part of the 36: 5352:Robert Blum 5149:Revolutions 4855:By location 4781:Nationalism 4654:(in German) 4631:(in German) 4608:(in German) 4484:: 367–379. 3840:13 February 3815:24 December 3811:(in German) 3783:24 December 3779:(in German) 3751:24 December 3747:(in German) 2436:. pp. 2364:Lola Montès 2312:World War I 2229:Protestants 2165:Franz Sigel 2161:Carl Schurz 2146:Württemberg 2086:von Wrangel 2051:Robert Blum 2002:regionalism 1976:Donnersberg 1946:Café Milani 1709:Lola Montez 1656:Karl Hecker 1432:catafalques 1415:bivouacking 1409:of mounted 1407:va-et-vient 1114:Reichenbach 1079:Switzerland 956:Franz Sigel 944:Joseph Moll 932:Amand Goegg 741:Württemberg 661:Ladenburg I 462:Lola Montez 5483:Categories 5049:Zollverein 4899:Luxembourg 4776:Liberalism 4298:Marx, Karl 3978:. Oxford: 3913:. London: 3241:1006205627 2422:Marx, Karl 2401:References 2359:Max Ophüls 2292:Metternich 2251:Copenhagen 2150:Palatinate 1926:parliament 1907:Heidelberg 1564:Düsseldorf 1274:Tiergarten 1235:March 2018 1205:newspapers 1062:Karl Blind 920:Zychlinski 891:. Finally 850:Palatinate 790:Karl Mathy 666:Hirschhorn 636:Heppenheim 608:Dossenbach 598:Günterstal 575:of 1848/49 443:ex officio 5451:Sonderweg 5362:Wilhelm I 5337:Ludwig II 5257:Charles I 5223:1870–1871 5183:1850-1851 5154:1848–1849 5095:1815–1848 5086:1814–1815 4912:Wallachia 4877:Vojvodina 4822:Schleswig 4800:By nation 4791:Socialism 4722:21 August 4717:Omniatlas 4498:0032-3195 4436:930492299 4388:144825914 4372:0022-2801 4335:0002-8762 4290:0013-8266 4045:829661791 3803:"Landrat" 3543:21 August 3312:, p. 613. 3221:, p. 673. 3173:, p. 447. 3100:914905293 2657:Dill 1970 2507:Dill 1970 2474:Dill 1970 2456:925314360 2406:Citations 2369:courtesan 2225:Catholics 1958:Landsberg 1911:Frankfurt 1854:does not 1823:in 1866. 1781:Pomerelia 1617:Elberfeld 1552:North Sea 1389:from the 1361:von Below 1313:June 2020 1089:Karl Marx 1016:Franconia 1012:Nuremberg 1004:Stuttgart 1000:Hechingen 960:Nerlinger 846:Karlsruhe 838:Elberfeld 696:Gernsbach 671:Waghäusel 593:Scheideck 486:Innsbruck 343:Wisconsin 297:(German: 289:(German: 4907:Moldavia 4882:Slovakia 4829:Italians 4658:18 March 4635:18 March 4628:Die Welt 4612:18 March 4398:Bismarck 4304:(1977). 4118:(2023). 4099:82210275 4072:44077068 3970: ; 3359:, p. 16. 2380:See also 2373:Ludwig I 2324:peasants 2318:and the 1734:Aloys II 1705:Ludwig I 1630:Landwehr 1625:Solingen 1621:Iserlohn 1608:Landwehr 1602:Landwehr 1346:Spielhof 1134:Gräfrath 1130:Solingen 958:, Major 737:Mannheim 681:Sinsheim 656:Käfertal 641:Weinheim 603:Freiburg 435:Napoleon 270:Germania 251:~45,000 246:Strength 90:Location 51:and the 5371:Related 5272:Franz I 5100:Vormärz 4988:(later 4927:Ireland 4922:Britain 4889:Belgium 4867:Hungary 4817:Germans 4506:2147265 4380:1877214 4343:1904890 4247:1842744 4183:Longman 2336:Prussia 2328:serfdom 2227:versus 2129:Landtag 2074:Hanover 1875:removed 1860:sources 1703:, King 1701:Bavaria 1695:Bavaria 1560:Cologne 1493:Dresden 1434:on the 1419:Potsdam 1306:resolve 1219:scholar 1151:Prussia 1118:Hexamer 1093:Cologne 950:, Herr 918:, Herr 906:, were 722:Leopold 718:Louis I 701:Rastatt 691:Durlach 686:Ubstadt 621:Staufen 518:Moravia 514:Olomouc 474:Hofburg 419:Austria 334:liberal 5245:People 5234: 5225: 5212: 5203: 5194: 5185: 5174: 5165: 5156: 5135: 5126: 5117: 5108: 5097: 5088: 5079:Events 5031:Unions 4978:States 4894:Brazil 4872:Prague 4846:Swedes 4834:Sicily 4812:French 4769:Ideals 4577: 4552: 4529: 4504: 4496: 4461: 4434: 4409: 4386: 4378: 4370: 4341: 4333: 4288: 4245: 4212: 4189: 4164: 4137: 4097: 4070: 4043: 4033: 3986: 3958: 3400: 3332: 3239: 3098: 2608: 2454: 2444: 2308:states 1952:Casino 1805:Polish 1756:. 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Knowledge (XXG)

German revolutions of 1848–1849

Index