752:. He accused Ghali of extrapolating this data to the entire Somali population, thereby exaggerating the extent of the famine. Brauman observed that when the large international military coalition arrived in Somalia in December 1992, Somali-led convoys from Mogadishu, which were unprotected and delivered 400 tons of food, received minimal media coverage. In contrast, just 20 kilometers away, heavily armed US military aid convoys transporting only 20 tons of food were swarmed by hundreds of journalists and TV crews. The Somali convoys were observed to be markedly more cost-efficient in distributing Red Cross aid compared to the military counterparts.
2246:
2879:
31:
2889:
616:. With the looming threat of Barres troops reclaiming Mogadishu gone and the absence of financial support from militia leaders, both Aidid and Mahdi found themselves losing control over significant portions of their younger troops. Clan elders, too, had lost substantial influence over these forces. Consequently many turned to stealing food both as a means of sustenance and as an income source.
402:
644:(UNICEF), and the level of inter-agency rivalry escalated to such an extent that they confiscated each other's photocopiers. Only at the end of August 1992 was the first meeting held to coordinate UN agencies in Somalia. Sahnoun later criticized aid agencies for overwhelmingly focusing aid on Mogadishu when starvation in the country was elsewhere.
755:
By early 1993 food prices had fallen well below production costs and farmers in the riverine areas reported grain stores full from previous unsold harvests. Despite the significant improvement in mortality due to the resumption of agricultural production and international aid, death rates in southern
455:
on
September 15, 1991, to prepare for a military reoccupation of Mogadishu seven months later. Meanwhile, his soldiers plundered grain stores in this agricultural area, destroying pumps and implements in their wake. Farming came to a standstill. Barre’s army of occupation did not leave the area until
635:
Sahnoun noted that due to disorganization and "bureaucratic haggling", UNOSOM food assistance in
Somalia was slow and inadequate. Consequently, numerous independent relief agencies ventured into famine affected zones to provide relief, as opposed to UN relief organizations who argued that insecurity
531:
challenged the United
Nations' claim that 4.5 million people in Somalia were on the verge of starvation, and asserted that the figure was created with the intention of galvanizing an international response. According to Maren, this portrayal significantly overstated the crisis. His observations from
587:
In early 1992, as relief agencies initiated their operations, they encountered growing obstacles in delivering aid to the impacted inter-riverine region. The disintegration of Somali law enforcement paved the way for armed looters and criminals to steal food from storage sites and supply routes. In
785:
noted this was an optimistic assessment and that the number was likely higher, but asserted that much of what was counted in the figure was not hijackings or robberies. A significant portion of the food considered under the umbrella of an "unaccounted loss" was actually given up through agreements
692:
during
September led to the apex of the famine with approximately 30,000 people dying that month. By October 1992, the situation in Baidoa had significantly improved without military intervention. Weekly death rates in the city had dropped from 1,700 in September to 300 by mid-November 1992.
431:
declared
Somalia the worlds "most urgent tragedy" and warned that thousands would begin dying within weeks. At the start of April 1992, General Aidids Somali Liberation Army coalition began its final major offensive to push the Somali National Front out of the southern
588:
certain affected areas, armed banditry on these routes emerged as a significant concern. To safeguard their supplies, NGOs and relief agencies contracted Somali mercenaries or local gangs, equipped with improvised combat vehicles, to escort their convoys. The term "
572:
and managed the majority of all US based aid. The organization operated 400 kitchens across the country. It is believed that at its peak the ICRC provided some form of relief to over 2 million
Somalis, feeding 600,000. For its efforts the ICRC was nominated for the
116:
652:
During the second half of 1992 the famine largely began to recede. Food prices across the country dropped dramatically from July to
September 1992. The primary reason was that the lull in fighting in the south had allowed the first crop harvest in the
426:
closed the nations main ports. This led to the near disappearance of food from many markets across southern
Somalia. Warnings of famine began around December 1991, but were largely ignored by the United Nations and relief agencies. In March 1992, the
298:
was established to succeed UNOSOM I, deploying over 30,000 US-led troops to
Somalia with the initial objective of providing security for relief groups. During early 1993, the famine largely subsided, and in March of that year, UNITAF transitioned to
786:
between the ICRC and its 24,000 employees/subcontractors in
Somalia, who were usually paid in food. When food was stolen it was often through non-violent means such as the registration of "ghost kitchens" or "ghost villages" that did not exist.
