1171:
meaning of the predicate. Adjuncts and arguments can be identified using various diagnostics. The omission diagnostic, for instance, helps identify many arguments and thus indirectly many adjuncts as well. If a given constituent cannot be omitted from a sentence, clause, or phrase without resulting in an unacceptable expression, that constituent is NOT an adjunct, e.g.
1428:
The existence of optional arguments blurs the line between arguments and adjuncts considerably. Further diagnostics (beyond the omission diagnostic and the others mentioned above) must be employed to distinguish between adjuncts and optional arguments. One such diagnostic is the relative clause test.
1170:
take arguments and they permit (certain) adjuncts. The arguments of a predicate are necessary to complete the meaning of the predicate. The adjuncts of a predicate, in contrast, provide auxiliary information about the core predicate-argument meaning, which means they are not necessary to complete the
1555:
The reliability of the relative clause diagnostic is actually limited. For instance, it incorrectly suggests that many modal and manner adjuncts are arguments. This fact bears witness to the difficulty of providing an absolute diagnostic for the distinctions currently being examined. Despite the
1384:
The distinction between arguments and adjuncts is much less clear than the simple omission diagnostic (and the other diagnostics) suggests. Most accounts of the argument vs. adjunct distinction acknowledge a further division. One distinguishes between obligatory and optional arguments. Optional
877:
Adjuncts can be categorized in terms of the functional meaning that they contribute to the phrase, clause, or sentence in which they appear. The following list of the semantic functions is by no means exhaustive, but it does include most of the semantic functions of adjuncts identified in the
1679:, many adjuncts are distinguished from arguments insofar as the adjuncts of a head predicate will appear higher in the structure than the object argument(s) of that predicate. The adjunct is adjoined to a projection of the head predicate above and to the right of the object argument, e.g.
808:
Most discussions of adjuncts focus on adverbial adjuncts, that is, on adjuncts that modify verbs, verb phrases, or entire clauses like the adjuncts in the three examples just given. Adjuncts can appear in other domains, however; that is, they can modify most categories. An
1703:
is seen in the higher position to the right of and above the object argument. Other adjuncts, in contrast, are assumed to adjoin to a position that is between the subject argument and the head predicate or above and to the left of the subject argument, e.g.
1556:
difficulties, most theories of syntax and grammar distinguish on the one hand between arguments and adjuncts and on the other hand between optional arguments and adjuncts, and they grant a central position to these divisions in the overarching theory.
606:), and an argument is not an adjunct. The argument–adjunct distinction is central in most theories of syntax and semantics. The terminology used to denote arguments and adjuncts can vary depending on the theory at hand. Some
1259:
Further diagnostics used to distinguish between arguments and adjuncts include multiplicity, distance from head, and the ability to coordinate. A head can have multiple adjuncts but only one object argument (=complement):
1724:
is shown as an adjunct insofar as it adjoins to an intermediate projection of V or to a projection of S. In X-bar theory, adjuncts are represented as elements that are sisters to X' levels and daughters of X' level ].
594:
A more detailed definition of the adjunct emphasizes its attribute as a modifying form, word, or phrase that depends on another form, word, or phrase, being an element of clause structure with
1643:. Such examples illustrate that distinguishing predicates, arguments, and adjuncts can become difficult and there are many cases where a given expression functions in more ways than one.
1675:
Many theories of syntax and grammar employ trees to represent the structure of sentences. Various conventions are used to distinguish between arguments and adjuncts in these trees. In
1591:
The PPs in these sentences are NOT adjuncts, nor are they arguments. The preposition in each case is, rather, part of the main predicate. The matrix predicate in the first sentence is
633:. Predicates have valency; they determine the number and type of arguments that can or must appear in their environment. The valency of predicates is also investigated in terms of
1615:. Distinguishing between predicates, arguments, and adjuncts becomes particularly difficult when secondary predicates are involved, for instance with resultative predicates, e.g.
1564:
Many phrases have the outward appearance of an adjunct but are in fact (part of) a predicate instead. The confusion occurs often with copular verbs, in particular with a form of
1728:
Theories that assume sentence structure to be less layered than the analyses just given sometimes employ a special convention to distinguish adjuncts from arguments. Some
555:
1667:
This overview acknowledges three types of entities: predicates, arguments, and adjuncts, whereby arguments are further divided into obligatory and optional ones.
