563:
696:
802:. In many species of birds, females invest greater time and resources into raising offspring than their male partners. Therefore, it is imperative that female birds carefully select high quality mates. Current literature supports the theory that vibrant carotenoid coloration is correlated with male quality—either though direct effects on immune function and oxidative stress, or through a connection between carotenoid metabolizing pathways and pathways for cellular respiration.
285:
1029:
924:
704:
189:
301:
31:
274:
1143:
It is believed that both DXS and DXR are rate-determining enzymes, allowing them to regulate carotenoid levels. This was discovered in an experiment where DXS and DXR were genetically overexpressed, leading to increased carotenoid expression in the resulting seedlings. Also, J-protein (J20) and heat
790:
Dietary carotenoids and their metabolic derivatives are responsible for bright yellow to red coloration in birds. Studies estimate that around 2956 modern bird species display carotenoid coloration and that the ability to utilize these pigments for external coloration has evolved independently many
479:(ROS). As these high energy ROS are produced in the chlorophyll the energy is transferred to the carotenoid’s polyene tail and undergoes a series of reactions in which electrons are moved between the carotenoid bonds in order to find the most balanced (lowest energy) state for the carotenoid.
996:. Next, CDP-ME2P is converted to 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate (MECDP). This reaction occurs when MECDP synthase catalyzes the reaction and CMP is eliminated from the CDP-ME2P molecule. MECDP is then converted to (e)-4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate (HMBDP) via
475:. The singlet-singlet energy transfer is a lower energy state transfer and is used during photosynthesis. The triplet-triplet transfer is a higher energy state and is essential in photoprotection. Light produces damaging species during photosynthesis, with the most damaging being
1144:
shock protein 70 (Hsp70) chaperones are thought to be involved in post-transcriptional regulation of DXS activity, such that mutants with defective J20 activity exhibit reduced DXS enzyme activity while accumulating inactive DXS protein. Regulation may also be caused by external
951:
starts by creating IPP and DMAPP using the MVA. For carotenoid production plants use MEP to generate IPP and DMAPP. The MEP pathway results in a 5:1 mixture of IPP:DMAPP. IPP and DMAPP undergo several reactions, resulting in the major carotenoid precursor,
778:. Carotenoids are the dominant pigment in autumn leaf coloration of about 15-30% of tree species. However, the reds, the purples, and their blended combinations that decorate autumn foliage usually come from another group of pigments in the cells called
176:
units and contain 40 carbon atoms. In general, carotenoids absorb wavelengths ranging from 400 to 550 nanometers (violet to green light). This causes the compounds to be deeply colored yellow, orange, or red. Carotenoids are the dominant pigment in
3071:
Archetti, Marco; Döring, Thomas F.; Hagen, Snorre B.; Hughes, Nicole M.; Leather, Simon R.; Lee, David W.; Lev-Yadun, Simcha; Manetas, Yiannis; Ougham, Helen J. (2011). "Unravelling the evolution of autumn colours: an interdisciplinary approach".
723:. When chlorophyll is not present, as in autumn foliage, the yellows and oranges of the carotenoids are predominant. For the same reason, carotenoid colors often predominate in ripe fruit after being unmasked by the disappearance of chlorophyll.
718:
is the most abundant carotenoid and its role in preventing age-related eye disease is currently under investigation. Lutein and the other carotenoid pigments found in mature leaves are often not obvious because of the masking presence of
987:
and subsequent rearrangement. The resulting MEP is converted to 4-(cytidine 5’-diphospho)-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol (CDP-ME) in the presence of CTP using the enzyme MEP cytidylyltransferase. CDP-ME is then converted, in the presence of
1152:
applied to soil and binds to DXP synthase. This inhibits DXP synthase, preventing synthesis of DXP and halting the MEP pathway. The use of this toxin leads to lower levels of carotenoids in plants grown in the contaminated soil.
939:(DMAPP). These two isoprene isomers are used to create various compounds depending on the biological pathway used to synthesize the isomers. Plants are known to use two different pathways for IPP production: the cytosolic
805:
It is generally considered that sexually selected traits, such as carotenoid-based coloration, evolve because they are honest signals of phenotypic and genetic quality. For instance, among males of the bird species
436:. Their color, ranging from pale yellow through bright orange to deep red, is directly related to their structure, especially the length of the conjugation. Xanthophylls are often yellow, giving their class name.
824:
fish, males that are more attractive to females due to carotenoid colorants appear to under-allocate carotenoids to their germline cells. Since carotinoids are beneficial antioxidants, their under-allocation to
606:, is responsible for their orange-yellow colors. Dried carrots have the highest amount of carotene of any food per 100-gram serving, measured in retinol activity equivalents (provitamin A equivalents). Vietnamese
5771:
6316:
490:
and other oxidised derivatives, carotenoids support crystalline architecture and hydrophobicity of lipoproteins and cellular lipid structures, hence oxygen solubility and its diffusion therein.
993:
672:
birds) because, given their physiological and chemical properties, they can be used as visible indicators of individual health, and hence are used by animals when selecting potential mates.
2691:
Yim, K. J.; Kwon, J; Cha, I. T.; Oh, K. S.; Song, H. S.; Lee, H. W.; Rhee, J. K.; Song, E. J.; Rho, J. R.; Seo, M. L.; Choi, J. S.; Choi, H. J.; Lee, S. J.; Nam, Y. D.; Roh, S. W. (2015).
656:
are mostly incapable of synthesizing carotenoids, and must obtain them through their diet. Carotenoids are a common and often ornamental feature in animals. For example, the pink color of
3036:
Rodrigo, María Jesús; Cilla, Antonio; Barberá, Reyes; Zacarías, Lorenzo (2015). "Carotenoid bioaccessibility in pulp and fresh juice from carotenoid-rich sweet oranges and mandarins".
2521:
Timlin, Jerilyn A.; Collins, Aaron M.; Beechem, Thomas A.; Shumskaya, Maria; Wurtzel, Eleanore T. (2017-06-14), "Localizing and
Quantifying Carotenoids in Intact Cells and Tissues",
486:, by both energy transfer and by chemical reactions. They also protect plants by quenching triplet chlorophyll. By protecting lipids from free-radical damage, which generate charged
5985:
997:
5764:
6309:
1009:
383:
5995:
4204:
1165:
of DXP reductoisomerase due to its similar structure to the enzyme. Application of said antibiotic prevents reduction of DXP, again halting the MEP pathway.
5990:
5757:
683:
of carotenoids is improved when consumed with fat in a meal. Cooking carotenoid-containing vegetables in oil and shredding the vegetable both increase carotenoid
6302:
984:
2981:"Dietary fat composition, food matrix and relative polarity modulate the micellarization and intestinal uptake of carotenoids from vegetables and fruits"
782:. Unlike the carotenoids, these pigments are not present in the leaf throughout the growing season, but are actively produced towards the end of summer.
6404:
3414:"What Does Carotenoid-Dependent Coloration Tell? Plasma Carotenoid Level Signals Immunocompetence and Oxidative Stress State in Birds–A Meta-Analysis"
2038:"Lutein, Zeaxanthin, and meso-Zeaxanthin: The Basic and Clinical Science Underlying Carotenoid-based Nutritional Interventions against Ocular Disease"
2882:
Sacchi, Roberto (4 June 2013). "Colour variation in the polymorphic common wall lizard (Podarcis muralis): An analysis using the RGB colour system".
1696:
3,5-Dihydroxy-6,7-didehydro-5,6,7',8'-tetrahydro-7'-apo-b-caroten-8'-one or 3,5-dihydroxy-8'-methyl-6,7-didehydro-5,6-dihydro-8'-apo-b-caroten-8'-one
4112:
1053:
956:(GGPP). GGPP can be converted into carotenes or xanthophylls by undergoing a number of different steps within the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway.
5980:
1595:
3,3'-Bispalmitoyloxy-2,3,2',3'-tetradehydro-β,β-carotene-4,4'-dione or 3,3'-dihydroxy-2,3,2',3'-tetradehydro-β,β-carotene-4,4'-dione dipalmitate
1135:
but they can still be further converted into xanthophylls by using beta-hydrolase and epsilon-hydrolase, leading to a variety of xanthophylls.
1085:
1065:
4359:
3118:
2748:
Leoncini; Sources, Natural; Head; Cancer, Neck; et al. (July 2015). "A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of
Epidemiological Studies".
2540:
2500:
2455:
2303:
Polívka, Tomáš; Sundström, Villy (2004). "Ultrafast
Dynamics of Carotenoid Excited States−From Solution to Natural and Artificial Systems".
5823:
4731:
562:
5828:
507:
3585:"A Review and Assessment of the Shared-Pathway Hypothesis for the Maintenance of Signal Honesty in Red Ketocarotenoid-Based Coloration"
5710:
3235:
Cooney, Christopher R.; Varley, Zoë K.; Nouri, Lara O.; Moody, Christopher J. A.; Jardine, Michael D.; Thomas, Gavin H. (2019-04-16).
1878:
1684:
3-Hydroxy-7,8-didehydro-7',8'-dihydro-7'-apo-b-carotene-4,8'-dione or 3-hydroxy-8'-methyl-7,8-didehydro-8'-apo-b-carotene-4,8'-dione
1049:
1068:(CRTI) for the catalysis. Plants and cyanobacteria however utilize four enzymes for this process. The first of these enzymes is a
6390:
5975:
830:
1127:
is produced when the all-trans lycopene first undergoes reaction with epsilon-LCY then a second reaction with beta-LCY; whereas
6414:
6157:
2979:
Mashurabad, Purna
Chandra; Palika, Ravindranadh; Jyrwa, Yvette Wilda; Bhaskarachary, K.; Pullakhandam, Raghu (3 January 2017).
5970:
1825:
699:
Yellow and orange leaf colors in autumn are due to carotenoids, which are visible after chlorophyll degrades for the season.
4042:
Choi, Seyoung; Koo, Sangho (2005). "Efficient
Syntheses of the Keto-carotenoids Canthaxanthin, Astaxanthin, and Astacene".
3175:
Thomas, Daniel B.; McGraw, Kevin J.; Butler, Michael W.; Carrano, Matthew T.; Madden, Odile; James, Helen F. (2014-08-07).
1660:
5',6'-Dihydro-5'-apo-β-caroten-6'-one or 5',6'-dihydro-5'-apo-18'-nor-β-caroten-6'-one or 6'-methyl-6'-apo-β-caroten-6'-one
6386:
3749:"Staphylococcus aureus golden pigment impairs neutrophil killing and promotes virulence through its antioxidant activity"
1618:
3,3'-Dihydroxy-19-lauroyloxy-7,8-dihydro-β,ε-caroten-8-one or 3,19,3'-trihydroxy-7,8-dihydro-β,ε-caroten-8-one 19-laurate
1032:
The conversion of phytoene to lycopene in plants and cyanobacteria (left) differs compared to bacteria and fungi (right).