716:, aid was flowing through the Mogadishu port unimpeded, with theft and banditry on the routes to famine zones averaging around 20%. However, within the same month, Sahnoun was compelled to resign due to disagreements with UN Secretary-General
679:
In August 1992, the famine started catching the attention of international media. By the time most international media had taken notice in the famine, the peak in mortality had largely already passed, though pockets of starvation in
109:
756:
Somalia were still above normal. According to the Refugee Policy Group NGO, approximately 10,000 of the 100,000 saved by foreign aid had been rescued following the deployment of U.S. and international troops during December 1992's
380:
During this period SNF forces also destroyed pumps and farming equipment, resulting in a near complete halt to agriculture production. The Somali National Front is widely considered to bear primary responsibility for inducing the
712:, the UN secretary-general's claim that starvation was a direct result of continuing insecurity in Somalia during late 1992 was, "…dubious in the extreme". By November 1992, largely owing to the mediation led by UNOSOM I head
102:
848:
The figure of those who died during the 1992 Somalia famine is more difficult to estimate than with most famines, largely due to the highly uneven impact of starvation and mass displacement from the civil war.
837:
began in Mogadishu. General Shaheen claimed that the amount of aid being looted was being exaggerated in order justify expanding the scope of the operation and that estimates of 80% were completely fabricated
384:
This dire food supply situation was further exacerbated by the serious instability caused by fighting between the SNF and anti-Barre rebels over fertile regions, the most powerful of which was the
797:
estimated that the majority of deliveries had around 15% looted, but that the number increased to as much as 40% of higher quality items. In an interview with American war correspondent
632:, Special Representative of the Secretary-general for UNOSOM I, was tasked with forming and coordinating the UN's response. In May 1992 the first UN aid shipment arrived in Mogadishu.
636:
precluded their presence. This was further compounded by serious organizational infighting between relief agencies in Somalia during the spring and summer of 1992. Specifically, the
344:
disintegrated. The largest contributing factor behind the famine was the devastation inflicted on infrastructure and farmland by warfare in the agricultural inter-riverine regions.
789:
At its peak, the maximum figure of looting was somewhere under 50% of aid and according to the Red Cross, the majority eventually reached its intended destination. In October 1992
592:" was coined by the accountants of these NGOs and relief agencies to categorize expenditures related to these unconventional security measures. Many of the thieves at Mogadishu's
532:
the ground indicated that the famine was confined to specific areas, with the majority of Somalia's population remaining relatively unaffected. According to UNOSOM advisor
500:
and townspeople had near normal levels of nutrition while farmers along the rivers and those displaced in camps outside settlements by fighting were severely malnourished.
336:
was toppled by rebel groups. During 1991 and 1992 southern Somalia was struck by an exceptionally harsh drought. Concurrently, traditional coping methods broke down as the
662:
493:
428:
181:
558:. Consequently an important factor in the suppression of starvation was large scale international food deliveries. According the independent Washington-based
2231:
724:, who then claimed that 80% of all aid was stolen. This inflated figure has been disputed by other UNOSOM personnel, aid workers in Somalia and academics.
186:
777:, the primary distributor of aid in Somalia, claimed that 10-15% of food aid deliveries were "unaccounted losses", which is often wholly conflated with
508:
During the first year the vast majority of aid distributed to the needy was from local community initiatives. Village committees, often centered around
2052:
774:
566:
275:
760:. A US government commissioned report aligns with these figures claiming an estimated 10,000-25,000 saved following the December 1992 intervention.
736:
was still in an issue. By November 1992, the food situation in Somalia had already improved dramatically, and mortality rates had fallen sharply.
554:
While many local Somali community initiatives had formed to provide famine relief, they were soon overwhelmed by the scale of starvation sweeping
657:
region, which had proved to be surprisingly bountiful. In July 1992 the first UN troops landed in Somalia, seven Pakistanis under the command of
308:
300:
175:
536:, media portrayals of the crisis being nationwide were devoid of reality as only about 12% of the population had been affected by the famine.
1766:
1702:
1074:
1047:
1020:
625:
545:
369:. Lacking supplies of their own to sustain themselves, Barres forces ravaged the grain stores of inter-riverine agricultural belt around the
271:
136:
266:
During the second half of 1992, the famine began to recede, partly due to the lull in fighting, which allowed the first crop harvest in the
2607:
637:
2201:
2363:
2317:
818:
and UNOSOM officials went as far to claim that 80% of all food aid shipments were being looted, a figure that has been heavily disputed.
705:, "This temporary surge in death rates coincided with a huge international media attention that made all of Somalia seem like Bardera."
2681:
1795:
2065:
1900:
1734:
1670:
1638:
2020:
1968:
278:
took lead of the response, spending more than half of its 1992 budget on the crisis and distributing 75% of all relief in Somalia.
