2184:, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass, 1963, pp. 73–112) showed that if a language has verb-final word order (i.e. if 'the man saw the woman' is expressed literally as 'the man the woman saw'), then it is highly probable that it will also have postpositions rather than prepositions (i.e. 'in the house' will be expressed as 'the house in') and that it will have genitives before the noun (i.e. the pattern 'cat's house' rather than 'house of cat'). Thus, if we find two languages that happen to share the features: verb-final word order, postpositions, prenominal genitives, then the co-occurrence of these features is not evidence for genetic relatedness. Many earlier attempts at establishing wide-ranging genetic relationships suffer precisely from failure to take this property of typological patterns into account. Thus the fact that Turkic languages, Mongolian languages, Tungusic languages, Korean and Japanese share all of these features is not evidence for their genetic relatedness (although there may, of course, be other similarities, not connected with recurrent typological patterns, that do establish genetic relatedness).
2104:
of such an analysis is the large number of morpheme boundaries typical for agglutinative languages. A word of an inflectional language has only one ending and therefore the number of possible divisions of a word into the base and the ending is only linear with the length of the word. In an agglutinative language, where several suffixes are concatenated at the end of the word, the number of different divisions which have to be checked for consistency is large. This approach was used for example in the development of a system for Arabic, where agglutination occurs when articles, prepositions and conjunctions are joined with the following word and pronouns are joined with the preceding word. See
Grefenstette et al. (2005) for more details.
2084:, languages with rich morphology pose problems of quite a different kind than isolating languages. In the case of agglutinative languages, the main obstacle lies in the large number of word forms that can be obtained from a single root. As we have already seen, the generation of these word forms is somewhat complicated by the phonological processes of the particular language. Although the basic one-to-one relationship between form and syntactic function is not broken in Finnish, the authoritative institution
1839:
2100:
and power are so cheap nowadays that all possible word forms may be generated beforehand and stored in a form of a lexicon listing all possible interpretations of any given word form. (The data structure of the lexicon has to be optimized so that the search is quick and efficient.) According to Hajič, it is the disambiguation of these word forms which is difficult (more so for inflective languages where the ambiguity is high than for agglutinative languages).
561:
155:
658:(었) for completed (past) action or state; when this slot is empty, the tense is interpreted as present (The 'ss' is pronounced as 't' if it is placed behind a consonant. For example, -었어(eoss-eo) is pronounced as (eosseo), but -었다(eoss-ta) is pronounced as (eotta). Please note that the same rule applies to all instances of the 'ss' ending.)
33:
1840:λοπαδοτεμαχοσελαχογαλεοκρανιολειψανοδριμυποτριμματοσιλφιοκαραβομελιτοκατακεχυμενοκιχλεπικοσσυφοφαττοπεριστεραλεκτρυονοπτοκεφαλλιοκιγκλοπελειολαγῳοσιραιοβαφητραγανοπτερύγων
632:
view any given noun or verb as a stem followed by several inflectional and derivational "slots", i.e. positions in which particular suffixes may occur, and/or preceded by several "slots" for prefixes. It is often the case that the most common instance of a given grammatical category is unmarked, i.e. the corresponding affix is empty.
2099:
Even more problems occur with the recognition of word forms. Modern linguistic methods are largely based on the exploitation of corpora; however, when the number of possible word forms is large, any corpus will necessarily contain only a small fraction of them. Hajič (2010) claims that computer space
902:
of eastern and southern Africa are known for a highly complex mixture of prefixes, suffixes and reduplication. A typical feature of this language family is that nouns fall into noun classes. For each noun class, there are specific singular and plural prefixes, which also serve as markers of agreement
2174:
and
Tungusic families. What is controversial, however, is whether or not these individual families are related as members of an even larger family. The possibility of an Altaic family, comprising Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic, is rather widely accepted, and some scholars would advocate increasing
2103:
Other authors do not share Hajič's view that space is no issue and instead of listing all possible word forms in a lexicon, word form analysis is implemented by modules which try to break up the surface form into a sequence of morphemes occurring in an order permissible by the language. The problem
631:
As noted above, it is a typical feature of agglutinative languages that there is a one-to-one correspondence between suffixes and syntactic categories. For example, a noun may have separate markers for number, case, possessive or conjunctive usage etc. The order of these affixes is fixed; so we may
2495:
However, it is not the morphology itself (not even for inflective or agglutinative languages) that is causing the headache – with today's cheap space and power, simply listing all the thinkable forms in an appropriately hashed list is o.k. – but it's the disambiguation problem, which is apparently
446:
is pronounced as one word in
Turkish, but it can be translated into English as "as if you were of those we would not be able to turn into a maker of unsuccessful ones". The "-siniz" refers to plural form of you with "-sin" being the singular form, the same way "-im" being "I" ("-im" means "my" not
1308:
is said to be automatic if it either takes a single surface form (morph), or if its surface form is determined by phonological rules that hold in all similar instances in that language. A morph juncture – a position in a word where two morphs meet – is considered agglutinative when both morphemes
1981:
In the second half of the 19th century, many linguists believed that there is a natural cycle of language evolution: function words of the isolating type are glued to their head-words, so that the language becomes agglutinative; later morphs become merged through phonological processes, and what
251:
Persian has some features of agglutination, making use of prefixes and suffixes attached to the stems of verbs and nouns, thus making it a synthetic language rather than an analytic one. Persian is an SOV language, thus having a head-final phrase structure. Persian utilizes a noun root + plural
136:
Another consideration when evaluating the above proposal is that some languages, which developed from agglutinative proto-languages, lost their agglutinative features. For example, contemporary
Estonian has shifted towards the fusional type. (It has also lost other features typical of the Uralic
1715:
It is possible to construct artificially extreme examples of agglutination, which have no real use, but illustrate the theoretical capability of the grammar to agglutinate. This is not a question of "long words", because some languages permit limitless combinations with compound words, negative
1320:
and real-life values rarely exceeding 3. The compounding index is equal to the average number of root morphemes per word (as opposed to derivational and inflectional morphemes). The derivational, inflectional, prefixial and suffixial indices correspond respectively to the average number of
1309:
included are automatic. The index of agglutination is equal to the average ratio of the number of agglutinative junctures to the number of morph junctures. Languages with high values of the agglutinative index are agglutinative and with low values of the agglutinative index are fusional.