580:, part of a sentence, clause, or phrase that, if removed or discarded, will not structurally affect the remainder of the sentence. Example: In the sentence
1740:
1712:
1687:
1659:
1695:
The object argument each time is identified insofar as it is a sister of V that appears to the right of V, and the adjunct status of the adverb
548:
541:
1748:
The arrow dependency edge points away from the adjunct toward the governor of the adjunct. The arrows identify six adjuncts:
1498:
The particular merit of the relative clause test is its ability to distinguish between many argument and adjunct PPs, e.g.
1969:
1879:
Briggs, Thomas Henry; Isabel McKinney; Florence Vane
Skeffington (1921). "DISTINGUISHING PHRASE AND CLAUSE ADJUNCTS".
1720:
The subject is identified as an argument insofar as it appears as a sister and to the left of V(P). The modal adverb
517:
252:
727:(in which case it is the dog who is in the garden). The definition can be extended to include adjuncts that modify
866:
302:
189:
169:
1676:
385:
328:
323:
141:
89:
692:
is a sentence element that often establishes the circumstances in which the action or state expressed by the
495:
380:
333:
222:
1952:
Payne, T. 2006. Exploring language structure: A student's guide. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
1824:
1809:
1799:
603:
599:
500:
472:
433:
413:
368:
363:
232:
630:
373:
136:
1125:– Temporal adjuncts establish when, how long, or how frequent the action or state happened or existed.
1053:– Modal adjuncts establish the extent to which the speaker views the action or state as (im)probable.
307:
297:
33:
1819:
1167:
1163:
1001:– Locative adjuncts establish where, to where, or from where a state or action happened or existed.
626:
465:
393:
57:
1886:
1729:
1429:
The test constituent is moved from the matrix clause to a subordinate relative clause containing
607:
257:
237:
182:
158:
131:
1739:
1711:
1686:
1658:
619:
634:
460:
453:
443:
398:
338:
272:
212:
194:
82:
403:
267:
52:
723:(in which case it is Lorna who saw the dog while she was in the garden) or the noun phrase
1020:– Measure adjuncts establish the measure of the action, state, or quality that they modify
448:
317:
279:
119:
101:
77:
72:
1880:
925:– Conditional adjuncts establish the condition in which an action occurs or state holds.
512:
343:
262:
146:
67:
1963:
227:
1385:
arguments pattern like adjuncts when just the omission diagnostic is employed, e.g.
1814:
732:
583:
477:
312:
126:
94:
62:
1433:. If the result is unacceptable, the test constituent is probably NOT an adjunct:
1926:
For an example of the arrow used to mark adjuncts, see for instance Eroms (2000).
1861:
869:. Each of the adjuncts in the examples throughout this article is a constituent.
1908:
Concerning the distinction between arguments and adjuncts, see Payne (2006:297).
1829:
1422:
is NOT an obligatory argument, but it could be (and it is) an optional argument.
1402:
is NOT an obligatory argument, but it could be (and it is) an optional argument.
963:– Final adjuncts establish the goal of an action (what one wants to accomplish).
814:
813:
adjunct is one that modifies a noun: for a list of possible types of these, see
569:
1092:– Modificative adjuncts establish how the action happened or the state existed.
1949:
Lyons J. 1968. Introduction to theoretical linguistics. London: Cambridge U.P.
982:– Instrumental adjuncts establish the instrument used to accomplish an action.
887:– Causal adjuncts establish the reason for, or purpose of, an action or state.
527:
522:
507:
438:
247:
153:
109:
1794:
595:
217:
114:
17:
1804:
1348:
Adjuncts can be coordinated with other adjuncts, but not with arguments:
242:
1955:
Tesnière, L. 1959. Éleménts de syntaxe structurale. Paris: Klincksieck.
1153:
Distinguishing between predicative expressions, arguments, and adjuncts
47:
817:. Adjuncts that modify adjectives and adverbs are occasionally called
748:
744:
696:
takes place. The following sentence uses adjuncts of time and place:
174:
1939:
Eroms, H.-W. 2000. Syntax der deutschen
Sprache. Berlin: de Gruyter.
1732:, for instance, use an arrow dependency edge to mark adjuncts, e.g.
1899:
For similar inventories of adjunct functions, see Payne (2006:298).