6504:
5921:
5187:
4105:
992:, to 2-phospho-4-(cytidine 5’-diphospho)-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol (CDP-ME2P). The conversion to CDP-ME2P is catalyzed by
6005:
5900:
5872:
5737:
1749:
3-Hydroxysemi-b-carotenone 3'-Hydroxy-5,6-seco-b,b-carotene-5,6-dione or 3-hydroxy-5',6'-seco-b,b-carotene-5',6'-dione
1101:
936:
668:
are due to carotenoids. It has been proposed that carotenoids are used in ornamental traits (for extreme examples see
205:
2487:, Advances in Photosynthesis and Respiration, vol. 8, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 363–379,
2395:
Ramel, Fanny; Birtic, Simona; Cuiné, Stéphan; Triantaphylidès, Christian; Ravanat, Jean-Luc; Havaux, Michel (2012).
1511:
467:
determines their color and photophysics. After absorbing a photon, the carotenoid transfers its excited electron to
1725:
3'-Acetoxy-5,6-epoxy-3,5'-dihydroxy-6',7'-didehydro-5,6,5',6'-tetrahydro-12',13',20'-trinor-b,b-caroten-19,11-olide
1687:
1069:
964:
953:
2087:"Isorenieratene Biosynthesis in Green Sulfur Bacteria Requires the Cooperative Actions of Two Carotenoid Cyclases"
820:. However, there is also evidence that attractive male coloration may be a faulty signal of male quality. Among
6336:
6325:
6234:
6167:
6000:
5895:
5890:
5731:
4352:
3632:
Helfenstein, Fabrice; Losdat, Sylvain; Møller, Anders Pape; Blount, Jonathan D.; Richner, Heinz (February 2010).
932:
714:
The most common carotenoids include lycopene and the vitamin A precursor β-carotene. In plants, the xanthophyll
5861:
4724:
4084:
1466:
1120:
2479:
Gruszecki, Wieslaw I. (2004), Frank, Harry A.; Young, Andrew J.; Britton, George; Cogdell, Richard J. (eds.),
1111:
gives rise to carotenoid diversity, which can be distinguished based on the end groups. There can be either a
1097:
1093:
1080:
producing 9,15,9’-tri-cis-ζ-carotene. The central double bond of this tri-cis-ζ-carotene is isomerized by the
1077:
6109:
6060:
439:
Carotenoids also participate in different types of cell signaling. They are able to signal the production of
6536:
6409:
5939:
4098:
1628:
1523:
1411:
1081:
912:
869:
distillates are the key odor-contributing compounds in flowers. In fact, the sweet floral smells present in
476:
327:
6055:
1405:
1131:
is produced by two reactions with beta-LCY. α- and β-Carotene are the most common carotenoids in the plant
6526:
6209:
6148:
6028:
5958:
5787:
5142:
3347:
Weaver, Ryan J.; Santos, Eduardo S. A.; Tucker, Anna M.; Wilson, Alan E.; Hill, Geoffrey E. (2018-01-08).
1669:
1639:
1541:
1449:
1162:
989:
944:
646:
567:
165:
4709:
2036:
Bernstein, P. S.; Li, B; Vachali, P. P.; Gorusupudi, A; Shyam, R; Henriksen, B. S.; Nolan, J. M. (2015).
1763:
645:. There is no correlation between consumption of foods high in carotenoids and vitamin A and the risk of
5916:
5885:
4989:
1807:
2'-(4-Hydroxy-3-methyl-2-butenyl)-2-(3-methyl-2-butenyl)-3',4'-didehydro-l',2'-dihydro-β,γ-caroten-1'-ol
1757:
1116:
1013:
899:
767:
638:
637:
Reviews of preliminary research in 2015 indicated that foods high in carotenoids may reduce the risk of
471:
for use in photosynthesis. Upon absorption of light, carotenoids transfer excitation energy to and from
6477:
4698:
1740:
1734:
1728:
1563:
1271:
1193:
795:, with adult male birds generally displaying more vibrant coloration than females of the same species.
6269:
3530:"The Vitamin A–Redox Hypothesis: A Biochemical Basis for Honest Signaling via Carotenoid Pigmentation"
2835:"Vitamin A and carotenoids and the risk of Parkinson's disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis"
1792:
1786:
1778:
3-Hydroxy-5'-methyl-4,5'-retro-5'-apo-b-caroten-5'-one or 3-hydroxy-4,5'-retro-5'-apo-b-caroten-5'-one
1746:
1681:
1427:
1355:
1289:
6531:
6418:
6382:
6219:
6114:
6092:
5015:
4345:
4209:
3892:
3645:
3492:
3425:
3360:
3248:
2891:
2792:
2704:
2156:
1710:
1645:
1634:
1569:
1535:
980:
837:
and the viability of their offspring by choosing redder, but more deteriorated partners with reduced
6199:
3136:"The effect of colour-producing mechanisms on plumage sexual dichromatism in passerines and parrots"
2644:"Effects of maturity on physicochemical properties of Gac fruit (Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng.)"
2252:
Vershinin, Alexander (1999-01-01). "Biological functions of carotenoids - diversity and evolution".
1962:
1813:
2,2'-Bis(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-3,4,3',4'-tetradehydro-1,2,1',2'-tetrahydro-γ,γ-carotene-1,1'-diol
1775:
1604:
1581:
1349:
1283:
1266:
1261:
1258:
2,2'-Bis(3-hydroxy-3-methylbutyl)-3,4,3',4'-tetradehydro-1,2,1',2'-tetrahydro-γ,γ-carotene-1,1'-diol
695:
6487:
6458:
6434:
4717:
2618:
1965:. Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University. 1 August 2016
1395:
1352:
2,2'-Bis(β-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-3,4,3',4'-tetradehydro-1,2,1',2'-tetrahydro-γ,γ-carotene-1,1'-diol
1277:
1209:
549:
284:
5749:
4552:
3237:"Sexual selection predicts the rate and direction of colour divergence in a large avian radiation"
1985:
1716:
1699:
1693:
1575:
1559:
1528:
1505:
1460:
1422:
1389:
1333:
1028:
893:
Some carotenoids are produced by bacteria to protect themselves from oxidative immune attack. The
6328:
6065:
5795:
4316:
4214:
4122:
4024:
3842:
3729:
3565:
3329:
2958:
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2773:
2600:
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2285:
2015:
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1417:
1366:
1307:
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1250:
665:
538:
487:
6082:
4688:
1443:
1438:
1319:
703:
356:
217:
181:
of about 15-30% of tree species, but many plant colors, especially reds and purples, are due to
6482:
3302:"Female house finches prefer colourful males: sexual selection for a condition-dependent trait"
1731:
5,6-epoxy-3,3'-dihydroxy-7',8'-didehydro-5,6-dihydro-12',13',20'-trinor-b,b-caroten-19,11-olide
1615:
1610:
1323:
923:
6038:
4059:
4016:
3975:
3926:
3908:
3834:
3778:
3721:
3713:
3671:
3663:
3614:
3606:
3557:
3549:
3510:
3461:
3443:
3394:
3376:
3349:"Carotenoid metabolism strengthens the link between feather coloration and individual quality"
3321:
3282:
3264:
3214:
3196:
3157:
3114:
3089:
3053:
3018:
3000:
2950:
2856:
2815:
2765:
2730:
2673:
2592:
2584:
2565:"Non-Invasive Immunofluorescence Assessment of Lycopene Supplementation Status in Skin Smears"
2536:
2496:
2461:
2451:
2426:
2377:
2359:
2320:
2277:
2269:
2229:
2211:
2172:
2124:
2106:
2067:
2007:
1925:
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1804:
1798:
1592:
1477:
1037:
792:
731:
464:
339:
331:
316:
252:
178:
1601:
3'-Acetoxy-5,6-epoxy-3,5'-dihydroxy-6',7'-didehydro-5,6,7,8,5',6'-hexahydro-β,β-caroten-8-one
1547:
6363:
6352:
5856:
5329:
5105:
5045:
4409:
4257:
4051:
4006:
3965:
3957:
3916:
3900:
3824:
3768:
3760:
3705:
3653:
3596:
3541:
3500:
3481:"Do carotenoid-based ornaments entail resource trade-offs? An evaluation of theory and data"
3451:
3433:
3384:
3368:
3313:
3272:
3256:
3204:
3188:
3147:
3081:
3045:
3008:
2992:
2940:
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2720:
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2655:
2576:
2526:
2488:
2416:
2408:
2367:
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2312:
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2219:
2203:
2164:
2114:
2098:
2057:
2049:
1997:
1915:
1907:
813:
397:
87:
48:
791:
times throughout avian evolutionary history. Carotenoid coloration exhibits high levels of
5818:
5448:
5363:
5321:
4829:
4301:
1896:"Carotenoids Database: structures, chemical fingerprints and distribution among organisms"
1810:
1255:
1108:
1073:
904:
684:
680:
642:
389:
350:
237:
201:
126:
1012:. The last two steps involving HMBPD synthase and reductase can only occur in completely
865:
and fragrance industry. Both β-damascenone and β-ionone although low in concentration in
196:
Carotenoids serve two key roles in plants and algae: they absorb light energy for use in
3896:
3649:
3496:
3429:
3364:
3252:
2945:
2918:
2895:
2708:
2372:
2339:
2160:
188:
6426:
6422:
6294:
6279:
6264:
6246:
5880:
5714:
5668:
5581:
5576:
5566:
5543:
5505:
5495:
5076:
4492:
4482:
4467:
4404:
4399:
4389:
4080:
3970:
3945:
3921:
3880:
3773:
3748:
3694:"Attractive male sticklebacks carry more oxidative DNA damage in the soma and germline"
3456:
3413:
3389:
3277:
3209:
3013:
2980:
2725:
2692:
2668:
2643:
2421:
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2191:
2119:
2086:
2062:
2037:
1920:
1895:
1849:
1830:
1657:
1383:
1148:
that affect enzymes and proteins required for synthesis. Ketoclomazone is derived from
972:
940:
623:
483:
197:
3881:"Two distinct pathways for essential metabolic precursors for isoprenoid biosynthesis"
3317:
2693:"Occurrence of viable, red-pigmented haloarchaea in the plumage of captive flamingoes"
2564:
812:, the more colorfully ornamented males produce sperm that is better protected against
798:
These differences arise due to the selection of yellow and red coloration in males by
675:
Carotenoids from the diet are stored in the fatty tissues of animals, and exclusively
6520:
6214:
5843:
5659:
5625:
5620:
5571:
4801:
4630:
4595:
4575:
4562:
4487:
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4414:
4394:
4311:
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4171:
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3733:
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3633:
2053:
1623:
1487:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1128:
1124:
1088:. This again introduces two double bonds, resulting in 7,9,7’,9’-tetra-cis-lycopene.
1017:
747:
627:
603:
587:
571:
530:
452:
444:
440:
409:
405:
393:
343:
221:
213:
209:
4028:
3846:
3333:
3177:"Ancient origins and multiple appearances of carotenoid-pigmented feathers in birds"
2919:"Attractive skin coloration: harnessing sexual selection to improve diet and health"
2868:
2777:
2604:
2550:
2480:
2289:
2019:
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5673:
5591:
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4915:
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4678:
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4512:
4497:
4424:
4247:
4143:
3569:
3301:
2962:
1838:
1834:
1769:
1607:
3'-Acetoxy-3,5,5'-trihydroxy-6',7'-didehydro-5,8,5',6'-tetrahydro-β,β-caroten-8-one
1400:
1154:
976:
968:
759:
595:
526:
315:
Carotenoids are produced by all photosynthetic organisms and are primarily used as
268:
169:
2761:
2563:
Petyaev, Ivan M.; Zigangirova, Naylia A.; Pristensky, Dmitry; et al. (2018).