124:
Although agglutination is characteristic of certain language families, this does not mean that when several languages in a certain geographic area are all agglutinative they are necessarily related phylogenetically. In the past, this assumption led linguists to propose the so-called
1978:. Besides the clear etymological motivation (after all, inflectional endings are also "glued" to the stems), this more general usage is justified by the fact that the distinction between agglutinative and inflectional languages is not a sharp one, as we have already seen.
242:
Hungarian uses extensive agglutination in almost every part of it. The suffixes follow each other in special order based on the role of the suffix, and many can be heaped, one upon the other, resulting in words conveying complex meanings in compacted forms. An example is
2198:
Flexivní typ je nejvýrazněji zastoupen v estonštině. Projevuje se kongruencí, nedostatkem posesivních sufixů, větší homonymií a synonymií a tolika alternacemi, že se dá mluvit o různých deklinacích. Koncovky jsou většinou fonologicky redukovány, takže ztrácejí slabičnou
247:
where the root "fi(ú)-" means "son", the subsequent four vowels are all separate suffixes, and the whole word means " belong to his/her sons". The nested possessive structure and expression of plurals are quite remarkable (note that
Hungarian uses no genders).
2461:
Vendryes (1925), p. 349, already mentions this hypothesis as out-dated, stating the more contemporary view that all three kinds of processes are present at the same time. According to
Vendryes, proponents of this hypothesis would include A. Hovelacque:
465:) means "for the sake of those who cannot do that", literally "that to do impossible he to become". Another example is verb conjugation. In all Dravidian languages, verbal markers are used to convey tense, person, and mood. For example, in Tamil, "
1790:, meaning "(Apparently / I've heard that) You are one of those that we were not able to convert into Czechoslovakians". This historical reference is used as a joke for the individuals who are hard to change or those who stick out in a group.
447:"I". The original editor must have mistaken it for "-yim". This second suffix is used as such "Oraya gideyim" meaning "May I go there" or "When I get there") and "-imiz" making it become "we". Similarly, this suffix means "our" and not "we".
1588:
will illustrate how these two rules and other phonological processes lead to diversions from the basic one-to-one relationship between morphs and their syntactic and semantic function. No phonological rule is applied in the declension of
1543:
The one-to-one relationship between an affix and its grammatical function may be somewhat complicated by the phonological processes active in the given language. For example, the following two phonological phenomena appear in many of the
716:
Even though some combinations of suffixes are not possible (e.g. only one of the aspect slots may be filled with a non-empty suffix), over 400 verb forms may be formed from a single base. Here are a few examples formed from the word root
252:
suffix + case suffix + postposition suffix syntax similar to
Turkish. For example, the phrase "mashinashuno nega mikardam" meaning 'I was looking at their cars' lit. '(cars their at) (look) (i was doing)'. Breaking down the first word:
2550:
1757:, which means "like the most of most undesecratable ones of you", but is hard to decipher even for native speakers. Using inflectional agglutination, these can be extended. For example, the official Guinness world record is Finnish
2400:
Greenberg calculated the indices only from a single passage of 100 words for each language. The values in the table are taken from Luschützky (2003), p. 43; they are compiled from
Greenberg (1954) and from Warren Crawford Cowgill:
373:, which combines causative, passive or potential, and conditional conjugations to arrive at two meanings depending on context "if (subject) had been made to work..." and "if (subject) could make (object) work", and
1902:). It is rather unusual, but finds some usage, e.g. newspaper headlines on 13 July 1991, the day after the current Bulgarian constitution was adopted with much controversy and debate, and even scandals.
1809:, which means something like "(you are talking) as if you are one of those that we were unable to turn into a maker of unsuccessful people" (someone who un-educates people to make them unsuccessful).
1745:. Agglutinative languages often have more complex derivational agglutination than isolating languages, so they can do the same to a much larger extent. For example, in Hungarian, a word such as
129:, which included the Uralic and Turkic languages, as well as Mongolian, Korean, and Japanese. Contemporary linguistics views this proposal as controversial, and some of whom refer to this as a
1997:...) consists of the welding together of two or more terms constantly occurring as a syntagmatic group into a single unit, which becomes either difficult or impossible to analyse thereafter.
2242:
The first twelve examples are taken from
Fromkin et al. (2007) p. 110, with the following adjustments: I changed sentences, which were originally in present perfect tense (with marker
2180:
For instance, the study of word order universals by
Greenberg ("Some Universals of Grammar with Particular Reference to the Order of meaningful Elements", in J. H. Greenberg (ed.):
903:
between the subject and the verb. Moreover, the noun determines prefixes of all words that modify it and subject determines prefixes of other elements in the same verb phrase.
1982:
comes out is an inflectional language; finally inflectional endings are often dropped in quick speech, inflection is omitted and the language goes back to the isolating type.
2573:, IceTAL'10 Proceedings of the 7th international conference on Advances in natural language processing, Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg, 2010. Abstract available at
2496:
more difficult for such morphologically rich languages (perhaps surprisingly more for the inflective ones than agglutinative ones) than for the analytical ones.
1751:, which means "for undenationalizationability" can find actual use. In the same way, there are the words that have meaning, but probably are never used such as
1572:
consonant devoicing assimilation: similar but different process from above, assimilating devoicing of a stem-final unvoiced consonant; (in some Turkic languages)
258:
We can see its agglutinative nature and the fact that Persian is able to affix a given number of dependent morphemes to a root morpheme (in this example, car).
2474:, 2 Vols., 3rd edition London 1890. Compare also Lehečková (2003), p. 18–19, a passage which is much closer to the original concept of separate stages.