1317:
Object arguments are typically closer to their head than adjuncts:
715:
Notice that this example is ambiguous between whether the adjunct
1784:, etc. as arguments (of one of the predicates in the sentence).
1651:
The following overview is a breakdown of the current divisions:
728:
693:
1492:
is not an adjunct, which means it must be an optional argument.
1461:
is not an adjunct, which means it must be an optional argument.
27:
Phrase that can be removed, preserving grammatical correctness
1603:. Similarly, the matrix predicate in the second sentence is
906:– Concessive adjuncts establish contrary circumstances.
1635:
can be viewed as an argument of the matrix predicate
944:– Consecutive adjuncts establish an effect or result.
1772:. The standard, non-arrow dependency edges identify
1285:
is a noun phrase that functions as object argument.
1166:is central to most theories of syntax and grammar.
1162:The distinction between arguments and adjuncts and
625:The area of grammar that explores the nature of
1885:. Boston, MA, USA: Ginn and company. pp.
1639:. But it is also definitely a predicate over
549:
8:
1862:"Adjunct - Define Adjunct at Dictionary.com"
647:John helped Bill in Central Park on Sunday
629:, their arguments, and adjuncts is called
556:
542:
29:
1607:; this predicate takes the two arguments
1595:; this predicate takes the two arguments
1841:
1514:c. *We are working, which is occurring
32:
1847:
1845:
7:
1274:is an object argument (=complement).
743:An adjunct can be a single word, a
1882:Junior high school English, Book 2
1782:that very long story that you like
25:
1738:
1710:
1685:
1657:
610:, for instance, employ the term
598:function. An adjunct is not an
183:Singulative-Collective-Plurative
1541:c. *They spoke, which occurred
1484:c. *Sam helped, which occurred
1380:Optional arguments vs. adjuncts
1481:is not an obligatory argument.
1450:is not an obligatory argument.
1208:may be an adjunct (and it is).
1188:may be an adjunct (and it is).
731:or other parts of speech (see
147:Suffixaufnahme (case stacking)
1:
1453:c. *Fred ate, which occurred
849:is an "adadjectival" adjunct.
859:is an "adadverbial" adjunct.
1283:the pizza and the hamburger
1279:the pizza and the hamburger
985:Mr. Bibby wrote the letter
800:after she has had breakfast
263:Lexical aspect (Aktionsart)
1986:
1631:The resultative adjective
815:Components of noun phrases
1677:phrase structure grammars
1917:See Payne (2006:107ff.).
1549:is an optional argument.
1522:is an optional argument.
968:to earn money for school
949:that the streets flooded
878:literature on adjuncts:
839:is an adnominal adjunct.
658:is the subject argument.
578:structurally dispensable
386:Serial verb construction
1560:Predicates vs. adjuncts
1431:which occurred/happened
1142:She drinks in that bar
911:although it was raining
670:is the object argument.
324:Honorifics (politeness)
1944:Constituent Structure.
1825:Predicative expression
1301:with a fork on Tuesday
682:is the second adjunct.
604:predicative expression
501:Polypersonal agreement
1671:Representing adjuncts
1299:d. Bob ate the pizza
1288:c. Bob ate the pizza
928:I would go to Paris,
890:The ladder collapsed
676:is the first adjunct.
137:Genitive construction
865:Adjuncts are always
705:, Lorna saw the dog
582:John helped Bill in
390:Traditional grammar
358:Syntax relationships
34:Grammatical features
1946:Oxford: Oxford U.P.
1730:dependency grammars
1334:b. *the collection
1224:b. *She trimmed. –
1158:Omission diagnostic
1080:going to the party.
608:dependency grammars
576:is an optional, or
308:Comparison (degree)
58:Dative construction
1970:Syntactic entities
1511:b. We are working.
1504:a. We are working
1336:in the dining room
1329:in the dining room
1323:a. the collection
1311:are both adjuncts.
1248:is NOT an adjunct.
1228:is NOT an adjunct.
1066:, we didn't do it.
947:It rained so hard
930:if I had the money
892:because it was old
719:modifies the verb
664:is the predicator.
645:Take the sentence
258:Grammatical aspect
1942:Carnie, A. 2010.
1851:See Lyons (1968).