1986:"Carotenoids 2: Genetics and molecular biology of carotenoid pigment biosynthesis"
1514:
1,1'-Dimethoxy-3,4,3',4'-tetradehydro-1,2,1',2'-tetrahydro-γ,γ-carotene-2,2'-dione
149:. Over 1,100 identified carotenoids can be further categorized into two classes –
3993:
Nisar, Nazia; Li, Li; Lu, Shan; ChiKhin, Nay; Pogson, Barry J. (5 January 2015).
3438:
3108:
559:
it was possible to localise this carotenoid in different animal and human cells.
6445:
6230:
6135:
6124:
6119:
6097:
6087:
6020:
5780:
5645:
5635:
5611:
5596:
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4919:
4839:
4673:
4537:
4517:
4502:
4472:
4454:
4444:
4434:
4306:
4285:
4237:
4196:
4153:
3348:
3236:
2340:"Traditional and new trend strategies to enhance pigment contents in microalgae"
2002:
1598:
1482:
1372:
1183:
1177:
1158:
1132:
948:
908:
858:
821:
817:
799:
779:
720:
514:
472:
468:
448:
432:
401:
385:
320:
308:
158:
150:
4011:
3994:
3944:
Moise, Alexander R.; Al-Babili, Salim; Wurtzel, Eleanore T. (31 October 2013).
3829:
3812:
3372:
3260:
3113:. Annual Plant Reviews. Vol. 14. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 6.
3085:
2935:
2642:
Tran, X. T.; Parks, S. E.; Roach, P. D.; Golding, J. B.; Nguyen, M. H. (2015).
2355:
300:
6462:
6455:
6359:
6355:
6274:
6254:
6224:
6186:
6104:
6077:
6070:
6050:
6043:
5813:
5630:
5474:
5433:
5421:
5416:
5302:
5292:
5086:
5081:
5034:
4683:
4668:
4663:
4547:
4527:
4507:
4326:
3811:
Nisar, Nazia; Li, Li; Lu, Shan; Khin, Nay Chi; Pogson, Barry J. (2015-01-05).
2996:
2903:
1911:
1544:
1'-Hydroxy-1-methoxy-3,4-didehydro-1,2,1',2',7',8'-hexahydro-γ,γ-caroten-2-one
1517:
1499:
1493:
1339:
1005:
1001:
739:
634:
is rich in carotenoids, imparting the orange-colored feathers of these birds.
503:
499:
427:
335:
244:
182:
3912:
3717:
3667:
3610:
3553:
3514:
3447:
3380:
3325:
3268:
3200:
3161:
3004:
2588:
2492:
2465:
2363:
2273:
2215:
2176:
2110:
1084:
Z-ISO and the resulting 9,9'-di-cis-ζ-carotene is dehydrogenated again via a
6466:
6449:
6440:
6374:
6259:
5257:
5166:
5119:
5050:
4890:
4745:
4693:
4653:
4605:
4229:
3885:
Proceedings of the Japan
Academy. Series B, Physical and Biological Sciences
3505:
3480:
3176:
3152:
3135:
2265:
1722:
1430:
5',6'-Epoxy-6,7-didehydro-5,6,5',6'-tetrahydro-β,β-carotene-3,5,19,3'-tetrol
1149:
1112:
870:
854:
834:
808:
771:
727:
726:
Carotenoids are responsible for the brilliant yellows and oranges that tint
676:
534:
510:
264:
225:
4063:
4020:
3979:
3930:
3838:
3782:
3725:
3693:
3675:
3618:
3561:
3465:
3398:
3286:
3218:
3192:
3093:
3057:
3022:
2954:
2860:
2819:
2769:
2734:
2677:
2596:
2430:
2381:
2324:
2281:
2233:
2168:
2128:
2071:
1929:
17:
4090:
3601:
3584:
2580:
2445:
2412:
2011:
1702:
7',8'-Dihydro-7'-apo-b-caroten-8'-one or 8'-methyl-8'-apo-b-caroten-8'-one
1358:
1'-(β-D-Glucopyranosyloxy)-3',4'-didehydro-1',2'-dihydro-β,γ-caroten-2'-ol
30:
6398:
6033:
5944:
5601:
5586:
5558:
5487:
5453:
5252:
5124:
5025:
4999:
4984:
4935:
4925:
4885:
4810:
4749:
4645:
4590:
4439:
4429:
4419:
4376:
4280:
4275:
4219:
4138:
4130:
3764:
2085:
Maresca, Julia A.; Romberger, Steven P.; Bryant, Donald A. (2008-05-28).
1844:
1663:
1313:
1203:
1188:
1061:
1045:
826:
763:
631:
611:
575:
556:
418:
413:
293:
173:
154:
146:
130:
35:
3634:"Sperm of colourful males are better protected against oxidative stress"
2447:
Carotenoids: physical, chemical, and biological functions and properties
2102:
1414:
5',8'-Epoxy-6,7-didehydro-5,6,5',8'-tetrahydro-β,β-carotene-3,5,3'-triol
1064:
depends on the organism. Bacteria and fungi employ a single enzyme, the
861:
are also important fragrance chemicals that are used extensively in the
400:. Carotenes typically contain only carbon and hydrogen, i.e., they are
6379:
6140:
5851:
5833:
5805:
5784:
5479:
5469:
5390:
5211:
5206:
5134:
5129:
5071:
5066:
5020:
4994:
4930:
4869:
4864:
4790:
4781:
4741:
4635:
4625:
4321:
4186:
3904:
3049:
2811:
1057:
885:
are due to the aromatic compounds resulting from carotenoid breakdown.
874:
862:
735:
707:
661:
619:
591:
289:
229:
208:. Carotenoids that contain unsubstituted beta-ionone rings (including
138:
114:
106:
90:
4055:
3961:
3709:
2851:
2834:
2716:
2316:
1789:
2-(4-Hydroxy-3-methyl-2-butenyl)-7',8',11',12'-tetrahydro-e,y-carotene
1743:
5,6-seco-b,b-carotene-5,6-dione or 5',6'-seco-b,b-carotene-5',6'-dione
1072:
which introduces two additional double bonds into 15-cis-phytoene by
513:
chains. As a consequence, carotenoids are typically present in plasma
5640:
5182:
5040:
4974:
4940:
4911:
4824:
4600:
4522:
4252:
2659:
2207:
1675:
1301:
1089:
1041:
850:
715:
669:
657:
653:
599:
423:
304:
248:
233:
142:
134:
122:
110:
102:
3529:
273:
3545:
3412:
Simons, Mirre J. P.; Cohen, Alan A.; Verhulst, Simon (2012-08-14).
2793:"Anticancer properties of carotenoids in prostate cancer. A review"
1060:
biosynthesis. The subsequent conversion of phytoene into all-trans-
975:, are converted to deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate (DXP) catalyzed by
4585:
2531:
1651:
1145:
1027:
922:
882:
878:
838:
775:
755:
751:
743:
702:
694:
561:
542:
283:
272:
187:
118:
98:
94:
679:
animals obtain the compounds from animal fat. In the human diet,
610:
fruit contains the highest known concentration of the carotenoid
27:
Class of chemical compounds; yellow, orange or red plant pigments
1369:
1'-Methoxy-3',4'-didehydro-1,2,1',2'-tetrahydro-γ,γ-caroten-1-ol
866:
615:
6298:
5753:
4713:
4341:
4094:
2397:"Chemical Quenching of Singlet Oxygen by Carotenoids in Plants"
251:
whose importance in visual function, as of 2016, remains under
4337:
2147:
Cogdell, R. J. (1978-11-30). "Carotenoids in photosynthesis".
1531:
3,1'-Dihydroxy-3',4'-didehydro-1',2'-dihydro-β,γ-caroten-4-one
1392:
5,6: 5',8'-Diepoxy-5,6,5',8'-tetrahydro-β,β-carotene-3,3'-diol
607:
277:
75:
388:. Several modifications to these structures exist: including
54:
2569:
Monoclonal
Antibodies in Immunodiagnosis and Immunotherapy
1490:
a.k.a. Aphanicin, Chlorellaxanthin β,β-Carotene-4,4'-dione
1115:
or an epsilon ring, each generated by a different enzyme (
630:
contain substantial amounts of beta-carotene. The diet of
537:
and granules. They have been visualised and quantified by
63:
1375:
1-Methoxy-3,4-didehydro-1,2,7',8'-tetrahydro-γ,γ-carotene
833:
to these cells. Therefore, female sticklebacks may risk
371:
69:
2338:
Aizpuru, Aitor; González-Sánchez, Armando (2024-07-20).
1654:
6'-Methyl hydrogen 9'-cis-6,6'-diapocarotene-6,6'-dioate
3181:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
1766:
3'-Hydroxy-4',5'-didehydro-4,5'-retro-b,b-caroten-3-one
1386:
5,6-Epoxy-7',8'-didehydro-5,6-dihydro—carotene-3,3-diol
334:, which enables carotenoids to absorb light of various
3528:
Hill, Geoffrey E.; Johnson, James D. (November 2012).
1502:(3S,5R,3'S,5'R)-3,3'-Dihydroxy-κ,κ-carotene-6,6'-dione
1274:(3R,3'R)-7,8,7',8'-Tetradehydro-β,β-carotene-3,3'-diol
1004:
and NADPH. HMBDP is reduced to IPP in the presence of
1180:
7,8,11,12,15,7',8',11',12',15'-Decahydro-γ,γ-carotene
1076:
and isomerizes two of its existing double bonds from
455:
and elongation, floral growth, and stress responses.
359:
338:. At the same time, the terminal groups regulate the
72:
51:
5709:
Terpene synthase enzymes (many), having in common a
1336:
3',4'-Didehydro-1',2'-dihydro-β,γ-carotene-3,1'-diol
78:
66:
60:
6335:
6244:
6184:
6177:
6133:
6018:
5957:
5930:
5909:
5870:
5842:
5803:
5794:
5724:
5702:
5685:
5658:
5610:
5557:
5542:
5525:
5462:
5389:
5379:
5362:
5301:
5275:
5245:
5220:
5199:
5175:
5165:
5104:
5059:
5008:
4962:
4953:
4904:
4878:
4857:
4838:
4800:
4757:
4644:
4614:
4561:
4453:
4375:
4294:
4266:
4228:
4195:
4152:
4129:
1795:
2,2'-Bis(4-hydroxy-3-methyl-2-butenyl)-e,e-carotene
1092:, a carotenoid isomerase, is needed to convert the
57:
3747:Liu GY, Essex A, Buchanan JT, et al. (2005).
3583:Powers, Matthew J; Hill, Geoffrey E (2021-05-03).
3479:Koch, Rebecca E.; Hill, Geoffrey E. (2018-05-14).