2561:
Modifying a Natural Language Processing System for European Languages to Treat Arabic in Information Processing and Information Retrieval Applications
2448:
The division is attributed to Humboldt in Luschützky (2003), p. 17. The dating comes from Michael Losonsky (ed): Wilhelm von Humboldt: on language,
623:
contains affixes for some uses, but overlays them in such unpredictable and inseparable ways that it is often referred to as a fusional language.
1824:) would mean "(someone not specified) said that it is also for those who are like the ones who need to be to again/back counter-revolutionized".
1561:, meaning that there is alternation between certain pairs of consonant clusters such that one member of the pair appears at the beginning of an
2085:
1296:
to calculate a numerical value that would allow a researcher to compare the "degree of agglutitativeness" of various languages. For Greenberg,
2582:
Robert Lord: Teach Yourself Comparative Linguistics, The English Universities Press Ltd., St Paul's House, London 1967 (first edition 1966).
2449:
2592:
J. Vendryes: Language – A Linguistic Introduction to History, Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner Co., Ltd., London 1925 (translated by Paul Radin)
231:. These have highly agglutinated expressions in daily usage, and most words are bisyllabic or longer. Grammatical information expressed by
672:(겠) is used with first-person-subjects only for definite future and with second-or-third-person-subjects also for probable present or past
1741:
1312:
In the same paper, Greenberg proposed several other indices, many of which turn out to be relevant to the study of agglutination. The
573:
713:
Moreover, passive and causative verbal forms can be derived by adding suffixes to the base, which could be seen as the null-th slot.
202:
2528:
2388:
2355:
2060:
are a different kettle of fish; they retain their units but their ultimate meaning is not fully deducible from these units. (...)
2563:, Computational Approaches to Semitic Languages – Workshop Proceedings, University of Michigan 2005, p. 31-38. Available at
1799:
is a longer word that does not surprise people and means "As if you were one of those we were able to make resemble people from
1844:, a fictional dish named with a word that enumerates its ingredients. It was created to ridicule a trend for long compounds in
2618:
180:
176:
1935:Über die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluß auf die geistige Entwicklung des Menschengeschlechts
273:, also belong to this category, thus enabling them to form new words from simple base forms. The Indonesian and Malay word
1858:. However, extreme derivations similar to ones found in typical agglutinative languages do exist. A famous example is the
2564:
767:((으)ㅂ니) (in slot 5); various mood markers may be simultaneously used (in slot 7, therefore after the politeness marker):
744:
7 (propositive mood marker): if we want to express proposition rather than command, the propositive mood marker is used:
24:
2288:
2277:
2081:
165:
2299:
520:. The conjugation of verbs, for example, is done by adding different prefixes or suffixes to the root of the verb:
184:
169:
126:
73:
686:; (더) indicates that the speaker recollects what he observed in the past and reports in the present situation
388:, which combines desire, negation, and past tense conjugations to mean "I/he/she/they did not want to eat".
20:
1968:. In that case, it embraces what we call agglutinative and inflectional languages, and it is an antonym of
2602:
2571:
Reliving the history: the beginnings of statistical machine translation and languages with rich morphology
2266:
2170:
For instance, the Turkic language family is a well-established language family, as is each of the Uralic,
2118:
1950:
1763:"I wonder if – even with his/her quality of not having been made unsystematized". It has the derived word
616:
262:
236:
119:
85:
608:
596:
2520:
Bernard Comrie (editor): The World's Major Languages, Oxford University Press, New York – Oxford 1990.
2556:
1930:
309:
270:
130:
2427:
Note that there is no article in Finnish, so the use of a/the in English translations is arbitrary.
2212:
1985:
The following passage from Lord (1960) demonstrates well the whole range of meanings that the word
1803:". A recent addition to the claims has come with the introduction of the following word in Turkish
1557:
842:(선생님이 집에 가십니다) 'The teacher is going home. (expressing respect both to the hearer and the teacher)'
665:(었) doubling the past tense marker means "the subject has had the experience described by the verb"
343:
2337:
2171:
1969:
1964:
1859:
1720:
600:
228:
103:
37:
1276:
1PL-that 1PL-person 1PL-two 1PL-tall 1PL-he-past 7PL-REL-it 7PL-read 7PL-that 7PL-book 7PL-long
1151:
1SG-that 1SG-person 1SG-one 1SG-tall 1SG-he-past 7SG-REL-it 7SG-read 7SG-that 7SG-book 7SG-long
635:
The number of slots for a given part of speech can be surprisingly high. For example, a finite
1855:
1716:
clitics or such, which can be (and are) expressed with an analytic structure in actual usage.
1317:
1316:
is the average number of morphemes per word, with the lowest conceivable value equal to 1 for
592:
351:
335:
321:
286:
224:
107:
49:
41:
2329:
1851:
1585:
1549:
1545:
1289:
907:
763:
5 and 7: If the speaker wants to show respect for the hearer, he uses the politeness marker
588:
437:
433:
282:
220:
216:
89:
57:
53:
2258:'book', which falls into the same class. The final two examples are taken from Benji Wald:
2093:
1677: an allomorph of the inessive ending
2303:
2292:
2281:
2270:
1593:'house'. However, the second example illustrates several kinds of phonological phenomena.
899:
898:
Although most agglutinative languages in Europe and Asia are predominantly suffixing, the
636:
620:
580:
565:
517:
339:
305:
45:
2147:
There may exist exceptions in a language requiring some affixes go in an unexpected slot.
604:
277:
is formed by adding active-voice, causative and benefactive affixes to the compound verb
2579:
Helena Lehečková: Úvod do ugrofinistiky, Státní pedagogické nakladatelství, Praha 1983.
2128:
1800:
450:
266:
2612:
2512:
2000:
Agglutination takes various forms. In French, welding becomes complete fusion. Latin
1832:
1736:
1728:
1576:
1566:
1562:
790:(존이 집에 가더라) 'I observed that John was going home and now I am reporting that to you.'