1823:
2184:
597:
2300:
2163:
1863:
1831:
741:
2933:
2617:
2602:
2558:
2466:
2334:
2153:
559:
2671:
2597:
2553:
2045:
1697:. African Rights and the International African Institute in association with James Currey and Indiana University Press.
732:
By the time of the large scale military intervention in December 1992, the famine had peaked and was in decline, though
2194:
418:
production ceased, food prices skyrocketed across the south in mid-1991. In November later that year, major battles in
2938:
2923:
2728:
2691:
2686:
2676:
2504:
2346:
2226:
2221:
798:
749:
681:
485:
260:
856:
220,000 Somalis died during the 1992 famine. This figure was reportedly surpassed by approximately 40,000 during the
825:
to justify the deployment of US troops to Somalia in December 1992. The estimate was directly disputed by Pakistani
2792:
698:
333:
209:
196:
303:. Of the approximately 100,000 lives saved as a result of international assistance, 10,000–25,000 were during the
2913:
2745:
2704:
2629:
2624:
2270:
2138:
1720:
709:
533:
504:, capital of Bay region, became an epicenter of the famine and was referred to at the time as the "City of Death"
436:
480:
The famine was highly selective and affected primarily two groups: the inhabitants along the Jubba and Shebelle
443:
The famine was a combination of drought and a seven-month military occupation of the area by three divisions of
270:
region, and also due to large-scale international food deliveries. The continuing crisis led to the creation of
2918:
2775:
2025:
857:
669:
390:
202:
142:
472:
left villages upon villages of destitute farming communities. It took three months for the impact of growing
2928:
2755:
2750:
2666:
2563:
2543:
2245:
2113:
2038:
1849:
216:
2661:
2568:
829:
Imtiaz Shaheen (head of the first UN troop contingent to Somalia) in an interview with British journalist
628:
was to established in April 1992 to help facilitate the delivery of humanitarian aid for relief agencies.
601:
356:
745:
717:
672:
agreed to the deployment of 500 UN troops to ensure the security of aid workers, under the direction of
565:, approximately 100,000 lives were saved as a result of international assistance during the famine. The
361:
255:
rivers. The resulting famine primarily affected residents living in the riverine area, predominantly in
240:
158:
665:
that began in August 1992 and gone on until December has been credited with saving around 40,000 lives.
2860:
2765:
2714:
2612:
2575:
2548:
2254:
2133:
2123:
815:
802:
694:
609:
461:
395:
94:
801:
Sahnoun commented on looting by militias stating, "We see that there is a limit to the authority of
2850:
2835:
2815:
2787:
2592:
2522:
2280:
589:
469:
332:
rule. At the start of 1991, the formal economy collapsed following several years of decline as the
2888:
1013:
Fragile States and Insecure People?: Violence, Security, and Statehood in the Twenty-First Century
2807:
2709:
2649:
2538:
2275:
2148:
2143:
2128:
2073:
1955:
834:
830:
757:
605:
549:
304:
295:
150:
805:
and others, though they do not want to confess their inability to control, their powerlessness,"
1995:"Somalia - No Mercy in Mogadishu: The Human Cost of the Conflict & The Struggle for Relief"
2855:
2825:
2770:
2740:
2290:
1976:
1947:
1906:
1896:
1893:
1869:
1859:
1837:
1827:
1801:
1791:
1772:
1762:
1740:
1730:
1708:
1698:
1676:
1666:
1634:
1630:
1070:
1043:
1037:
1016:
993:
826:
822:
658:
593:
574:
2882:
2845:
2840:
2797:
2189:
2176:
2108:
2098:
1939:
983:
721:
337:
325:
87:
2782:
2760:
2696:
2456:
2441:
2285:
2118:
1813:
794:
713:
673:
629:
341:
191:
811:
asserted that diversions averaged around 20 to 30%, and were often 'grossly exaggerated'
1069:. Joint History Office, Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. p. 6.
2892:
2830:
2446:
2436:
2416:
2351:
2171:
2103:
790:
654:
613:
374:
267:
252:
165:
2907:
2386:
1758:
The road to hell : the ravaging effects of foreign aid and international charity
1752:
733:
702:
528:
282:
30:
2391:
2339:
2093:
1883:
1688:
1039:
Waging Peace: The United Nations Security Council and Transnational Armed Conflicts
808:
782:
737:
555:
489:
256:
1600:
1064:
328:, food shortages had started during summer of 1990 in the last year of President
2484:
2421:
497:
415:
370:
366:
248:
244:
860:, which primarily affected the same region and communities as the 1992 crisis.
2820:
2494:
2426:
2327:
2305:
2158:
1910:
1805:
770:
Estimates of the amount of food aid looted greatly vary, ranging from 10-80%.