1772:4',5'-Didehydro-4,5'-retro-b,b-carotene-3,3'-dione
1713:3,3'-Bisacyloxy-2,2'-dinor-b,b-carotene-4,4'-dione
1648:5,6-Dihydroxy-5,6-dihydro-10'-apo-β-caroten-10'-al
377:
6337:
1760:4',5'-Didehydro-4,5'-retro-b,b-carotene-3,3'-diol
3946:"Mechanistic aspects of carotenoid biosynthesis"
3874:
3872:
3870:
3868:
3866:
3864:
3862:
3860:
3858:
3856:
3692:Kim, Sin-Yeon; Velando, Alberto (January 2020).
1584:3,19,3'-Trihydroxy-7,8-dihydro-β,ε-caroten-8-one
1556:3,3'-Dihydroxy-7',8'-didehydro-β,β-caroten-4-one
907:. This carotenoid is a virulence factor with an
323:in the light-harvesting part of photosynthesis.
228:activity (meaning that they can be converted to
4205:1,7-Bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1,4,6-heptatrien-3-one
2344:World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology
1719:5,6:5',6'-Diseco-b,b-carotene-5,6,5',6'-tetrone
1566:3-Hydroxy-2,3-didehydro-β,β-carotene-4,4'-dione
105:. Carotenoids give the characteristic color to
4787:Iridoid glycosides (iridoids bound to a sugar)
3879:KUZUYAMA, Tomohisa; SETO, Haruo (2012-03-09).
3230:
3228:
2619:"Foods Highest in Retinol Activity Equivalent"
2142:
2140:
2138:
1873:(4th ed.). New York: W. H. Freeman.
1496:(3R,3'S,5'R)-3,3'-Dihydroxy-β,κ-caroten-6'-one
1446:13-cis-1-Hydroxy-1,2-dihydro-γ,γ-caroten-20-al
525:Carotenoids are located primarily outside the
6310:
5765:
4725:
4353:
4106:
3806:
3804:
3802:
3800:
3798:
3796:
3794:
3792:
2917:Whitehead RD, Ozakinci G, Perrett DI (2012).
1678:Digentiobiosyl 8,8'-diapo-8,8'-carotenedioate
931:The basic building blocks of carotenoids are
911:action that helps the microbe evade death by
8:
1754:Retro-carotenoids and retro-apo-carotenoids
1534:3-OH-Canthaxanthin a.k.a. Adonirubin a.k.a.
1408:5,8-Epoxy-5,8-dihydro-β,β-carotene-3,3'-diol
897:(golden) pigment that gives some strains of
288:Ingesting carotenoid-rich foods affects the
101:, as well as several bacteria, archaea, and
3134:Delhey, Kaspar; Peters, Anne (2016-11-16).
2791:Soares Nda, C; et al. (October 2015).
1550:1'-Methoxy-1',2'-dihydro-c,γ-caroten-4'-one
1469:Methyl 3',4'-didehydro-β,γ-caroten-16'-oate
849:Products of carotenoid degradation such as
6317:
6303:
6295:
6181:
5963:
5800:
5772:
5758:
5750:
5554:
5386:
5172:
4959:
4854:
4732:
4718:
4710:
4360:
4346:
4338:
4113:
4099:
4091:
3819:. Plant Metabolism and Synthetic Biology.
3687:
3685:
1869:Nelson, David L.; Cox, Michael M. (2005).
4083:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
4010:
3969:
3920:
3828:
3772:
3657:
3600:
3504:
3455:
3437:
3388:
3276:
3208:
3151:
3012:
2944:
2934:
2850:
2724:
2667:
2530:
2420:
2371:
2223:
2118:
2061:
2001:
1919:
370:
365:
360:
358:
1463:3',4'-Didehydro-β,γ-caroten-16'-oic acid
816:due to increased presence of carotenoid
422:. Carotenoids containing oxygen include
299:
172:, meaning that they are produced from 8
29:
2974:
2972:
1861:
1801:2--2'-(3-methyl-2-butenyl)-b,b-carotene
1508:(3'R,5'R)-3'-Hydroxy-β,κ-caroten-6'-one
1200:-7,8,11,12,7',8'-Hexahydro-γ,γ-carotene
2985:Journal of Food Science and Technology
2192:"Abscisic Acid Synthesis and Response"
1631:3',4'-Didehydro-2'-apo-b-caroten-2'-al
829:cells can lead to increased oxidative
3110:Plant pigments and their manipulation
1957:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1107:This all-trans lycopene is cyclized;
947:(MEP). In animals, the production of
7:
3300:Hill, Geoffrey E. (September 1990).
2247:
2245:
2243:
2042:Progress in Retinal and Eye Research
2031:
2029:
1100:lycopene in the presence of reduced
3589:Integrative and Comparative Biology
1672:8'-Oxo-8,8'-diapo-8-carotenoic acid
1330:-1,2-Dihydro-γ,γ-carotene-1,20-diol
1304:(3R,3′R,6′R)-β,ε-carotene-3,3′-diol
529:in different cytoplasm organelles,
5711:terpene synthase N terminal domain
1666:8,8'-Diapo-8,8'-carotenedioic acid
1452:3',4'-Didehydro-β,γ-caroten-16'-al
1016:environments. IPP is then able to
903:their name is a carotenoid called
664:and scales of the yellow morph of
570:is due to carotenoids produced by
482:Carotenoids defend plants against
25:
6410:Modified low-density lipoproteins
6342:Tooltip Aryl hydrocarbon receptor
3995:"Carotenoid Metabolism in Plants"
3813:"Carotenoid Metabolism in Plants"
3074:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2485:The Photochemistry of Carotenoids
1538:3-Hydroxy-β,β-carotene-4,4'-dione
1050:squalene/phytoene synthase family
734:) of certain hardwood species as
660:, and the red coloring of cooked
192:Macular pigments of the human eye
6415:Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
3659:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01419.x
2750:Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev
2190:Finkelstein, Ruth (2013-11-01).
2054:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.10.003
1984:Armstrong GA, Hearst JE (1996).
1036:Two GGPP molecules condense via
943:pathway (MVA) and the plastidic
915:used by the host immune system.
786:Bird colors and sexual selection
494:Structure-property relationships
443:, which regulates plant growth,
47:
3698:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
2833:Takeda, A; et al. (2014).
1737:5,6-Seco-b,e-carotene-5,6-dione
1690:Methyl 6'-apo-y-caroten-6'-oate
1292:1',2'-Dihydro-f,γ-caroten-1'-ol
1169:Naturally occurring carotenoids
1024:Carotenoid biosynthetic pathway
927:Pathway of carotenoid synthesis
517:and cellular lipid structures.
6387:polychlorinated dibenzodioxins
3107:Davies, Kevin M., ed. (2004).
1894:Yabuzaki, Junko (2017-01-01).
1826:List of phytochemicals in food
1070:plant-type phytoene desaturase
86:) are yellow, orange, and red
1:
6505:Receptor/signaling modulators
3318:10.1016/s0003-3472(05)80537-8
2762:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-15-0053
1066:bacterial phytoene desaturase
5922:Geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate
5188:Geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate
3439:10.1371/journal.pone.0043088
2648:Food Science & Nutrition
2444:John Thomas Landrum (2010).
2149:Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B
1845:E number#E100–E199 (colours)
1578:3-Hydroxy-β,γ-caroten-4'-one
1316:1,2-Dihydro-γ,γ-caroten-l-ol
1286:(3R)-5'-cis-β,γ-Caroten-3-ol
1280:β,-Carotene-3,4,3',4'-tetrol
1206:3',4'-Didehydro-β,γ-carotene
1020:to DMAPP via IPP isomerase.
945:methylerythritol 4-phosphate
566:The orange ring surrounding
506:due to the presence of long
404:. Prominent members include
5901:Dimethylallyl pyrophosphate
5738:Dimethylallyl pyrophosphate
2003:10.1096/fasebj.10.2.8641556
1086:ζ-carotene desaturase (ZDS)
983:catalyzes the reduction by
463:The length of the multiple
396:or unsaturation, and other
378:{\displaystyle {\ce {C40}}}
206:non-photochemical quenching
153:(which contain oxygen) and
38:, a common natural pigment.
6553:
4012:10.1016/j.molp.2014.12.007
3830:10.1016/j.molp.2014.12.007
3373:10.1038/s41467-017-02649-z
3261:10.1038/s41467-019-09859-7
3086:10.1016/j.tree.2008.10.006
2936:10.1177/147470491201000507
2481:"Carotenoids in Membranes"
2356:10.1007/s11274-024-04070-3
1871:Principles of Biochemistry
1707:Nor- and seco-carotenoids
1512:2,2'-Diketospirilloxanthin
1298:β,ε-Carotene-3,19,3'-triol
1212:7',8'-Dihydro-ε,γ-carotene
1040:(PSY), forming the 15-cis
965:Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
954:geranylgeranyl diphosphate
262:
6496:
6326:Aryl hydrocarbon receptor
5966:
5896:Isopentenyl pyrophosphate
5891:5-Diphosphomevalonic acid
5732:Isopentenyl pyrophosphate
5686:Norisoprenoids (modified)
2997:10.1007/s13197-016-2466-7
2904:10.1016/j.jcz.2013.03.001
2450:. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
1688:Methyl apo-6'-lycopenoate
1467:Torularhodin methyl ester
937:dimethylallyl diphosphate
5725:Activated isoprene forms
5526:Sesquarterpenes/oids (7)
4775:Monocyclic (single ring)
4085:Medical Subject Headings
2493:10.1007/0-306-48209-6_20
1121:lycopene epsilon-cyclase
1008:and NADPH by the enzyme
548:With the development of
447:, embryo maturation and
161:and contain no oxygen).