643:
indicate parts of morphemes which may be omitted in some phonological environments):
138:
2383:
is automatic, but there are other, although rare, cases when the plural morpheme is
1929:, 'to glue together'. In linguistics, these words have been in use since 1836, when
560:
110:, in which words can be complex, but morphemes may correspond to multiple features.
2123:
1827:
1580:, meaning that only specific subclasses of vowels coexist in a non-compounded word.
2024:('already'). In English, on the other hand, apart from rare combinations such as
544:(indicates subject, in this case, "I"). Another example would be the declension:
2574:
2405:, Universals of Language, MIT Press, Cambridge (Massachusetts), 1963, p. 91–113.
2052:), the units making up the agglutinated forms retain their identity. Words like
1845:
801:(선생님이 집에 간다) 'The teacher is going home. (not expressing respect or politeness)'
255:
mashin(car)+a(plural suffix)+shun(possessive suffix)+o(post-positional suffix)
154:
65:
232:
2175:
the size of this family by adding some or all of Uralic, Korean and Japanese.
1700:
phonological rules also imply different vowel changes when the plural marker
317:
709:(요) for polite declarative and a large number of other possible mood markers
355:
301:
2371:
to be automatic. Indeed, the alternation between the phonetic realizations
2285:
2274:
440:, is another agglutinating language: as an extreme example, the expression
2415:
2296:
1890:, a proclitic, otherwise written separately in verbs), noun intensifier (
1882:, a loan word and therefore devoid of its internal composition and слово
1305:
1301:
612:
576:
77:
1812:
Georgian is also a highly agglutinative language. For example, the word
651:((으)시) is used when the speaker is honouring the subject of the sentence
2341:
640:
584:
2367:
Surprisingly, Greenberg does not consider the English plural morpheme
1806:
muvaffakiyetsizleştiricileştiriveremeyebileceklerimizdenmişsinizcesine
721:'to go'; the numbers indicate which slots contain non-empty suffixes:
1273:
wa-le wa-tu wa-wili wa-refu wa-li (w)-o vi-soma vi-le vi-tabu vi-refu
329:
81:
2546:
2527:, Stanford University Press, 1990. Selected parts are available on
2317:
32:
16:
Process of word formation by combining morphemes of singular meaning
2333:
2318:"A Quantitative Approach to the Morphological Typology of Language"
40:, which agglutinates extensively. (The top and bottom signs are in
2113:
1732:
347:
313:
31:
2549:
and in Denning et al. (1990), p. 3–25. There is also a good
2543:
A quantitative approach to the morphological typology of language
1719:
English is capable of agglutinating morphemes of solely native (
1321:
derivational and inflectional morphemes, prefixes and suffixes.
358:
degree and causality in the verb form. Common examples would be
325:
1148:
yu-le m-tu m-moja m-refu a-li y-e ki-soma ki-le ki-tabu ki-refu
293:("that which is upsetting/disturbing") is formed from the root
2403:
A Search for Universals in Indo-European Diachronic Morphology
2263:
2262:, p. 1002 in Comrie (1990). For the class 7 prefixes, see the
2250:); I also changed the subject of the last four sentences from
148:
2211:
Mouche, Ryan; Renfro, Ashley; Lance, Marshall (15 May 2019).
1837:
443:
Muvaffakiyetsizleştiriveremeyebileceklerimizdenmişsinizcesine
2167:
Bernard Comrie: "Introduction", p. 7 and 9 in Comrie (1990).
1769:
as the root and is lengthened with the inflectional endings
1645:
84:
feature. Languages that use agglutination widely are called
859:(존이 학교에 갔었다) 'John has been to school (and has come back).'
2468:
Charakteristik der hauptsächlichsten Typen des Sprachbaus
853:(존이 학교에 갔다) 'John has gone to school (and is there now).'
76:
process in which words are formed by stringing together
2096:
for Finnish nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and numerals.
1773:. However, this word is grammatically unusual, because
2076:
Agglutinative languages in natural language processing
827:(선생님이 집에 가신다) 'The (respected) teacher is going home.'
2589:, Filozofická fakulta Univerzity Karlovy, Praha 2003.
2525:
On language: selected writings of Joseph H. Greenberg
2436:
Used for example in the book of Dr. József Végváry: "
1796:
Afyonkarahisarlılaştırabildiklerimizdenmişsinizcesine
832:
1, 5 and 7: two kinds of politeness in one sentence:
102:. Agglutinative languages are often contrasted with
918:("person") fall into class 1, with singular prefix
881:(존이 내일 가겠다) 'I suppose that John will go tomorrow.'
508:
496:
484:
472:
460:
453:
is agglutinative. For example, in Tamil, the word "
1886:. The remaining are bound morphemes for negation (
1754:legeslegmegszentségteleníttethetetlenebbjeitekként
1304:are joined only with slight or no modification. A
1279:'Those two tall people who read those long books.'
930:("book") falls into class 7, with singular prefix
56:translation is "Ministry of Food and Agriculture:
887:(존이 어제 갔겠다) 'I suppose that John left yesterday.'
615:to convey the meaning of what would be a complex
1898:), imperative mood second person plural ending (
1760:epäjärjestelmällistyttämättömyydellänsäkäänköhän
1292:in his 1960 paper proposed to use the so-called
215:Examples of agglutinative languages include the
88:. For example, in the agglutinative language of
1752:
1746:
1154:'That one tall person who read that long book.'
422:
412:
402:
392:
374:
359:
98:("from your houses") consists of the morphemes
1819:
1813:
725:7 (imperative mood marker): imperative suffix
381:
366:
2534:Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman, Nina Hyams:
2322:International Journal of American Linguistics
1874:. It is composed of just three roots: против
1821:გადმოსაკონტრრევოლუციელებლებისნაირებისათვისაცო
1815:gadmosakontrrevolucieleblebisnairebisatvisaco
1804:
1794:
1785:
1777:"also" is used only in negative clauses, but
1764:
1758:
441:
93:
60:Directorate General of Food and Agriculture".