444:
348:
329:
239:
and devastation caused by warring factions in southern Somalia, primarily the
1980:
1951:
1776:
1712:
997:
988:
975:
2396:
2322:
2088:
1994:
1887:
1873:
1841:
1785:
1744:
1680:
457:
419:
352:
1662:
Learning from Somalia : the lessons of armed humanitarian intervention
405:
Jubba and Shabelle riverine area, site of major fighting in 1991 & 1992
401:
1853:
1817:
1756:
1694:
Famine crimes : politics & the disaster relief industry in Africa
693:
Bardheere experienced a large jump in deaths in mid-October after General
2499:
2489:
2474:
2451:
2381:
2310:
1724:
1660:
516:
77:
1959:
1927:
2479:
2061:
778:
689:
524:
520:
423:
286:
236:
1627:
Famine in Somalia: Competing Imperatives, Collective Failures, 2011-12
2411:
2376:
1943:
1692:
685:
641:
509:
501:
473:
452:
2030:
2431:
2371:
2295:
1104:
1102:
1100:
1098:
481:
465:
447:’s army. The former president had moved his headquarters from the
400:
2580:
2406:
2401:
640:(UNDP) displayed an overt unwillingness to collaborate with the
448:
2034:
365:(SNF), withdrew far south of the city into the nations fertile
98:
1170:
1168:
976:"Political Decay in Somalia: From Personal Rule to Warlordism"
853:
1392:
1390:
1290:
1288:
359:(USC) forces in January 1991, his newly formed faction, the
316:
The crisis resulted in an estimated 200,000–300,000 deaths.
1341:
1339:
1263:
1261:
569:(ICRC) distributed 75% of all food aid coming into Somalia,
1855:
Me Against My Brother: At war in Somalia, Sudan and Rwanda
1443:
1441:
1209:
1207:
1119:
1117:
600:, the primary supply hub, were associated with the rebel
1523:
1521:
1460:
1458:
1456:
936:
934:
932:
930:
928:
915:
913:
911:
909:
907:
894:
892:
890:
888:
886:
884:
882:
880:
878:
1236:
1234:
512:, established feeding centers and relief associations.
289:
to the Red Cross that saved approximately 40,000 lives.
1011:
Andersen, L.; Møller, B.; Stepputat, F. (2007-08-06).
957:
955:
953:
951:
949:
1787:
The Skull Beneath the Skin: Africa after the Cold War
1969:"Somalia 1992: Picking Up Pieces as Famine Subsides"
2806:
2727:
2648:
2521:
2465:
2362:
2253:
2214:
2081:
2072:
83:
72:
64:
56:
48:
40:
21:
1066:The Effort to Save Somalia, August 1992-March 1994
126:United Nations Intervention in Somalia (1992–1995)
728:UNITAF and UNOSOM II (December 1992 – March 1995)
748:for improperly using the organization's data on
1659:Clarke, Walter S.; Herbst, Jeffrey Ira (1997).
2046:
388:(an anti-Barre rebel coalition preceding the
110:
8:
1186:
1108:
2733:
2654:
2531:
2527:
2263:
2259:
2078:
2053:
2039:
2031:
117:
103:
95:
29:
18:
1625:Maxwell, Daniel G.; Majid, Nisar (2016).
1042:. Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH. p. 219.
987:
515:A principle killer during the famine was
2196:Ethiopian intervention (2006–2009)
1601:"Somalia famine 'killed 260,000 people'"
1575:
1447:
1420:
1408:
1396:
1357:
1330:
1306:
1294:
1252:
1198:
1147:
1123:
940:
919:
567:International Committee of the Red Cross
276:International Committee of the Red Cross
1587:
1563:
1539:
1527:
1512:
1500:
1488:
1381:
1369:
1345:
1318:
1279:
1267:
1225:
1213:
1174:
1159:
1135:
1089:
898:
874:
661:Imtiaz Shaheen. US aid airlifts to the
624:In response to the security situation,
464:hands before retreating rapidly to the
1551:
1464:
744:in 1992, criticized Secretary-General
476:to hit the world’s television screens.
1761:. New York: Free Press. p. 214.
1665:. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
1476:
1432:
1240:
961:
620:UNOSOM I (April 1992 – December 1992)
546:United Nations Operation in Somalia I
7:
980:Refuge: Canada's Journal on Refugees
638:United Nations Development Programme
793:Special Representative to Somalia
460:it suffered its initial defeat at
281:From August to December 1992, the
14:
1819:Somalia: The Missed Opportunities
2887:
2878:
2877:
2244:
1824:United States Institute of Peace
974:Compagnon, Daniel (1992-11-01).