34:Chemical structure of β-
6110:Cholesta-7,24-dien-3-ol
6061:4alpha-Methylzymosterol
5940:Prephytoene diphosphate
5788:metabolic intermediates
5348:Secodehydroabietic acid
3534:The American Naturalist
3506:10.1111/1365-2435.13122
3153:10.1111/1365-2435.12796
2266:10.1002/biof.5520100203
2091:Journal of Bacteriology
1912:10.1093/database/bax004
1082:zeta-carotene isomerase
933:isopentenyl diphosphate
913:reactive oxygen species
730:foliage (such as dying
477:reactive oxygen species
465:conjugated double bonds
332:conjugated double bonds
280:fruit, rich in lycopene
6441:Tapinarof (benvitimod)
6029:Farnesyl pyrophosphate
5959:Non-mevalonate pathway
5143:Farnesyl pyrophosphate
4615:Vitamin A retinoids (C
3193:10.1098/rspb.2014.0806
2623:nutritiondata.self.com
2169:10.1098/rstb.1978.0090
1642:6'-Apo-y-caroten-6'-al
1457:Acids and acid esters
1033:
928:
711:
700:
579:
568:Grand Prismatic Spring
379:
342:and properties within
312:
297:
281:
259:Structure and function
193:
179:autumn leaf coloration
39:
6383:aromatic hydrocarbons
6162:-Dihydroxycholesterol
6056:14-demethyllanosterol
5917:Geranyl pyrophosphate
5886:Phosphomevalonic acid
5862:β-Hydroxybutyric acid
5345:Sandaracopimaric acid
4990:Geranyl pyrophosphate
3353:Nature Communications
3241:Nature Communications
2884:Zoologischer Anzeiger
2581:10.1089/mab.2018.0012
2413:10.1104/pp.111.182394
1406:Zeaxanthin furanoxide
1163:competitive inhibitor
1117:lycopene beta-cyclase
1052:and is homologous to
1048:. PSY belongs to the
1031:
926:
900:Staphylococcus aureus
710:, rich in carotenoids
706:
698:
639:head and neck cancers
565:
550:monoclonal antibodies
392:, varying degrees of
380:
349:Most carotenoids are
303:
287:
276:
191:
93:that are produced by
33:
6419:3-methylcholanthrene
6220:24-Methylenelophenol
6115:7-Dehydrodesmosterol
6093:7-Dehydrocholesterol
5535:Tetraprenylcurcumene
5016:Grapefruit mercaptan
4210:Bisdemethoxycurcumin
3765:10.1084/jem.20050846
2196:The Arabidopsis Book
1837:responsible for the
1670:Crocetinsemialdehyde
1542:Hydroxyspheriodenone
1524:3'-Hydroxyechinenone
1450:Torularhodinaldehyde
981:DXP reductoisomerase
430:. They are known as
357:
6488:Cyproterone acetate
6370:Dietary carotenoids
6210:4α-methylfecosterol
6153:-Hydroxycholesterol
5318:Dehydroabietic acid
4784:(cyclopentane ring)
3897:2012PJAB...88...41K
3650:2010EcolL..13..213H
3602:10.1093/icb/icab056
3497:2018FuEco..32.1908K
3430:2012PLoSO...743088S
3365:2018NatCo...9...73W
3253:2019NatCo..10.1773C
3038:Food & Function
2896:2013ZooAn.252..431S
2709:2015NatSR...516425Y
2161:1978RSPTB.284..569C
2103:10.1128/JB.00758-08
1783:Higher carotenoids
1764:Eschscholtzxanthone
1589:Esters of alcohols
1056:that takes part in
1000:in the presence of
971:, intermediates of
666:common wall lizards
647:Parkinson's disease
373:
200:, and they provide
5796:Mevalonate pathway
4778:Bicyclic (2 rings)
4317:Phycoerythrocyanin
4215:Desmethoxycurcumin
3905:10.2183/pjab.88.41
3485:Functional Ecology
3187:(1788): 20140806.
3140:Functional Ecology
3050:10.1039/c5fo00258c
2812:10.14670/HH-11-635
2800:Histol Histopathol
2697:Scientific Reports
1758:Eschscholtzxanthin
1629:β-Apo-2'-carotenal
1096:-lycopene into an
1034:
929:
712:
701:
614:. Although green,
580:
539:raman spectroscopy
502:, carotenoids are
375:
361:
317:accessory pigments
313:
298:
282:
194:
157:(which are purely
40:
6514:
6513:
6478:7-Ketocholesterol
6292:
6291:
6288:
6287:
6039:2,3-Oxidosqualene
6014:
6013:
5953:
5952:
5747:
5746:
5695:7,8-dihydroionone
5654:
5653:
5521:
5520:
5358:
5357:
5326:Lambertianic acid
5100:
5099:
4949:
4948:
4764:Acyclic (linear,
4707:
4706:
4699:Zuretinol acetate
4335:
4334:
4258:Condensed tannins
4056:10.1021/jo050101l
3962:10.1021/cr400106y
3710:10.1111/jeb.13552
3120:978-1-4051-1737-1
2852:10.1159/000355849
2839:Neuroepidemiology
2717:10.1038/srep16425
2542:978-953-51-3211-0
2502:978-0-7923-5942-5
2457:978-1-4200-5230-5
2317:10.1021/cr020674n
2155:(1002): 569–579.
2097:(19): 6384–6391.
1741:Semi-β-carotenone
1735:Semi-α-carotenone
1729:Pyrrhoxanthininol
1572:β,ε-caroten-4-one
1564:Dehydroadonirubin
1520:β,β-Caroten-4-one
1310:γ,γ-Caroten-16-ol
1272:Cryptomonaxanthin
1194:Hexahydrolycopene
1054:squalene synthase
1038:phytoene synthase
800:female preference
793:sexual dimorphism
652:Humans and other
398:functional groups
364:
253:clinical research
16:(Redirected from
6544:
6435:β-naphthoflavone
6364:prostaglandin G2
6353:Arachidonic acid
6343:
6339:
6319:
6312:
6305:
6296:
6270:Ergostatetraenol
6182:
6141:Steroid hormones
5964:
5857:Acetoacetic acid
5801:
5774:
5767:
5760:
5751:
5555:
5387:
5364:Sesterterpenoids
5330:Levopimaric acid
5192:Geranyl-linalool
5173:
5106:Sesquiterpenoids
5046:Perillyl alcohol
4960:
4855:
4734:
4727:
4720:
4711:
4362:
4355:
4348:
4339:
4115:
4108:
4101:
4092:
4068:
4067:
4050:(8): 3328–3331.
4039:
4033:
4032:
4014:
3990:
3984:
3983:
3973:
3950:Chemical Reviews
3941:
3935:
3934:
3924:
3876:
3851:
3850:
3832:
3808:
3787:
3786:
3776:
3744:
3738:
3737:
3689:
3680:
3679:
3661:
3629:
3623:
3622:
3604:
3595:(5): 1811–1826.
3580:
3574:
3573:
3540:(5): E127–E150.
3525:
3519:
3518:
3508:
3491:(8): 1908–1920.
3476:
3470:
3469:
3459:
3441:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3392:
3344:
3338:
3337:
3306:Animal Behaviour
3297:
3291:
3290:
3280:
3232:
3223:
3222:
3212:
3172:
3166:
3165:
3155:
3131:
3125:
3124:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3068:
3062:
3061:
3044:(6): 1950–1959.
3033:
3027:
3026:
3016:
2976:
2967:
2966:
2948:
2938:
2914:
2908:
2907:
2879:
2873:
2872:
2854:
2830:
2824:
2823:
2797:
2788:
2782:
2781:
2745:
2739:
2738:
2728:
2688:
2682:
2681:
2671:
2660:10.1002/fsn3.291
2639:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2629:
2615:
2609:
2608:
2560:
2554:
2553:
2534:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2510:
2509:
2476:
2470:
2469:
2441:
2435:
2434:
2424:
2407:(3): 1267–1278.
2401:Plant Physiology
2392:
2386:
2385:
2375:
2335:
2329:
2328:
2311:(4): 2021–2072.
2305:Chemical Reviews
2300:
2294:
2293:
2249:
2238:
2237:
2227:
2208:10.1199/tab.0166
2187:
2181:
2180:
2144:
2133:
2132:
2122:
2082:
2076:
2075:
2065:
2033:
2024:
2023:
2005:
1981:
1975:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1959:
1934:
1933:
1923:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1866:
1793:Decaprenoxanthin
1787:Nonaprenoxanthin
1747:Triphasiaxanthin
1682:Hopkinsiaxanthin
1640:Apo-6'-lycopenal
1428:Vaucheriaxanthin
1356:Phleixanthophyll
1290:OH-Chlorobactene
814:oxidative stress
384:
382:
381:
376:
374:
372:
369:
362:
326:They are highly
249:macular pigments
85:
84:
81:
80:
77:
74:
71:
68:
65:
62:
59:
56:
53:
21:
6552:
6551:
6547:
6546:
6545:
6543:
6542:
6541:
6517:
6516:
6515:
6510:
6492:
6427:benzanthracenes
6341:
6331:
6323:
6293:
6284:
6240:
6173:
6138:
6129:
6010:
5949:
5926:
5905:
5866:
5838:
5819:Acetoacetyl-CoA
5790:
5778:
5748:
5743:
5720:
5698:
5681:
5650:
5606:
5546:
5544:Tetraterpenoids
5538:
5517:
5458:
5449:Cholecalciferol
5375:
5372:Geranylfarnesol
5354:
5337:Neoabietic acid
5322:Isopimaric acid
5297:
5271:
5241:
5216:
5195:
5161:
5096:
5055:
5004:
4955:
4954:Monoterpenoids
4945:
4900:
4874:
4850:
4846:
4842:
4834:
4830:Isovaleric acid
4820:
4816:
4796:
4753:
4738:
4708:
4703:
4640:
4618:
4610:
4568:
4557:
4460:
4449:
4382:
4371:
4366:
4336:
4331:
4302:Allophycocyanin
4290:
4262:
4224:
4191:
4148:
4125:
4119:
4077:
4072:
4071:
4041:
4040:
4036:
3999:Molecular Plant
3992:
3991:
3987:
3943:
3942:
3938:
3878:
3877:
3854:
3817:Molecular Plant
3810:
3809:
3790:
3746:
3745:
3741:
3691:
3690:
3683:
3638:Ecology Letters
3631:
3630:
3626:
3582:
3581:
3577:
3527:
3526:
3522:
3478:
3477:
3473:
3411:
3410:
3406:
3346:
3345:
3341:
3299:
3298:
3294:
3234:
3233:
3226:
3174:
3173:
3169:
3133:
3132:
3128:
3121:
3106:
3105:
3101:
3070:
3069:
3065:
3035:
3034:
3030:
2978:
2977:
2970:
2916:
2915:
2911:
2881:
2880:
2876:
2832:
2831:
2827:
2806:(10): 1143–54.
2795:
2790:
2789:
2785:
2747:
2746:
2742:
2690:
2689:
2685:
2641:
2640:
2636:
2627:
2625:
2617:
2616:
2612:
2562:
2561:
2557:
2543:
2520:
2519:
2515:
2507:
2505:
2503:
2478:
2477:
2473:
2458:
2443:
2442:
2438:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2337:
2336:
2332:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2260:(2–3): 99–104.