8:
2004:'at this hour' is the French adverbial unit
1787:Çekoslovakyalılaştıramadıklarımızdanmışsınız
320:' makes Korean agguluninate. They represent
572:Agglutination is used very heavily in most
524:, which means "I bring them", is formed by
516:Agglutination is also a notable feature of
502:
490:
478:
466:
454:
308:is an agglutinating language. Its uses of '
183:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2063:Saussure preferred to distinguish between
1937:introduced the division of languages into
1284:In the context of quantitative linguistics
816:(선생님이 집에 가요) 'The teacher is going home.',
679:((으)ㅂ니) expresses politeness to the hearer
2517:, Lingsoft Language Solutions, 1995–2011.
1639:consonant gradation: the genitive suffix
938:. The following sentences may be formed:
203:Learn how and when to remove this message
2559:, Nasredine Semmar, Faïza Elkateb-Gara:
2470:, Berlin 1893; and finally A. H. Sayce:
1784:A very popular Turkish agglutination is
1326:
857:Jon-i hak-gyo-e gass-eoss-da/gass-eot-ta
806:5 and 7: politeness towards the hearer:
559:
477:, "I eat") is formed from the verb root
338:is also an agglutinating language, like
106:, in which words are monomorphemic, and
80:, each of which corresponds to a single
2472:Introduction to the Science of Language
2160:
2140:
489:, "to eat") + the present tense marker
2086:Institute for the Languages of Finland
821:1 and 7: respect towards the subject:
418:("(subject) doesn't want to eat (it)")
2523:Keith Denning, Suzanne Kemmer (ed.):
2511:Kimmo Koskenniemi & Lingsoft Oy:
2414:The examples may be checked with the
2387:, -∅ etc. See Denning et al. (1990),
2246:) to sentences in past simple tense (
1958:Especially in some older literature,
1864:непротивоконституциослователствувайте
1854:are not considered agglutinative but
1781:(question) only in question clauses.
1613:the roots contain consonant clusters
501:) + the first-person singular suffix
428:("(subject) didn't want to eat (it)")
7:
1868:don't speak against the constitution
1565:and the other at the beginning of a
611:, where one word can contain enough
181:adding citations to reliable sources
2605:, a web-page about Swahili grammar.
1962:is sometimes used as a synonym for
885:Jon-i eo-je gass-gess-da/gat-get-ta
840:seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e ga-sip-ni-da
281:, which means "to account for". In
114:Examples of agglutinative languages
1872:don't act against the constitution
1324:Here is a table of sample values:
868:nae-ga nae-il ga-gess-da/ga-get-ta
689:mood:
682:retrospective aspect:
675:formal:
668:modal:
661:experiential-contrastive aspect:
654:tense:
647:honorific:
19:For biological agglutination, see
14:
1667:vowel harmony: a word containing
879:Jon-i nae-il ga-gess-da/ga-get-ta
870:(내가 내일 가겠다) 'I will go tomorrow.'
836:seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e ga-syeo-yo
2452:(available through googlebooks).
1766:epäjärjestelmällistyttämättömyys
825:seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e ga-sin-da
810:seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e gap-ni-da
639:verb has seven slots (the inner
619:in other languages. Conversely,
297:("upsetting" or "disquieting").
285:(and its standardised register,
239:is typically found in suffixes.
153:
2260:Swahili and the Bantu Languages
1933:'s posthumously published work
1739:origin. The classic example is
1643:closes the preceding syllable;
851:Jon-i hak-gyo-e ga-ss-da/gat-ta
564:A sign in Spanish, English and
408:("(subject) wants to eat (it)")
2514:Finnish Morphological Analyser
2416:Finnish morphological analyser
2233:, p. 890–897 in Comrie (1990).
1748:elnemzetietleníthetetlenségnek
1318:isolating (analytic) languages
462:ataippaṇṇamuṭiyātavarkaḷukkāka
332:, casuality, honorific forms.
23:. For the music festival, see
1:
2316:Greenberg, Joseph H. (1960).
2071:or agglutinated combinations.
1727:, but generally speaking the
875:4 and 7: third person modal:
864:4 and 7: first person modal:
799:seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e gan-da
342:, adding information such as
1894:), noun-to-verb conversion (
1742:antidisestablishmentarianism
1731:are assembled from forms of
814:seon-saeng-nim-i jib-e ga-yo
568:, an agglutinative language.
25:Agglutination Metal Festival
2587:Uvedení do typologie jazyků
2585:Hans Christian Luschützky:
2538:, Thompson Wadsworth, 2007.
2536:An Introduction to Language
2082:natural language processing
1671:may not contain the vowels
1539:Phonetics and agglutination
967:'The children will arrive.'
733:(가) to express imperative:
729:(라) combines with the root
528:(indicates present tense),
509:
497:
485:
473:
461:
456:அதைப்பண்ணமுடியாதவர்களுக்காக
423:
413:
403:
398:("(subject) will eat (it)")
393:
375:
360:
127:Ural–Altaic language family
2635:
2545:, 1960. Available through
2466:, Paris 1888; F. Misteli:
2284:. For the past tense, see
1838:
1694:mär-i-ssä paido-i-ssa
117:
18:
1925:come from the Latin word
1820:
1704:meets a stem-final vowel
1510:
1484:
1458:
1432:
1406:
1380:
1354:
1349:
1346:
1343:
1340:
1337:
1334:
1331:
995:'The persons will sleep.'
784:6: retrospective aspect:
503:
491:
479:
467:
455:
382:
367:
2195:Lehečková (1983), p. 17:
1906:Other uses of the words
1836:includes the Greek word
983:'The person will sleep.'
955:'The child will arrive.'
847:2, 3 and 7: past forms:
2492:Hajič (2010), Abstract:
2354:Denning et al. (1990),
1661:märä-ssä paida-ssa
1569:; (in Uralic languages)
1290:Joseph Harold Greenberg
961:'The children arrived.'