1477:b. Sam helped. –
1255:Other diagnostics
1184:b. Fred knows. –
873:Semantic function
739:Forms and domains
690:adverbial adjunct
635:subcategorization
566:
565:
461:Topic and Comment
444:Thematic relation
339:Reflexive pronoun
253:Tense–aspect–mood
213:Associated motion
195:Universal grinder
16:(Redirected from
1977:
1927:
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1869:
1858:
1852:
1849:
1742:
1714:
1689:
1661:
1583:at seven o'clock
1418:b. Sam helped –
1204:b. He stayed. –
1111:with my homework
1037:We want to stay
591:is an adjunct.
558:
551:
544:
292:General features
207:Related to verbs
42:Related to nouns
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1446:b. Fred ate. –
1398:b. Fred ate. –
1382:
1257:
1244:b. *Stopped. –
1217:a. She trimmed
1160:
1155:
1097:with difficulty
966:He works a lot
909:Lorna went out
875:
837:before the game
833:before the game
831:the discussion
798:She will leave
780:She will leave
762:She will leave
747:, or an entire
741:
674:in Central Park
649:as an example:
643:
589:in Central Park
562:
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532:
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320:(verbal number)
318:Pluractionality
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120:Collective noun
102:Construct state
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1586:
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1576:under the bush
1561:
1558:
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1551:
1550:
1539:
1538:b. They spoke.
1536:
1531:a. They spoke
1526:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1520:on the problem
1516:on the problem
1512:
1509:
1506:on the problem
1496:
1495:
1494:
1493:
1482:
1475:
1470:a. Sam helped
1465:
1464:
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1451:
1444:
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1425:
1424:
1423:
1416:
1411:a. Sam helped
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1132:. (time point)
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1770:that you like
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1183:
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1152:
1146:. (frequency)
1145:
1141:
1138:
1137:for two weeks
1134:
1131:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1112:
1109:He helped me
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1040:
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1019:
1016:
1015:
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1007:
1003:
1000:
997:
996:
995:
994:
988:
987:with a pencil
984:
981:
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977:
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969:
965:
962:
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950:
946:
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797:
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746:
738:
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730:
726:
722:
718:
717:in the garden
708:
707:in the garden
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701:
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681:
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628:
623:
621:
618:), following
617:
613:
609:
605:
602:(nor is it a
601:
597:
592:
590:
587:, the phrase
586:
585:
579:
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571:
559:
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547:
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537:
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529:
526:
524:
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519:
518:Incorporation
516:
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229:
228:Evidentiality
226:
224:
221:
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214:
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203:
196:
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108:
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106:Countability
105:
103:
100:
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39:
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35:
31:
19:
1943:
1922:
1913:
1904:
1895:
1881:
1874:
1865:
1856:
1815:Noun adjunct
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1747:
1727:
1721:
1719:
1701:before class
1700:
1696:
1694:
1674:
1666:
1650:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1630:
1622:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1590:
1582:
1575:
1565:
1563:
1554:
1547:to the class
1546:
1543:to the class
1542:
1533:to the class
1532:
1519:
1515:
1505:
1497:
1489:
1485:
1478:
1471:
1458:
1454:
1447:
1440:
1439:a. Fred ate
1430:
1427:
1419:
1412:
1399:
1392:
1391:a. Fred ate
1383:
1371:with a spoon
1370:
1366:
1359:
1355:
1354:a. *Bob ate
1347:
1342:(complement)
1340:of figurines
1339:
1335:
1328:
1325:of figurines
1324:
1316:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1293:
1289:
1282:
1278:
1271:
1267:
1258:
1245:
1238:
1225:
1218:
1205:
1198:
1185:
1178:
1161:
1143:
1139:. (duration)
1136:
1129:
1122:
1113:. (limiting)
1110:
1103:
1096:
1090:Modificative
1089:
1077:
1070:
1063:
1057:
1050:
1038:
1031:
1024:
1017:
1008:. (locative)
1006:on the table
1005:
998:
986:
980:Instrumental
979:
967:
960:
948:
941:
929:
922:
910:
903:
891:
884:
876:
867:constituents
864:
856:
852:
846:
842:
836:
832:
822:
819:adadjectival
818:
810:
807:
799:
793:
781:
775:
763:
757:
742:
733:noun adjunct
724:
720:
716:
714:
706:
702:
689:
687:
679:
673:
667:
661:
655:
646:
644:
624:
615:
614:(instead of
611:
593:
588:
584:Central Park
581:
577:
573:
567:
478:Veridicality
408:
369:Transitivity
313:Egophoricity
127:Definiteness
95:Measure word
83:Instrumental
63:Dative shift
1830:Attributive
1699:and the PP
1459:a hamburger
1455:a hamburger
1448:a hamburger
1441:a hamburger
1400:a hamburger
1393:a hamburger
1367:with a fork
1365:b. Bob ate
1360:with a fork
1305:with a fork
1294:with a fork
1290:with a fork
1277:b. Bob ate
1266:a. Bob ate
1206:after class
1199:after class
1128:He arrived
1064:In any case
942:Consecutive
923:Conditional
823:adadverbial
758:Single word
612:circonstant
570:linguistics
414:Predicative
334:Reciprocity
303:Boundedness
223:Conjugation
190:Specificity
1933:References
1758:many times
1338:(adjunct)
1309:on Tuesday
1226:the bushes
1219:the bushes
1168:Predicates
1164:predicates
1135:He stayed
1104:in silence
1099:. (manner)
1078:definitely
1025:completely
904:Concessive
894:. (reason)
627:predicates
528:Markedness
523:Inflection
508:Declension
439:Mirativity
248:Mirativity
154:Noun class
142:Possession
110:Count noun
90:Classifier
78:Comitative
73:Nominative
18:Adjunctive
1820:Predicate
1795:Adverbial
1766:very long
1750:Yesterday
1722:certainly
1609:The party
1356:the pizza
1331:(adjunct)
1272:the pizza
1268:the pizza
1186:certainly
1179:certainly
1144:every day
1130:yesterday
1106:. (state)
1102:He stood
1073:possible.
1027:finished.
855:loudly –
811:adnominal
703:Yesterday
680:on Sunday
596:adverbial
496:Agreement
490:Phenomena
428:Semantics
394:Predicate
381:Branching
218:Clusivity
115:Mass noun
1964:Category
1810:Disjunct
1805:Conjunct
1800:Argument
1788:See also
1754:probably
1647:Overview
1601:the bush
1593:is under
1241:stopped.
1177:a. Fred
1123:Temporal
1069:That is
1058:probably
1030:That is
1004:She sat
999:Locative
845:happy –
764:tomorrow
641:Examples
622:(1959).
620:Tesnière
600:argument
473:Volition
434:Contrast
364:Argument
329:Polarity
243:Telicity
233:Modality
166:Singular
1568:, e.g.
1095:He ran
1071:perhaps
1039:in part
1018:Measure
725:the dog
616:adjunct
574:adjunct
454:Patient
409:Adjunct
399:Subject
374:Valency
48:Animacy
1768:, and
1574:It is
1181:knows.
1032:mostly
885:Causal
794:Clause
776:Phrase
749:clause
745:phrase
662:helped
404:Object
298:Affect
238:Person
175:Plural
159:Number
132:Gender
1837:Notes
1778:Susan
1697:early
1633:tired
1623:tired
1605:is at
1060:left.
1056:They
1051:Modal
1034:true.
1023:I am
961:Final
729:nouns
572:, an
466:Focus
449:Agent
280:Voice
273:Tense
1762:very
1637:made
1611:and
1599:and
1545:. –
1518:. –
1488:. –
1457:. –
1369:and
1358:and
1307:and
1303:. –
1292:. –
1270:. –
1076:I'm
847:very
843:very
821:and
694:verb
668:Bill
656:John
268:Mood
170:Dual
53:Case
1887:116
1774:Sam
1641:him
1246:Jim
1239:Jim
1237:a.
857:too
853:too
735:).
721:saw
688:An
568:In
1966::
1864:.
1844:^
1780:,
1776:,
1764:,
1760:,
1756:,
1752:,
1597:It
1566:be
1490:us
1486:us
1479:us
1472:us
1420:us
1413:us
1281:.
835:–
825:.
751:.
637:.
1889:.
1868:.
1625:.
1585:.
1578:.
1535:.
1508:.
1474:.
1443:.
1415:.
1395:.
1373:.
1362:.
1221:.
1201:.
1041:.
989:.
970:.
951:.
932:.
913:.
802:.
784:.
766:.
709:.
557:e
550:t
543:v
20:)
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