701:occupied the city. According to
324:Before the full outbreak of the
243:, in the fertile inter-riverine
2164:Somaliland War of Independence
456:April 22, 1992. On the road to
320:Causes and contributing factors
821:This number was later used by
697:forces pulled out and General
642:United Nations Children's Fund
1:
2154:Trust Territory of Somaliland
1726:Whatever happened to Somalia?
2021:1983–1985 famine in Ethiopia
1926:Clark, Jeffrey (1992–1993).
1015:. Springer. pp. 88–89.
527:. Journalist and aid worker
435:According to UNOSOM advisor
1967:Perlez, Jane (1992-12-31).
740:, who was the president of
682:internally displaced people
668:On 12 August 1992, Aidid's
486:internally displaced people
396:General Mohamed Farah Aidid
2955:
823:President George H.W. Bush
543:
340:spread into the south and
334:Somali Democratic Republic
2873:
2736:
2657:
2534:
2530:
2266:
2262:
2242:
1063:Poole, Walter S. (2005).
187:UN killings of protestors
132:
60:Approx. 200,000 - 300,000
28:
2026:2011 East Africa Drought
1187:Clarke & Herbst 1997
1109:Clarke & Herbst 1997
989:10.25071/1920-7336.21676
858:2011 East Africa drought
670:Somali National Alliance
468:border. Its seven month
391:Somali National Alliance
16:Famine in Somalia (1992)
2114:Sultanate of the Geledi
816:UN World Food Programme
742:Doctors Without Borders
347:After former President
235:resulted from a severe
835:Operation Restore Hope
758:Operation Restore Hope
720:. He was succeeded by
602:United Somali Congress
540:International response
478:
406:
386:Somali Liberation Army
357:United Somali Congress
233:1992 famine in Somalia
182:Pakistani Peacekeepers
1784:Huband, Mark (2003).
1036:Hilaire, Max (2015).
496:nutritional surveys,
441:
404:
362:Somali National Front
241:Somali National Front
2934:20th-century famines
2203:(2009–present)
2134:Warsangali Sultanate
2124:Majeerteen Sultanate
1928:"Debacle in Somalia"
563:Refugee Policy Group
261:internally displaced
1177:, p. 159 -161.
610:Mohamed Farah Aidid
488:, primarily in the
274:in April 1992. The
23:1992 Somalia Famine
2939:Famines in Somalia
2924:1990s in Mogadishu
2505:South West Somalia
2149:British Somaliland
2144:Italian Somaliland
2129:Sultanate of Hobyo
1999:Human Rights Watch
1973:The New York Times
1894:C. Hurst & Co.
1889:Humanitarian Wars?
1631:C. Hurst & Co.
1542:, p. 169-170.
1111:, p. 124-125.
612:, but effectively
550:Unified Task Force
407:
294:In December 1992,
263:by the civil war.
2901:
2900:
2869:
2868:
2723:
2722:
2644:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2608:Political parties
2598:Political history
2554:Foreign relations
2517:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2291:Guardafui Channel
2240:
2239:
2179:(1986–1992)
2166:(1981–1991)
1768:978-1-4391-8841-5
1704:978-0-85255-810-2
1076:978-0-16-075594-1
1049:978-3-8325-4000-5
1022:978-0-230-60557-2
852:According to the
827:Brigadier-General
766:Effect of looting
659:Brigadier-General
575:Nobel Peace Prize
517:epidemic diseases
492:. According to a
351:was ejected from
228:
227:
93:
92:
2946:
2914:Somali Civil War
2891:
2881:
2880:
2734:
2700:
2687:Mineral industry
2677:Economic history
2655:
2588:
2532:
2528:
2264:
2260:
2248:
2204:
2197:
2180:
2167:
2139:Dervish movement
2099:Walashma dynasty
2079:
2055:
2048:
2041:
2032:
2010:
2008:
2006:
1990:
1988:
1987:
1963:
1944:10.2307/20045500
1914:
1877:
1845:
1814:Sahnoun, Mohamed
1809:
1780:
1748:
1729:. London: HAAN.
1716:
1684:
1645:
1644:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1613:
1612:
1597:
1591:
1585:
1579:
1573:
1567:
1561:
1555:
1549:
1543:
1537:
1531:
1525:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1503:, p. 57-58.
1498:
1492:
1486:
1480:
1474:
1468:
1462:
1451:
1445:
1436:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1406:
1400:
1399:, p. 52-53.
1394:
1385:
1379:
1373:
1367:
1361:
1355:
1349:
1348:, p. 17-18.
1343:
1334:
1328:
1322:
1316:
1310:
1309:, p. 45-47.
1304:
1298:
1297:, p. 41-42.