697:(까) for interrogative,
548:= "In the house" where
540:(indicates plural) and
436:, along with all other
237:Indo-European languages
86:agglutinative languages
21:Agglutination (biology)
2498:
2201:
2186:
2182:Universals of language
2177:
2119:Agglutinative language
2073:
1814:
1805:
1795:
1786:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1584:Several examples from
1288:The American linguist
1023:'The books will fall.'
894:Suffixing or prefixing
795:7: simple indicative:
569:
442:
275:mempertanggungjawabkan
263:Austronesian languages
120:Agglutinative language
94:
61:
36:The middle sign is in
2619:Linguistic morphology
2541:Joseph H. Greenberg:
2493:
2280:26 March 2011 at the
2196:
2178:
2168:
1991:
1011:'The book will fall.'
788:Jon-i jib-e ga-deo-ra
705:(자) for propositive,
693:(다) for declarative,
563:
48:, respectively, both
35:
2557:Gregory Grefenstette
2483:Lord (1960), p. 160.
2438:És mégsem mozog ..."
2302:21 July 2011 at the
2291:7 April 2011 at the
1931:Wilhelm von Humboldt
1021:vi-tabu vi-ta-anguka
1015:vi-tabu vi-li-anguka
1009:ki-tabu ki-ta-anguka
1003:ki-tabu ki-li-anguka
989:'The persons slept.'
949:'The child arrived.'
779:(갑니까) 'Is he going?'
773:(갑니다) 'He is going.'
701:(라) for imperative,
271:Philippine languages
177:improve this section
131:language convergence
50:inflecting languages
2094:51 declension types
1793:On the other hand,
1647:rk -> r, t->d
1558:consonant gradation
1294:agglutinative index
977:'The person slept.'
145:Eurasia and Oceania
104:isolating languages
2269:4 May 2011 at the
1725:un-whole-some-ness
965:wa-toto wa-ta-fika
959:wa-toto wa-li-fika
934:and plural prefix
922:and plural prefix
570:
532:(root of the verb
361:hatarakaseraretara
291:nakakapágpabagabag
137:families, such as
108:fusional languages
62:
1708:
1707:
1536:
1535:
1031:
1030:
1017:'The books fell.'
906:For example, the
838:(선생님이 집에 가셔요) or
812:(선생님이 집에 갑니다) or
213:
212:
205:
100:ev-ler-i-n-iz-den
2626:
2499:
2490:
2484:
2481:
2475:
2459:
2453:
2446:
2440:
2434:
2428:
2425:
2419:
2412:
2406:
2398:
2392:
2365:
2359:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2313:
2307:
2240:
2234:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2213:"Persian Syntax"
2208:
2202:
2193:
2187:
2165:
2148:
2145:
2067:words and truly
1870:and secondarily
1852:Slavic languages
1843:
1842:
1823:
1822:
1817:
1808:
1798:
1789:
1771:-llänsäkäänköhän
1768:
1762:
1756:
1750:
1664:'in a wet shirt'
1636:'of a wet shirt'
1596:
1595:
1407:written Turkish
1327:
1268:
1257:
1246:
1235:
1224:
1220:
1209:
1198:
1187:
1176:
1165:
1143:
1132:
1121:
1110:
1099:
1095:
1084:
1073:
1062:
1051:
1040:
1005:'The book fell.'
993:wa-tu wa-ta-lala
987:wa-tu wa-li-lala
953:m-toto a-ta-fika
947:m-toto a-li-fika
941:
940:
758:(가자) 'Let's go!'
512:
506:
505:
500:
494:
493:
488:
482:
481:
476:
470:
469:
464:
458:
457:
445:
438:Turkic languages
429:
426:
419:
416:
409:
406:
399:
396:
387:
385:
384:
378:
372:
370:
369:
363:
217:Uralic languages
208:
201:
197:
194:
188:
157:
149:
97:
58:Satu Mare County
2634:
2633:
2629:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2609:
2608:
2599:
2551:a short summary
2508:
2503:
2502:
2491:
2487:
2482:
2478:
2464:La linguistique
2460:
2456:
2447:
2443:
2435:
2431:
2426:
2422:
2413:
2409:
2399:
2395:
2366:
2362:
2353:
2349:
2315:
2314:
2310:
2304:Wayback Machine
2293:Wayback Machine
2282:Wayback Machine
2271:Wayback Machine
2241:
2237:
2228:
2224:
2210:
2209:
2205:
2194:
2190:
2166:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2110:
2078:
2030:God be with you
1915:
1713:
1697:'in wet shirts'
1696:
1690:'in the houses'
1689:
1676:
1663:
1656:
1644:
1635:
1628:
1609:
1602:
1567:closed syllable
1541:
1381:spoken Turkish
1314:synthetic index
1300:means that the
1286:
1281:
1271:
1266:
1260:
1255:
1249:
1244:
1238:
1233:
1227:
1222:
1218:
1212:
1207:
1201:
1196:
1190:
1185:
1179:
1174:
1168:
1163:
1156:
1146:
1141:
1135:
1130:
1124:
1119:
1113:
1108:
1102:
1097:
1093:
1087:
1082:
1076:
1071:
1065:
1060:
1054:
1049:
1043:
1038:
900:Bantu languages
896:
748:(자) instead of
629:
581:Inuit languages
574:Native American
558:
427:
424:tabetakunakatta
417:
407:
397:
379:
376:tabetakunakatta
364:
256:
209:
198:
192:
189:
174:
158:
147:
122:
116:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2632:
2630:
2622:
2621:
2611:
2610:
2607:
2606:
2598:
2597:External links
2595:
2594:
2593:
2590:
2583:
2580:
2577:
2567:
2554:
2539:
2532:
2521:
2518:
2507:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2485:
2476:
2454:
2441:
2429:
2420:
2407:
2393:
2360:
2347:
2334:10.1086/464575
2328:(3): 178–194.