2251:
2250:
2241:
2189:
2188:
2184:
2146:
2145:
2136:
2084:
2083:
2079:
2035:
2034:
2027:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1968:
1966:
1961:
1960:
1937:
1893:
1892:
1888:
1881:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1822:
1811:Bacterioruberin
1711:Actinioerythrin
1646:Azafrinaldehyde
1635:Apo-2-lycopenal
1570:Phoenicopterone
1536:Phoenicoxanthin
1256:Bacterioruberin
1171:
1141:
1074:dehydrogenation
1026:
1010:HMBDP reductase
962:
921:
905:staphyloxanthin
891:
847:
845:Aroma chemicals
788:
693:
685:bioavailability
643:prostate cancer
585:
523:
496:
488:lipid peroxides
461:
416:, are known as
355:
354:
351:tetraterpenoids
344:lipid membranes
271:
263:Main articles:
261:
247:are present as
232:). In the eye,
218:β-cryptoxanthin
202:photoprotection
50:
46:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6550:
6548:
6540:
6539:
6537:Photosynthesis
6534:
6529:
6519:
6518:
6512:
6511:
6509:
6508:
6501:
6497:
6494:
6493:
6491:
6490:
6485:
6480:
6471:
6470:
6453:
6443:
6438:
6412:
6407:
6402:
6377:
6372:
6367:
6346:
6344:
6333:
6332:
6324:
6322:
6321:
6314:
6307:
6299:
6290:
6289:
6286:
6285:
6283:
6282:
6280:Ergocalciferol
6277:
6272:
6267:
6265:Ergostatrienol
6262:
6257:
6251:
6249:
6247:Ergocalciferol
6242:
6241:
6239:
6238:
6227:
6222:
6217:
6212:
6207:
6202:
6200:Cycloeucalenol
6197:
6191:
6189:
6179:
6175:
6174:
6172:
6171:
6164:
6155:
6145:
6143:
6131:
6130:
6128:
6127:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6107:
6101:
6100:
6095:
6090:
6085:
6080:
6074:
6073:
6068:
6063:
6058:
6053:
6047:
6046:
6041:
6036:
6031:
6025:
6023:
6016:
6015:
6012:
6011:
6009:
6008:
6003:
5998:
5993:
5988:
5983:
5978:
5973:
5967:
5961:
5955:
5954:
5951:
5950:
5948:
5947:
5942:
5936:
5934:
5928:
5927:
5925:
5924:
5919:
5913:
5911:
5907:
5906:
5904:
5903:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5883:
5881:Mevalonic acid
5877:
5875:
5868:
5867:
5865:
5864:
5859:
5854:
5848:
5846:
5840:
5839:
5837:
5836:
5831:
5826:
5821:
5816:
5810:
5808:
5798:
5792:
5791:
5779:
5777:
5776:
5769:
5762:
5754:
5745:
5744:
5742:
5741:
5735:
5728:
5726:
5722:
5721:
5719:
5718:
5715:protein domain
5706:
5704:
5700:
5699:
5697:
5696:
5693:
5689:
5687:
5683:
5682:
5680:
5679:
5676:
5671:
5669:Natural rubber
5665:
5663:
5660:Polyterpenoids
5656:
5655:
5652:
5651:
5649:
5648:
5643:
5638:
5633:
5628:
5623:
5617:
5615:
5608:
5607:
5605:
5604:
5599:
5594:
5589:
5584:
5582:Delta-Carotene
5579:
5577:Gamma-Carotene
5574:
5569:
5567:Alpha-Carotene
5563:
5561:
5552:
5540:
5539:
5537:
5536:
5533:
5529:
5527:
5523:
5522:
5519:
5518:
5516:
5515:
5514:
5513:
5508:
5506:Betulinic acid
5503:
5498:
5496:Oleanolic acid
5490:
5485:
5482:
5477:
5472:
5466:
5464:
5460:
5459:
5457:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5436:
5431:
5430:
5429:
5424:
5419:
5414:
5409:
5408:Citrostadienol
5406:
5395:
5393:
5384:
5377:
5376:
5374:
5373:
5369:
5367:
5360:
5359:
5356:
5355:
5353:
5352:
5351:Palustric acid
5349:
5346:
5343:
5338:
5335:
5332:
5327:
5324:
5319:
5316:
5313:
5307:
5305:
5299:
5298:
5296:
5295:
5290:
5285:
5279:
5277:
5273:
5272:
5270:
5269:
5266:
5263:
5260:
5255:
5249:
5247:
5243:
5242:
5240:
5239:
5234:
5231:
5224:
5222:
5218:
5217:
5215:
5214:
5209:
5203:
5201:
5197:
5196:
5194:
5193:
5190:
5185:
5179:
5177:
5170:
5163:
5162:
5160:
5159:
5156:
5153:
5148:
5145:
5140:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5111:
5109:
5102:
5101:
5098:
5097:
5095:
5094:
5089:
5084:
5079:
5077:Bornyl acetate
5074:
5069:
5063:
5061:
5057:
5056:
5054:
5053:
5048:
5043:
5038:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5012:
5010:
5006:
5005:
5003:
5002:
4997:
4992:
4987:
4982:
4977:
4972:
4966:
4964:
4957:
4951:
4950:
4947:
4946:
4944:
4943:
4938:
4933:
4928:
4923:
4908:
4906:
4902:
4901:
4899:
4898:
4893:
4888:
4882:
4880:
4876:
4875:
4873:
4872:
4867:
4861:
4859:
4852:
4848:
4844:
4836:
4835:
4833:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4807:
4805:
4802:Hemiterpenoids
4798:
4797:
4795:
4794:
4788:
4785:
4779:
4776:
4773:
4761:
4759:
4755:
4754:
4739:
4737:
4736:
4729:
4722:
4714:
4705:
4704:
4702:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4661:
4656:
4650:
4648:
4646:Retinoid drugs
4642:
4641:
4639:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4622:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4611:
4609:
4608:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4572:
4570:
4566:
4563:Apocarotenoids
4559:
4558:
4556:
4555:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4515:
4510:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4493:Diadinoxanthin
4490:
4485:
4483:Citranaxanthin
4480:
4475:
4470:
4468:Antheraxanthin
4464:
4462:
4458:
4451:
4450:
4448:
4447:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4386:
4384:
4380:
4373:
4372:
4367:
4365:
4364:
4357:
4350:
4342:
4333:
4332:
4330:
4329:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4298:
4296:
4292:
4291:
4289:
4288:
4283:
4278:
4272:
4270:
4264:
4263:
4261:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4243:Anthocyanidins
4240:
4234:
4232:
4226:
4225:
4223:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4201:
4199:
4193:
4192:
4190:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4158:
4156:
4150:
4149:
4147:
4146:
4141:
4135:
4133:
4127:
4126:
4123:plant pigments
4120:
4118:
4117:
4110:
4103:
4095:
4089:
4088:
4076:
4075:External links
4073:
4070:
4069:
4034:
3985:
3936:
3852:
3788:
3739:
3704:(1): 121–126.
3681:
3644:(2): 213–222.
3624:
3575:
3546:10.1086/667861
3520:
3471:
3404:
3339:
3312:(3): 563–572.
3292:
3224:
3167:
3146:(4): 903–914.
3126:
3119:
3099:
3063:
3028:
2991:(2): 333–341.
2968:
2909:
2890:(4): 431–439.
2874:
2825:
2783:
2756:(7): 1003–11.
2740:
2683:
2654:(2): 305–314.
2634:
2610:
2575:(3): 139–146.
2555:
2541:
2513:
2501:
2471:
2456:
2436:
2387:
2330:
2295:
2239:
2182:
2134:
2077:
2025:
1976:
1935:
1886:
1879:
1860:
1859:
1857:
1854:
1853:
1852:
1850:Phytochemistry
1847:
1842:
1841:of carotenoids
1831:CRT (genetics)
1828:
1821:
1818:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1814:
1808:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1781:
1780:
1779:
1776:Tangeraxanthin
1773:
1767:
1761:
1752:
1751:
1750:
1744:
1738:
1732:
1726:
1720:
1714:
1705:
1704:
1703:
1697:
1691:
1685:
1679:
1673:
1667:
1661:
1658:Citranaxanthin
1655:
1649:
1643:
1637:
1632:
1624:Apocarotenoids
1621:
1620:
1619:
1613:
1608:
1605:Isofucoxanthin
1602:
1596:
1587:
1586:
1585:
1582:Siphonaxanthin
1579:
1573:
1567:
1557:
1551:
1545:
1539:
1532:
1526:
1521:
1515:
1509:
1503:
1497:
1491:
1485:
1480:
1472:
1471:
1470:
1464:
1455:
1454:
1453:
1447:
1441:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1425:
1420:
1415:
1409:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1387:
1384:Diadinoxanthin
1378:
1377:
1376:
1370:
1361:
1360:
1359:
1353:
1350:Oscillaxanthin
1344:
1343:
1342:
1337:
1331:
1317:
1311:
1305:
1299:
1293:
1287:
1284:Gazaniaxanthin
1281:
1275:
1269:
1267:Pectenoxanthin
1264:
1262:Cynthiaxanthin
1259:
1253:
1245:
1244:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1218:
1213:
1207:
1201:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1170:
1167:
1140:
1137:
1025:
1022:
998:HMBDP synthase
973:photosynthesis
961:
958:
941:mevalonic acid
920:
917:
890:
887:
846:
843:
787:
784:
692:
689:
624:collard greens
584:
581:
531:lipid droplets
522:
519:
495:
492:
484:singlet oxygen
460:
457:
368:
260:
257:
198:photosynthesis
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6549:
6538:
6535:
6533:
6530:
6528:
6527:Bioindicators
6525:
6524:
6522:
6507:
6506:
6502:
6499:
6498:
6495:
6489:
6486:
6484:
6481:
6479:
6476:
6473:
6472:
6468:
6464:
6460:
6457:
6454:
6451:
6447:
6444:
6442:
6439:
6436:
6432:
6431:benzoflavones
6428:
6424:
6420:
6416:
6413:
6411:
6408:
6406:
6403:
6400:
6396:
6395:dibenzofurans
6392:
6388:
6384:
6381:
6378:
6376:
6373:
6371:
6368:
6365:
6361:
6357:
6354:
6351:
6348:
6347:
6345:
6340:
6334:
6330:
6327:
6320:
6315:
6313:
6308:
6306:
6301:
6300:
6297:
6281:
6278:
6276:
6273:
6271:
6268:
6266:
6263:
6261:
6258:
6256:
6253:
6252:
6250:
6248:
6243:
6236:
6232:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6221:
6218:
6216:
6215:Isofucosterol
6213:
6211:
6208:
6206:
6203:
6201:
6198:
6196:
6193:
6192:
6190:
6188:
6183:
6180:
6176:
6169:
6165:
6163:
6161:
6156:
6154:
6152:
6147:
6146:
6144:
6142:
6137:
6132:
6126:
6123:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6106:
6103:
6102:
6099:
6096:
6094:
6091:
6089:
6086:
6084:
6081:
6079:
6076:
6075:
6072:
6069:
6067:
6064:
6062:
6059:
6057:
6054:
6052:
6049:
6048:
6045:
6042:
6040:
6037:
6035:
6032:
6030:
6027:
6026:
6024:
6022:
6017:
6007:
6004:
6002:
5999:
5997:
5994:
5992:
5989:
5987:
5984:
5982:
5979:
5977:
5974:
5972:
5969:
5968:
5965:
5962:
5960:
5956:
5946:
5943:
5941:
5938:
5937:
5935:
5933:
5929:
5923:
5920:
5918:
5915:
5914:
5912:
5908:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5882:
5879:
5878:
5876:
5874:
5869:
5863:
5860:
5858:
5855:
5853:
5850:
5849:
5847:
5845:
5844:Ketone bodies
5841:
5835:
5832:
5830:
5827:
5825:
5822:
5820:
5817:
5815:
5812:
5811:
5809:
5807:
5802:
5799:
5797:
5793:
5789:
5786:
5782:
5775:
5770:
5768:
5763:
5761:
5756:
5755:
5752:
5739:
5736:
5733:
5730:
5729:
5727:
5723:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5707:
5705:
5701:
5694:
5692:3-oxo-α-ionol
5691:
5690:
5688:
5684:
5677:
5675:
5672:
5670:
5667:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5657:
5647:
5644:
5642:
5639:
5637:
5634:
5632:
5629:
5627:
5626:Cryptoxanthin
5624:
5622:
5621:Canthaxanthin
5619:
5618:
5616:
5613:
5609:
5603:
5600:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5588:
5585:
5583:
5580:
5578:
5575:
5573:
5572:Beta-Carotene
5570:
5568:
5565:
5564:
5562:
5560:
5556:
5553:
5550:
5545:
5541:
5534:
5532:Ferrugicadiol
5531:
5530:
5528:
5524:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5493:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:Serratenediol
5483:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5467:
5465:
5461:
5455:
5452:
5450:
5447:
5445:
5442:
5440:
5437:
5435:
5432:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5407:
5405:
5402:
5401:
5400:
5397:
5396:
5394:
5392:
5388:
5385:
5382:
5381:Triterpenoids
5378:
5371:
5370:
5368:
5365:
5361:
5350:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5336:
5334:Mercusic acid
5333:
5331:
5328:
5325:
5323:
5320:
5317:
5315:Communic acid
5314:
5312:
5309:
5308:
5306:
5304:
5300:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5286:
5284:
5281:
5280:
5278:
5274:
5267:
5264:
5261:
5259:
5256:
5254:
5251:
5250:
5248:
5244:
5238:
5235:
5232:
5229:
5226:
5225:
5223:
5219:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5204:
5202:
5198:
5191:
5189:
5186:
5184:
5181:
5180:
5178:
5174:
5171:
5168:
5164:
5157:
5154:
5152:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5112:
5110:
5107:
5103:
5093:
5090:
5088:
5085:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5064:
5062:
5058:
5052:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5042:
5039:
5036:
5032:
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5013:
5011:
5007:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4991:
4988:
4986:
4983:
4981:
4978:
4976:
4973:
4971:
4968:
4967:
4965:
4961:
4958:
4952:
4942:
4939:
4937:
4934:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4921:
4917:
4913:
4910:
4909:
4907:
4903:
4897:
4894:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4883:
4881:
4877:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4862:
4860:
4856:
4853:
4841:
4837:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4812:
4809:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4799:
4792:
4789:
4786:
4783:
4780:
4777:
4774:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4762:
4760:
4756:
4751:
4747:
4743:
4735:
4730:
4728:
4723:
4721:
4716:
4715:
4712:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4651:
4649:
4647:
4643:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4631:Retinoic acid
4629:
4627:
4624:
4623:
4621:
4613:
4607:
4604:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4596:Food orange 7
4594:
4592:
4589:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4576:Abscisic acid
4574:
4573:
4571:
4564:
4560:
4554:
4551:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4488:Cryptoxanthin
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4478:Canthaxanthin
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4465:
4463:
4456:
4452:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4387:
4385:
4378:
4374:
4370:
4363:
4358:
4356:
4351:
4349:
4344:
4343:
4340:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4312:Phycoerythrin
4310:
4308:
4305:
4303:
4300:
4299:
4297:
4293:
4287:
4284:
4282:
4279:
4277:
4274:
4273:
4271:
4269:
4265:
4259:
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4248:Anthoxanthins
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4235:
4233:
4231:
4227:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4200:
4198:
4194:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4182:Chlorophyll f
4180:
4178:
4177:Chlorophyll d
4175:
4173:
4172:Chlorophyll c
4170:
4168:
4167:Chlorophyll b
4165:
4163:
4162:Chlorophyll a
4160:
4159:
4157:
4155:
4151:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4136:
4134:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4116:
4111:
4109:
4104:
4102:
4097:
4096:
4093:
4086:
4082:
4079:
4078:
4074:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4045:
4038:
4035:
4030:
4026:
4022:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3989:
3986:
3981:
3977:
3972:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3956:(1): 164–93.