1292:
1283:
1277:
1271:
1270:, p. 20-21.
1265:
1256:
1250:
1244:
1238:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1211:
1202:
1196:
1190:
1189:, p. 56-57.
1184:
1178:
1172:
1163:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1139:
1133:
1127:
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1106:
1093:
1087:
1081:
1080:
1060:
1054:
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1033:
1027:
1026:
1008:
1002:
1001:
991:
971:
965:
959:
944:
938:
923:
917:
902:
896:
326:Somali Civil War
285:operated an aid
197:Checkpoint Pasta
127:
119:
112:
105:
96:
88:Somali Civil War
44:Southern Somalia
33:
24:
19:
2954:
2953:
2949:
2948:
2947:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2919:1992 in Somalia
2904:
2903:
2902:
2897:
2865:
2802:
2793:Public holidays
2719:
2698:
2636:
2582:
2509:
2461:
2457:Woqooyi Galbeed
2442:Middle Shebelle
2358:
2318:Mountain ranges
2286:Greater Somalia
2249:
2236:
2210:
2202:
2195:
2178:
2165:
2119:Isaaq Sultanate
2068:
2059:
2017:
2004:
2002:
2001:. 26 March 1992
1993:
1985:
1983:
1966:
1932:Foreign Affairs
1925:
1922:
1920:Further reading
1917:
1903:
1882:
1866:
1850:Peterson, Scott
1848:
1834:
1812:
1798:
1783:
1769:
1751:
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1687:
1673:
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1471:
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1407:
1403:
1395:
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1050:
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1023:
1010:
1009:
1005:
973:
972:
968:
960:
947:
939:
926:
918:
905:
897:
876:
871:
866:
846:
795:Mohamed Sahnoun
768:
734:food insecurity
730:
714:Mohamed Sahnoun
708:In the view of
674:Mohamed Sahnoun
650:
630:Mohamed Sahnoun
622:
585:
552:
544:Main articles:
542:
474:mass starvation
412:
342:law enforcement
322:
229:
224:
210:Black Hawk Down
192:Abdi House raid
128:
125:
123:
68:War and drought
36:
22:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2952:
2950:
2942:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2929:1992 in Africa
2926:
2921:
2916:
2906:
2905:
2899:
2898:
2896:
2895:
2885:
2874:
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2800:
2795:
2790:
2785:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2748:
2746:Child marriage
2743:
2737:
2731:
2725:
2724:
2721:
2720:
2718:
2717:
2715:Transportation
2712:
2707:
2705:Communications
2702:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2658:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2638:
2637:
2635:
2634:
2633:
2632:
2625:Prime Minister
2622:
2621:
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2605:
2600:
2595:
2590:
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2572:
2571:
2561:
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2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2477:
2471:
2469:
2463:
2462:
2460:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2447:Lower Shebelle
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2368:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2357:
2356:
2355:
2354:
2352:Bajuni Islands
2344:
2343:
2342:
2332:
2331:
2330:
2325:
2315:
2314:
2313:
2308:
2298:
2293:
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2278:
2273:
2267:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2218:
2216:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2199:
2187:
2182:
2174:
2172:Isaaq genocide
2169:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2104:Adal Sultanate
2101:
2096:
2091:
2085:
2083:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2060:
2058:
2057:
2050:
2043:
2035:
2029:
2028:
2023:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2011:
1991:
1964:
1938:(1): 109–123.
1921:
1918:
1916:
1915:
1901:
1879:
1878:
1864:
1846:
1832:
1810:
1797:978-0813341125
1796:
1781:
1767:
1753:Maren, Michael
1749:
1735:
1721:Drysdale, John
1717:
1703:
1685:
1671:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1639:
1633:pp. 5–6.
1617:
1592:
1580:
1568:
1556:
1554:, p. 297.
1544:
1532:
1517:
1505:
1493:
1481:
1479:, p. 212.
1469:
1467:, p. 294.
1452:
1450:, p. 4-5.
1437:
1435:, p. 211.
1425:
1413:
1401:
1386:
1374:
1372:, p. 175.
1362:
1350:
1335:
1323:
1311:
1299:
1284:
1282:, p. 169.
1272:
1257:
1245:
1243:, p. 210.
1230:
1218:
1216:, p. 168.
1203:
1191:
1179:
1164:
1162:, p. 164.
1152:
1140:
1138:, p. 165.
1128:
1113:
1094:
1092:, p. 166.
1082:
1075:
1055:
1048:
1028:
1021:
1003:
966:
964:, p. 214.
945:
924:
903:
901:, p. 167.