2308:
2297:verb generator
2235:
2222:
2203:
2188:
2159:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2149:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2132:
2131:
2129:Word formation
2126:
2121:
2116:
2109:
2106:
2077:
2074:
2020:('since now')
1914:
1904:
1878:, конституция
1801:Afyonkarahisar
1712:
1709:
1706:
1705:
1698:
1691:
1683:
1682:
1665:
1658:
1657:'in the house'
1650:
1649:
1637:
1633:märä-n paida-n
1630:
1629:'of the house'
1622:
1621:
1611:
1604:
1582:
1581:
1573:
1570:
1540:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1530:
1527:
1524:
1521:
1518:
1515:
1512:
1508:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1495:
1492:
1489:
1486:
1482:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1434:
1430:
1429:
1426:
1423:
1420:
1417:
1414:
1411:
1408:
1404:
1403:
1400:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1388:
1385:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1352:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1332:agglutination
1330:
1285:
1282:
1261:
1250:
1239:
1228:
1213:
1202:
1191:
1180:
1169:
1158:
1157:
1136:
1125:
1114:
1103:
1088:
1077:
1066:
1055:
1044:
1033:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1026:
1025:
1024:
1018:
1012:
1006:
998:
997:
996:
990:
984:
981:m-tu a-ta-lala
978:
975:m-tu a-li-lala
970:
969:
968:
962:
956:
950:
914:("child") and
895:
892:
891:
890:
889:
888:
882:
873:
872:
871:
862:
861:
860:
854:
845:
844:
843:
830:
829:
828:
819:
818:
817:
804:
803:
802:
793:
792:
791:
782:
781:
780:
774:
761:
760:
759:
742:
741:
740:
711:
710:
687:
680:
673:
666:
659:
652:
641:round brackets
628:
625:
579:, such as the
557:
554:
468:சாப்பிடுகிறேன்
431:
430:
420:
410:
400:
279:tanggung jawab
254:
211:
210:
161:
159:
152:
146:
143:
118:Main article:
115:
112:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2631:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2604:
2601:
2600:
2596:
2591:
2588:
2584:
2581:
2578:
2575:
2572:
2568:
2565:
2562:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2537:
2533:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2510:
2509:
2505:
2497:
2489:
2486:
2480:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2458:
2455:
2451:
2445:
2442:
2439:
2433:
2430:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2411:
2408:
2404:
2397:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2364:
2361:
2357:
2351:
2348:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2312:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2276:
2272:
2268:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2239:
2236:
2232:
2229:Nam-Kil Kim:
2226:
2223:
2218:
2217:Scholars Week
2214:
2207:
2204:
2200:
2199:samostatnost.
2192:
2189:
2185:
2183:
2176:
2173:
2164:
2161:
2154:
2144:
2141:
2134:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2075:
2072:
2070:
2066:
2061:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2008:. Old French
2007:
2003:
1998:
1996:
1995:Agglutination
1990:
1988:
1987:agglutination
1983:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1966:
1961:
1960:agglutinative
1956:
1954:
1953:
1952:incorporating
1948:
1947:agglutinative
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1923:agglutinative
1920:
1919:agglutination
1913:
1912:agglutinative
1909:
1908:agglutination
1905:
1903:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1848:at the time.
1847:
1841:
1835:
1834:
1833:Assemblywomen
1829:
1825:
1816:
1810:
1807:
1802:
1797:
1791:
1788:
1782:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1767:
1761:
1755:
1749:
1744:
1743:
1738:
1737:Ancient Greek
1734:
1730:
1729:longest words
1726:
1723:) origin, as
1722:
1717:
1710:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1680:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1659:
1655:
1652:
1651:
1648:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1631:
1627:
1624:
1623:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1610:'a wet shirt'
1608:
1605:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1587:
1579:
1578:
1577:vowel harmony
1574:
1571:
1568:
1564:
1563:open syllable
1560:
1559:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1538:
1531:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1476:
1473:
1470:
1467:
1464:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1450:
1447:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1329:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1315:
1310:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1298:agglutination
1295:
1291:
1283:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1270:
1264:
1259:
1253:
1248:
1242:
1237:
1231:
1226:
1216:
1211:
1205:
1200:
1194:
1189:
1183:
1178:
1172:
1167:
1161:
1155:
1152:
1149:
1145:
1139:
1134:
1128:
1123:
1117:
1112:
1106:
1101:
1091:
1086:
1080:
1075:
1069:
1064:
1058:
1053:
1047:
1042:
1036:
1027:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
1000:
999:
994:
991:
988:
985:
982:
979:
976:
973:
972:
971:
966:
963:
960:
957:
954:
951:
948:
945:
944:
943:
942:
939:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
904:
901:
893:
886:
883:
880:
877:
876:
874:
869:
866:
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2254:'basket' to
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2124:Noun adjunct
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1994:
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1943:inflectional
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1880:constitution
1879:
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1828:Aristophanes
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1338:compounding
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992:
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634:
630:
605:Cha'palaachi
571:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
515:
474:cāppiṭukiṟēṉ
449:
432:
334:
299:
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260:
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193:October 2014
190:
175:Please help
163:
135:
123:
99:
95:evlerinizden
69:
63:
29:
2603:Mwana Simba
2569:Jan Hajič:
2529:googlebooks
2264:Mwana Simba
2069:synthesised
1927:agglutinare
1846:Attic Greek
1607:märkä paita
1552:languages:
1344:inflection
1341:derivation
926:. The noun
777:gap-ni-kka?
414:tabetakunai
269:, and most
261:Almost all
235:in Western
233:adpositions
92:, the word
66:linguistics
2286:Chapter 32
2275:Chapter 16
2155:References
2010:tous jours
2002:hanc horam
1989:may have.
1917:The words
1866:, meaning
1687:talo-i-ssa
1350:suffixing
1347:prefixing
1335:synthesis
739:(가라) 'Go!'
589:Mapudungun
536:→ bring),
346:, passive
265:, such as
219:, such as
2172:Mongolian
2058:beefeater
2054:blackbird
2038:Wales nut
1975:isolating
1965:synthetic
1939:isolating
1860:Bulgarian
1830:' comedy
771:gap-ni-da
613:morphemes
601:Kaqchikel
597:Tz'utujil
577:languages
552:= house.