3955:
3951:
3947:
3940:
3937:
3932:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3875:
3873:
3871:
3869:
3867:
3865:
3863:
3861:
3859:
3857:
3853:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3807:
3805:
3803:
3801:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3793:
3789:
3784:
3780:
3775:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3759:(2): 209–15.
3758:
3754:
3750:
3743:
3740:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3719:
3715:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3688:
3686:
3682:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3643:
3639:
3635:
3628:
3625:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3579:
3576:
3571:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3524:
3521:
3516:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3475:
3472:
3467:
3463:
3458:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3424:(8): e43088.
3423:
3419:
3415:
3408:
3405:
3400:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3343:
3340:
3335:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3296:
3293:
3288:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3231:
3229:
3225:
3220:
3216:
3211:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3171:
3168:
3163:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3130:
3127:
3122:
3116:
3112:
3111:
3103:
3100:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3080:(3): 166–73.
3079:
3075:
3067:
3064:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3039:
3032:
3029:
3024:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2975:
2973:
2969:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2929:(5): 842–54.
2928:
2924:
2920:
2913:
2910:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2878:
2875:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2829:
2826:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2787:
2784:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2744:
2741:
2736:
2732:
2727:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2687:
2684:
2679:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2638:
2635:
2624:
2620:
2614:
2611:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2559:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2538:
2533:
2532:10.5772/68101
2528:
2524:
2517:
2514:
2504:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2475:
2472:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2453:
2449:
2448:
2440:
2437:
2432:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2398:
2391:
2388:
2383:
2379:
2374:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2341:
2334:
2331:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2299:
2296:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2248:
2246:
2244:
2240:
2235:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2186:
2183:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2143:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2130:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2078:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1996:(2): 228–37.
1995:
1991:
1987:
1980:
1977:
1964:
1963:"Carotenoids"
1958:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1936:
1931:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1890:
1887:
1882:
1880:0-7167-4339-6
1876:
1872:
1865:
1862:
1855:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1829:
1827:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1788:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1765:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1753:
1748:
1745:
1742:
1739:
1736:
1733:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1721:
1718:
1715:
1712:
1709:
1708:
1706:
1701:
1698:
1695:
1692:
1689:
1686:
1683:
1680:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1644:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1630:
1627:
1626:
1625:
1622:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1590:
1588:
1583:
1580:
1577:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1565:
1561:
1558:
1555:
1552:
1549:
1546:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1533:
1530:
1527:
1525:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1513:
1510:
1507:
1504:
1501:
1498:
1495:
1492:
1489:
1488:Canthaxanthin
1486:
1484:
1481:
1479:
1476:
1475:
1473:
1468:
1465:
1462:
1459:
1458:
1456:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1436:
1434:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1410:
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1397:
1396:Mutatoxanthin
1394:
1391:
1388:
1385:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1348:
1347:
1345:
1341:
1338:
1335:
1332:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1306:
1303:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1288:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1278:Crustaxanthin
1276:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1246:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1211:
1210:α-Zeacarotene
1208:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1174:Hydrocarbons
1173:
1172:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1147:
1138:
1136:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1030:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
994:CDP-ME kinase
991:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
959:
957:
955:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
925:
918:
916:
914:
910:
906:
902:
901:
896:
888:
886:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
844:
842:
840:
836:
832:
828:
823:
819:
815:
811:
810:
803:
801:
796:
794:
785:
783:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
748:yellow poplar
745:
741:
737:
733:
732:autumn leaves
729:
724:
722:
717:
709:
705:
697:
690:
688:
686:
682:
678:
673:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
650:
648:
644:
640:
635:
633:
629:
628:turnip greens
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
604:winter squash
601:
597:
593:
589:
588:Beta-carotene
582:
577:
573:
572:cyanobacteria
569:
564:
560:
558:
555:
551:
546:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
520:
518:
516:
512:
509:
505:
501:
493:
491:
489:
485:
480:
478:
474:
470:
466:
458:
456:
454:
453:cell division
450:
446:
445:seed dormancy
442:
441:abscisic acid
437:
435:
434:
429:
425:
421:
420:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
366:
352:
347:
345:
341:
337:
333:
329:
324:
322:
318:
310:
306:
302:
295:
291:
286:
279:
275:
270:
266:
258:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
240:
235:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
190:
186:
184:
180:
175:
171:
170:tetraterpenes
167:
162:
160:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
89:
83:
44:
37:
32:
19:
6503:
6475:Antagonists:
6474:
6446:Tetrapyroles
6369:
6349:
6231:Phytosterols
6205:Obtusifoliol
6195:Cycloartenol
6159:
6150:
5931:
5678:Gutta-balatá
5674:Gutta percha
5612:Xanthophylls
5592:Neurosporene
5548:
5511:Moronic acid
5501:Ursolic acid
5444:Testosterone
5427:Stigmasterol
5412:Cycloartenol
5399:Phytosterols
5341:Pimaric acid
5311:Abietic acid
5262:Manoyl oxide
5237:Salvinorin A
5227:
5167:Diterpenoids
5031:Thujaplicins
4956:(2,modified)
4896:Phellandrene
4840:Monoterpenes
4769:
4765:
4758:Basic forms:
4679:Isotretinoin
4659:Alitretinoin
4581:Apocarotenal
4553:Zeinoxanthin
4543:Violaxanthin
4533:Rhodoxanthin
4513:Flavoxanthin
4498:Diatoxanthin
4455:Xanthophylls
4425:Neurosporene
4368:
4286:Xanthophylls
4267:
4238:Anthocyanins
4197:Curcuminoids
4144:Betaxanthins
4047:
4044:J. Org. Chem
4043:
4037:
4005:(1): 68–82.
4002:
3998:
3988:
3953:
3949:
3939:
3891:(3): 41–52.
3888:
3884:
3823:(1): 68–82.
3820:
3816:
3756:
3752:
3742:
3701:
3697:
3641:
3637:
3627:
3592:
3588:
3578:
3537:
3533:
3523:
3488:
3484:
3474:
3421:
3417:
3407:
3356:
3352:
3342:
3309:
3305:
3295:
3244:
3240:
3184:
3180:
3170:
3143:
3139:
3129:
3109:
3102:
3077:
3073:
3066:
3041:
3037:
3031:
2988:
2984:
2926:
2923:Evol Psychol
2922:
2912:
2887:
2883:
2877:
2845:(1): 25–38.
2842:
2838:
2828:
2803:
2799:
2786:
2753:
2749:
2743:
2700:
2696:
2686:
2651:
2647:
2637:
2626:. Retrieved
2622:
2613:
2572:
2568:
2558:
2522:
2516:
2506:, retrieved
2484:
2474:
2446:
2439:
2404:
2400:
2390:
2347:
2343:
2333:
2308:
2304:
2298:
2257:
2253:
2199:
2195:
2185:
2152:
2148:
2094:
2090:
2080:
2045:
2041:
1993:
1989:
1979:
1967:. Retrieved
1903:
1899:
1889:
1870:
1864:
1839:biosynthesis
1835:gene cluster
1770:Rhodoxanthin
1717:β-Carotenone
1700:Sintaxanthin
1694:Paracentrone
1576:Rubixanthone
1560:Phoeniconone
1529:Flexixanthin
1506:Cryptocapsin
1461:Torularhodin
1423:Trollichrome
1401:Citroxanthin
1390:Luteoxanthin
1334:Saproxanthin
1327:
1197:
1155:Fosmidomycin
1142:
1133:photosystems
1106:
1078:trans to cis
1035:
977:DXP synthase
963:
930:
919:Biosynthesis
898:
894:
892:
859:damascenones
848:
818:antioxidants
807:
804:
797:
789:
780:anthocyanins
760:black cherry
725:
713:
691:Plant colors
674:
651:
636:
596:sweet potato
586:
553:
547:
527:cell nucleus
524:
515:lipoproteins
497:
481:
462:
459:Photophysics
438:
433:xanthophylls
431:
417:
402:hydrocarbons
348:
325:
314:
269:xanthophylls
238:
195:
163:
159:hydrocarbons
151:xanthophylls
42:
41:
6532:Carotenoids
6459:derivatives
6423:benzopyrene
6380:Halogenated
6356:metabolites
6136:Cholesterol
6125:Cholesterol
6120:Desmosterol
6098:Cholesterol
6088:Lathosterol
6066:Zymosterone
6021:Cholesterol
5781:Cholesterol
5646:Rubixanthin
5636:Astaxanthin
5597:Phytofluene
5549:Carotenoids
5439:Cholesterol
5434:Tocopherols
5404:Campesterol
5303:Resin acids
5288:Gibberellin
5283:Aphidicolin
5276:Tetracyclic
5151:Longifolene
5115:Artemisinin
5092:Umbellulone
4980:Citronellol
4970:Citronellal
4674:Fenretinide
4538:Rubixanthin
4518:Fucoxanthin
4503:Dinoxanthin
4473:Astaxanthin
4445:Lycopersene
4435:Phytofluene
4369:Carotenoids
4327:Xanthonoids
4307:Phycocyanin
4268:Carotenoids
4154:Chlorophyll
4139:Betacyanins
4081:Carotenoids
3753:J. Exp. Med
3247:(1): 1773.