873:
872:
870:
867:
865:
862:
845:
842:
799:Scott Peterson
791:United Nations
767:
764:
729:
726:
655:Lower Shebelle
649:
648:Famine recedes
646:
621:
618:
584:
581:
541:
538:
411:
408:
321:
318:
268:Lower Shebelle
226:
225:
223:
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221:
220:
213:
206:
203:Gothic Serpent
199:
194:
189:
184:
172:
171:
170:
169:
168:
166:Somalia affair
148:
147:
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143:Provide Relief
133:
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4:
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2:
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2799:
2796:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2786:
2784:
2781:
2777:
2776:Mental health
2774:
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2764:
2762:
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2757:
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2256:
2252:
2247:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2217:
2213:
2205:
2200:
2198:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2109:Ajuran Empire
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2086:
2084:
2080:
2077:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2056:
2051:
2049:
2044:
2042:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2018:
2014:
2000:
1996:
1992:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1902:9781787382169
1898:
1895:
1891:
1890:
1885:
1884:Brauman, Rony
1881:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1861:
1858:. Routledge.
1857:
1856:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1820:
1815:
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1788:
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1774:
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1746:
1742:
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1736:1-874209-51-0
1732:
1728:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1700:
1696:
1695:
1690:
1689:de Waal, Alex
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1672:0-8133-2793-8
1668:
1664:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1651:
1642:
1640:9780190499389
1636:
1632:
1628:
1621:
1618:
1606:
1602:
1596:
1593:
1590:, p. 53.
1589:
1584:
1581:
1578:, p. 47.
1577:
1576:Peterson 2000
1572:
1569:
1566:, p. 35.
1565:
1560:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1545:
1541:
1536:
1533:
1530:, p. 53.
1529:
1524:
1522:
1518:
1515:, p. 59.
1514:
1509:
1506:
1502:
1497:
1494:
1491:, p. 61.
1490:
1485:
1482:
1478:
1473:
1470:
1466:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1448:Drysdale 1994
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1429:
1426:
1423:, p. 61.
1422:
1421:Drysdale 1994
1417:
1414:
1411:, p. 38.
1410:
1409:Peterson 2000
1405:
1402:
1398:
1397:Drysdale 1994
1393:
1391:
1387:
1384:, p. 37.
1383:
1378:
1375:
1371:
1366:
1363:
1360:, p. 44.
1359:
1358:Peterson 2000
1354:
1351:
1347:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1333:, p. 42.
1332:
1331:Drysdale 1994
1327:
1324:
1321:, p. 25.
1320:
1315:
1312:
1308:
1307:Drysdale 1994
1303:
1300:
1296:
1295:Drysdale 1994
1291:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1276:
1273:
1269:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1255:, p. 86.
1254:
1253:Drysdale 1994
1249:
1246:
1242:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1228:, p. 33.
1227:
1222:
1219:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1201:, p. 49.
1200:
1199:Peterson 2000
1195:
1192:
1188:
1183:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1156:
1153:
1150:, p. 29.
1149:
1148:Peterson 2000
1144:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1129:
1126:, p. 57.
1125:
1124:Drysdale 1994
1120:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1095:
1091:
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1067:
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1018:
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990:
985:
981:
977:
970:
967:
963:
958:
956:
954:
952:
950:
946:
943:, p. 52.
942:
941:Peterson 2000
937:
935:
933:
931:
929:
925:
922:, p. 41.
921:
920:Peterson 2000
916:
914:
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893:
891:
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763:
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753:
751:
747:
743:
739:
735:
727:
725:
723:
722:Ismat Kittani
719:
718:Boutros Ghali
715:
711:
710:John Drysdale
706:
704:
703:Micheal Maren
700:
696:
691:
687:
683:
677:
675:
671:
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664:
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557:
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547:
539:
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535:
534:John Drysdale
530:
529:Michael Maren
526:
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495:
491:
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483:
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32:
27:
20:
2816:Architecture
2756:Demographics
2751:Coat of arms
2692:Oil industry
2667:Central Bank
2584:
2564:Human rights
2544:Constitution
2094:Land of Punt
2005:12 September
2003:. Retrieved
1998:
1984:. Retrieved
1972:
1935:
1931:
1888:
1854:
1818:
1790:. Westview.
1786:
1757:
1725:
1693:
1661:
1626:
1620:
1609:. Retrieved
1607:. 2013-05-02
1604:
1595:
1588:Brauman 2019
1583:
1571:
1564:Sahnoun 1994
1559:
1547:
1540:de Waal 2007
1535:
1528:Sahnoun 1994
1513:Brauman 2019
1508:
1501:Brauman 2019
1496:
1489:Brauman 2019
1484:
1472:
1428:
1416:
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731:
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153:Restore Hope
152:
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76:Creation of
73:Consequences
57:Total deaths
35:January 1993
2662:Agriculture
2569:LGBT rights
2485:Hirshabelle
2422:Middle Juba
1552:Huband 2003
1465:Huband 2003
831:Mark Huband
614:demobilized
367:breadbasket
330:Siad Barres
311:operations.