522:dakartzat
480:சாப்பிடு-
356:honorific
302:East Asia
229:Hungarian
164:does not
133:instead.
82:syntactic
78:morphemes
38:Hungarian
2613:Category
2450:p. xxxvi
2300:Archived
2295:and the
2289:Archived
2278:Archived
2267:Archived
2108:See also
2092:) lists
2065:compound
2050:vindauga
2046:wind-eye
2026:good-bye
2014:toujours
2012:becomes
1971:analytic
1892:-ателств
1856:fusional
1721:Germanic
1711:Extremes
1681:is used
1679:-ssa/ssä
1654:talo-ssa
1485:English
1355:Swahili
1306:morpheme
1210:-he-past
1085:-he-past
765:-(eu)pni
677:-(eu)pni
617:sentence
556:Americas
486:cāppiṭu-
383:食べたくなかった
344:negation
336:Japanese
287:Filipino
225:Estonian
42:Romanian
2389:page 20
2356:page 12
2342:1264155
1876:against
1673:a, o, u
1603:'house'
1586:Finnish
1263:vi-refu
1252:vi-tabu
1230:vi-soma
1193:wa-refu
1182:wa-wili
1177:-person
1138:ki-refu
1127:ki-tabu
1105:ki-soma
1052:-person
908:Swahili
699:-ra/-la
663:-(eo)ss
656:-(eo)ss
649:-(eu)si
609:Kʼicheʼ
593:Quechua
585:Nahuatl
434:Turkish
404:tabetai
368:働かせられたら
350:, past
295:bagabag
283:Tagalog
245:fiaiéi,
221:Finnish
185:removed
170:sources
90:Turkish
54:English
52:.) The
2340:
2231:Korean
2048:(O.N.
2042:window
2034:walnut
2018:dès jà
2016:, and
2006:encore
1626:talo-n
1550:Turkic
1546:Uralic
1511:Inuit
1459:Greek
1433:Yakut
1302:morphs
1068:m-refu
1057:m-moja
910:nouns
637:Korean
621:Navajo
566:Kichwa
546:Etxean
534:ekarri
518:Basque
492:-கிற்-
394:taberu
340:Korean
330:number
306:Korean
227:, and
46:German
2547:JSTOR
2338:JSTOR
2252:-kapu
2135:Notes
2114:Affix
2090:Kotus
2044:from
2036:from
2028:from
1862:word
1775:-kään
1733:Latin
1532:0.73
1506:0.38
1480:0.42
1454:0.53
1428:0.54
1402:0.44
1376:0.16
1269:-long
1258:-book
1247:-that
1241:vi-le
1236:-read
1215:(w)-o
1204:wa-li
1199:-tall
1171:wa-tu
1166:-that
1160:wa-le
1144:-long
1133:-book
1122:-that
1116:ki-le
1111:-read
1074:-tall
1041:-that
1035:yu-le
928:-tabu
912:-toto
756:ga-ja
752:(라):
737:ga-ra
670:-gess
627:Slots
498:-kiṟ-
451:Tamil
352:tense
348:voice
322:tense
267:Malay
72:is a
2379:and
2256:tabu
2244:-me-
2056:and
2022:déjà
1949:and
1921:and
1910:and
1900:-йте
1896:-ува
1884:word
1617:and
1615:-rk-
1600:talo
1591:talo
1548:and
1529:0.00
1526:0.47
1523:0.34
1520:1.00
1517:3.70
1514:0.03
1503:0.02
1500:0.32
1497:0.09
1494:1.00
1491:1.67
1488:0.30
1477:0.02
1474:0.37
1471:0.07
1468:1.02
1465:1.82
1462:0.40
1451:0.00
1448:0.38
1445:0.16
1442:1.02
1439:2.17
1436:0.51
1425:0.00
1422:0.43
1419:0.11
1416:1.00
1413:2.33
1410:0.60
1399:0.00
1396:0.38
1393:0.06
1390:1.04
1387:1.75
1384:0.67
1373:0.45
1370:0.31
1367:0.03
1364:1.00
1361:2.56
1358:0.67
1188:-two
1079:a-li
1063:-one
1046:m-tu
695:-kka
684:-deo
607:and
550:etxe
504:-ஏன்
326:time
316:', '
312:', '
168:any
166:cite
44:and
2385:-en
2381:-ez
2330:doi
2248:-li
2080:In
1973:or
1779:-kö
1735:or
1702:-i-
1619:-t-
1267:7PL
1256:7PL
1245:7PL
1234:7PL
1225:-it
1223:REL
1219:7PL
1208:1PL
1197:1PL
1186:1PL
1175:1PL
1164:1PL
1142:7SG
1131:7SG
1120:7SG
1109:7SG
1100:-it
1098:REL
1094:7SG
1090:y-e
1083:1SG
1072:1SG
1061:1SG
1050:1SG
1039:1SG
936:vi-
932:ki-
924:wa-
916:-tu
750:-ra
746:-ja
731:ga-
727:-ra
707:-yo
703:-ja
691:-da
538:tza
530:kar
513:).
510:-ēṉ
471:" (
459:" (
300:In
289:),
179:by
141:.)
64:In
2615::
2377:-z
2375:,
2373:-s
2369:-s
2336:.
2326:26
2324:.
2320:.
2273:,
2215:.
2040:,
2032:,
1955:.
1945:,
1941:,
1888:не
1675:;
1641:-n
920:m-
719:ga
603:,
599:,
595:,
591:,
587:,
583:,
526:da
354:,
328:,
324:,
318:어미
314:접사
310:조사
304:,
223:,
68:,
2576:.
2566:.
2553:.
2531:.
2418:.
2391:.
2358:.
2344:.
2332::
2306:.
2219:.
2088:(
1993:(
1818:(
1669:ä
1221:-
1096:-
542:t
507:(
495:(
483:(
386:)
380:(
371:)
365:(
206:)
200:(
195:)
191:(
187:.
173:.
27:.
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