2523:Carotenoids
1599:Fucoxanthin
1554:Pectenolone
1483:Astaxanthin
1418:Foliachrome
1373:Spheroidene
1367:Rhodovibrin
1346:Glycosides
1308:Lycoxanthin
1296:Loroxanthin
1251:Alloxanthin
1184:Phytofluene
1178:Lycopersene
1109:cyclization
960:MEP pathway
949:cholesterol
909:antioxidant
881:, and many
822:stickleback
809:Parus major
721:chlorophyll
677:carnivorous
590:, found in
508:unsaturated
500:fatty acids
473:chlorophyll
469:chlorophyll
449:germination
390:cyclization
386:isoprenoids
336:wavelengths
328:unsaturated
321:chlorophyll
309:Xanthophyll
241:-zeaxanthin
183:polyphenols
166:derivatives
43:Carotenoids
18:Carotenoids
6521:Categories
6463:indigo dye
6456:Tryptophan
6360:lipoxin A4
6329:modulators
6275:Ergosterol
6255:Fecosterol
6225:Sitosterol
6187:Sitosterol
6105:Zymosterol
6083:Zymostenol
6078:Zymosterol
6071:Zymosterol
6051:Lanosterol
6044:Lanosterol
5932:Carotenoid
5814:Acetyl-CoA
5631:Zeaxanthin
5475:Lanosterol
5422:Sitosterol
5417:Sitostanol
5293:Paclitaxel
5200:Monocyclic
5087:Ascaridole
5082:Eucalyptol
5035:Hinokitiol
5009:Monocyclic
4879:Monocyclic
4746:terpenoids
4689:Temarotene
4684:Tazarotene
4669:Etretinate
4664:Bexarotene
4548:Zeaxanthin
4528:Neoxanthin
4508:Echinenone
4415:ζ-Carotene
4410:ε-Carotene
4405:δ-Carotene
4400:γ-Carotene
4395:β-Carotene
4390:α-Carotene
4230:Flavonoids
2628:2015-12-04
2525:, InTech,
2508:2021-03-28
2350:(9): 272.
2254:BioFactors
1856:References
1518:Echinenone
1500:Capsorubin
1494:Capsanthin
1444:Warmingone
1439:Rhodopinal
1435:Aldehydes
1340:Zeaxanthin
1320:Rhodopinol
1241:ζ-Carotene
1236:ε-Carotene
1231:δ-Carotene
1226:γ-Carotene
1221:β-Carotene
1216:α-Carotene
1159:antibiotic
1150:herbicides
1139:Regulation
1129:β-carotene
1125:α-Carotene
1006:ferredoxin
1002:flavodoxin
935:(IPP) and
855:damascones
831:DNA damage
768:cottonwood
681:absorption
574:and other
521:Morphology
504:lipophilic
498:Like some
428:zeaxanthin
410:β-carotene
406:α-carotene
394:saturation
353:, regular
245:zeaxanthin
222:γ-carotene
214:α-carotene
210:β-carotene
6483:CH-223191
6467:indirubin
6450:bilirubin
6399:biphenyls
6375:Flutamide
6350:Agonists:
6260:Episterol
5703:Synthesis
5559:Carotenes
5454:Ecdysones
5258:Forskolin
5246:Tricyclic
5233:Epimanool
5158:Nootkatin
5155:Muurolene
5147:Juniperol
5139:Chanootin
5120:Bisabolol
5051:Carvacrol
4891:Terpinene
4793:(4 rings)
4740:Types of
4694:Tretinoin
4654:Acitretin
4606:Peridinin
4377:Carotenes
4281:Retinoids
4276:Carotenes
4131:Betalains
4121:Types of
3913:0386-2208
3734:204702365
3718:1420-9101
3668:1461-0248
3611:1540-7063
3554:0003-0147
3515:0269-8463
3448:1932-6203
3381:2041-1723
3359:(1): 73.
3326:0003-3472
3269:2041-1723
3201:0962-8452
3162:0269-8463
3005:0022-1155
2703:: 16425.
2589:2167-9436
2466:148650411
2364:1573-0972
2274:1872-8081
2216:1543-8120
2202:: e0166.
2177:0080-4622
2111:0021-9193
2048:: 34–66.
1723:Peridinin
1616:Siphonein
1611:Physalien
1412:Neochrome
1380:Epoxides
1324:Warmingol
1247:Alcohols
1113:beta ring
1098:all-trans
1018:isomerize
1014:anaerobic
871:black tea
841:quality.
835:fertility
772:sassafras
736:hickories
728:deciduous
632:flamingos
535:cytosomes
511:aliphatic
419:carotenes
294:flamingos
265:carotenes
226:vitamin A
155:carotenes
147:daffodils
131:flamingos
6500:See also
6237:instead.
6178:Nonhuman
6170:instead.
6034:Squalene
5945:Phytoene
5910:Geranyl-
5602:Phytoene
5587:Lycopene
5488:Squalane
5480:Saponins
5391:Steroids
5253:Cembrene
5230:-Abienol
5221:Bicyclic
5125:Cadinene
5060:Bicyclic
5026:p-Cymene
5000:Linalool
4985:Geraniol
4936:Sabinene
4926:Camphene
4905:Bicyclic
4886:Limonene
4870:Myrcenes
4811:Isoprene
4791:Steroids
4782:Iridoids
4750:isoprene
4742:terpenes
4591:Crocetin
4440:Torulene
4430:Phytoene
4420:Lycopene
4322:Quinones
4220:Curcumin
4064:15823009
4029:26818009
4021:25578273
3980:24175570
3931:22450534
3847:26818009
3839:25578273
3783:16009720
3726:31610052
3676:20059524
3619:33940618
3562:23070328
3466:22905205
3418:PLOS ONE
3399:29311592
3334:53176725
3287:30992444
3219:24966316
3094:19178979
3058:25996796
3023:28242932
2955:23253790
2946:10429994
2869:12396064
2861:24356061
2820:26058846
2778:21131127
2770:25873578
2735:26553382
2678:27004120
2605:49190846
2597:29901405
2551:54807067
2431:22234998
2382:39030303
2373:11271434
2325:15080720
2290:24408277
2282:10609869
2234:24273463
2129:18676669
2072:26541886
2020:22385652
1969:17 April
1930:28365725
1900:Database
1820:See also
1805:C.p. 473
1799:C.p. 450
1664:Crocetin
1593:Astacein
1478:Astacene
1474:Ketones
1314:Rhodopin
1204:Torulene
1189:Lycopene
1062:lycopene
1046:phytoene
969:pyruvate
863:perfumes
827:germline
764:sycamore
708:Apricots
662:lobsters
612:lycopene
592:pumpkins
576:bacteria
557:lycopene
414:lycopene
340:polarity
174:isoprene
164:All are
127:canaries
123:tomatoes
115:parsnips
107:pumpkins
91:pigments
36:carotene
6461:(e.g.,
6448:(e.g.,
6433:(e.g.,
6417:(e.g.,
6389:(e.g.,
6385:(e.g.,
6358:(e.g.,
5986:CDP-MEP
5852:Acetone
5834:HMG-CoA
5829:HMB-CoA
5806:HMG-CoA
5785:steroid
5740:(DMAPP)
5470:Betulin
5268:Pimarol
5265:Pimaral
5212:Retinal
5207:Retinol
5176:Acyclic
5135:Cedrene
5130:Cadinol
5072:Borneol
5067:Camphor
5021:Menthol
4995:Halomon
4963:Acyclic
4931:Thujene
4865:Ocimene
4858:Acyclic
4636:Retinol
4626:Retinal
4601:Ionones
4253:Flavans
4187:Chlorin
3971:3898671
3922:3365244
3893:Bibcode
3774:2213009
3646:Bibcode
3570:2013258
3493:Bibcode
3457:3419220
3426:Bibcode
3390:5758789
3361:Bibcode
3278:6467902
3249:Bibcode
3210:4083795
3014:5306026
2963:8655801
2892:Bibcode
2726:4639753
2705:Bibcode
2669:4779482
2422:3291260
2225:3833200
2157:Bibcode
2120:2565998
2063:4698241
2012:8641556
1990:FASEB J
1921:5574413
1562:a.k.a.
1548:Okenone
1363:Ethers
1322:a.k.a.
1161:, is a
1058:steroid
979:(DXS).
889:Disease
875:tobacco
873:, aged
851:ionones
654:animals
620:spinach
600:carrots
290:plumage
230:retinol
224:) have
139:lobster
111:carrots
88:organic
6158:20α,22
5996:HMB-PP
5981:CDP-ME
5662:(many)
5641:Lutein
5492:Acids
5183:Phytol
5041:Thymol
4975:Citral
4941:Carene
4912:Pinene
4825:Prenol
4772:forms)
4752:units)
4748:(# of
4567:<40
4523:Lutein
4087:(MeSH)
4062:
4027:
4019:
3978:
3968:
3929:
3919:
3911:
3845:
3837:
3781:
3771:
3732:
3724:
3716:
3674:
3666:
3617:
3609:
3568:
3560:
3552:
3513:
3464:
3454:
3446:
3397:
3387:
3379:
3332:
3324:
3285:
3275:
3267:
3217:
3207:
3199:
3160:
3117:
3092:
3056:
3021:
3011:
3003:
2961:
2953:
2943:
2867:
2859:
2818:
2776:
2768:
2733:
2723:
2676:
2666:
2603:
2595:
2587:
2549:
2539:
2499:
2464:
2454:
2429:
2419:
2380:
2370:
2362:
2323:
2288:
2280:
2272:
2232:
2222:
2214:
2175:
2127:
2117:
2109:
2070:
2060:
2018:
2010:
1928:
1918:
1877:
1676:Crocin
1302:Lutein
1146:toxins
1090:CRTISO
1042:isomer
895:aureus
883:fruits
774:, and
716:lutein
670:puffin
658:salmon
626:, and
554:trans-
545:cell.
541:in an
424:lutein
412:, and
305:Lutein
243:, and
234:lutein
220:, and
145:, and
143:shrimp
135:salmon
95:plants
6229:More
6134:From
6006:DMAPP
5991:MEcPP
5873:DMAPP
5734:(IPP)
5551:) (8)
5463:Other
4770:trans
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