245:breadbasket
160:Deliverance
84:Preceded by
2908:Categories
2836:Literature
2699:(currency)
2603:Parliament
2559:Government
2495:Somaliland
2427:Lower Juba
2328:Buur Dhaab
2306:Iskushuban
2301:Waterfalls
2177:Rebellion
2159:Ogaden War
2082:Chronology
1986:2022-09-12
1911:1105199753
1865:0415930634
1833:1878379356
1806:1102592879
1611:2023-03-20
1477:Maren 1997
1433:Maren 1997
1241:Maren 1997
962:Maren 1997
864:References
844:Death toll
604:forces of
590:Technicals
583:Insecurity
556:Bay region
490:Bay region
470:occupation
458:Wanle Weyn
451:region to
445:Siad Barre
257:Bay Region
2861:Languages
2766:Education
2697:Shilling
2672:Companies
2613:President
2576:Judiciary
2549:Elections
2397:Galguduud
2335:Mountains
2323:Cal Madow
2255:Geography
2190:Civil War
2089:Laas Geel
1981:0362-4331
1952:0015-7120
1777:652320128
1713:732184681
998:1920-7336
869:Citations
775:Red Cross
690:Bardheere
663:Red Cross
606:Ali Mahdi
494:Red Cross
484:area and
429:Red Cross
420:Mogadishu
394:) led by
353:Mogadishu
338:civil war
309:UNOSOM II
301:UNOSOM II
176:UNOSOM II
151:UNITAF /
52:1991–1992
2883:Category
2851:Religion
2788:Polygamy
2761:Diaspora
2593:Military
2523:Politics
2500:Puntland
2490:Jubaland
2475:Galmudug
2452:Togdheer
2382:Banaadir
2311:Lamadaya
2281:Wildlife
2227:Military
2222:Maritime
2215:By topic
2066:articles
2015:See also
1960:20045500
1886:(2019).
1874:50754136
1852:(2000).
1842:30815708
1816:(1994).
1755:(1997).
1745:30736422
1723:(1994).
1691:(2007).
1681:35849136
1605:BBC News
982:: 8–13.
626:UNOSOM I
519:such as
482:riverine
462:Aideed’s
432:regions.
375:Shebelle
272:UNOSOM I
253:Shebelle
137:UNOSOM I
78:UNOSOM I
41:Location
2831:Cuisine
2808:Culture
2729:Society
2710:Tourism
2650:Economy
2539:Cabinet
2480:Khatumo
2364:Regions
2276:Climate
2074:History
2062:Somalia
1652:Sources
779:looting
684:around
598:airport
525:malaria
521:measles
510:Mosques
424:Kismayo
381:famine.
377:rivers.
287:airlift
237:drought
2893:Portal
2856:Sports
2826:Cinema
2771:Health
2741:Anthem
2467:States
2412:Sanaag
2377:Bakool
2347:Island
2340:Bahaya
2271:Cities
2232:Postal
2185:Piracy
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699:Morgan
695:Aidids
686:Baidoa
502:Baidoa
453:Baidoa
410:Famine
305:UNITAF
296:UNITAF
65:Causes
49:Period
2846:Music
2841:Media
2798:Women
2437:Nugal
2432:Mudug
2417:Hiran
2372:Awdal
2296:Hafun
1956:JSTOR
814:Some
803:Aidid
746:Ghali
466:Kenya
371:Jubba
349:Barre
249:Jubba
2783:Flag
2630:List
2618:List
2585:Xeer
2581:Law
2407:Sool
2402:Gedo
2387:Bari
2007:2022
1977:ISSN
1948:ISSN
1907:OCLC
1897:ISBN
1870:OCLC
1860:ISBN
1838:OCLC
1828:ISBN
1802:OCLC
1792:ISBN
1773:OCLC
1763:ISBN
1741:OCLC
1731:ISBN
1709:OCLC
1699:ISBN
1677:OCLC
1667:ISBN
1635:ISBN
1071:ISBN
1044:ISBN
1017:ISBN
994:ISSN
773:The
750:IDPs
688:and
608:and
596:and
548:and
523:and
449:Gedo
422:and
373:and
307:and
251:and
231:The
2821:Art
2682:EEZ
2392:Bay
1940:doi
984:doi
854:BBC
833:as
594:sea
560:NGO
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