2160:
548:.) Unlike the corneal epithelium, the cells of the endothelium do not regenerate. Instead, they stretch to compensate for dead cells which reduces the overall cell density of the endothelium, which affects fluid regulation. If the endothelium can no longer maintain a proper fluid balance, stromal swelling due to excess fluids and subsequent loss of transparency will occur and this may cause corneal edema and interference with the transparency of the cornea and thus impairing the image formed. Iris pigment cells deposited on the corneal endothelium can sometimes be washed into a distinct vertical pattern by the aqueous currents - this is known as
501:
2159:
344:
392:
778:
ocular surface. Poor permeability of the cornea and quick wash out of therapeutic agents from ocular surface result in very low bioavailability of the drugs administered via topical route (typically less than 5%). Poor retention of formulations on ocular surfaces could potentially be improved with the use of mucoadhesive polymers. Drug permeability through the cornea could be facilitated with addition of penetration enhancers into topical formulations.
427:, kept moist with tears. Irregularity or edema of the corneal epithelium disrupts the smoothness of the air/tear-film interface, the most significant component of the total refractive power of the eye, thereby reducing visual acuity. Corneal epithelium is continuous with the conjunctival epithelium, and is composed of about 6 layers of cells which are shed constantly on the exposed layer and are regenerated by multiplication in the basal layer.
496:): a thin acellular layer that serves as the modified basement membrane of the corneal endothelium, from which the cells are derived. This layer is composed mainly of collagen type IV fibrils, less rigid than collagen type I fibrils, and is around 5-20 μm thick, depending on the subject's age. Just anterior to Descemet's membrane, a very thin and strong layer, Dua's layer, 15 microns thick and able to withstand 1.5 to 2 bars of pressure.
609:
the retina. The cornea admits light at the greatest angle. The aqueous and vitreous humors both have a refractive index of 1.336-1.339, whereas the cornea has a refractive index of 1.376. Because the change in refractive index between cornea and aqueous humor is relatively small compared to the change at the air–cornea interface, it has a negligible refractive effect, typically -6 dioptres. The cornea is considered to be a
769:
corneal limbal stem cells are found to be effective as amniotic membrane based expansion is controversial. For endothelial diseases, such as bullous keratopathy, cadaver corneal endothelial precursor cells have been proven to be efficient. Recently emerging tissue engineering technologies are expected to be capable of making one cadaver-donor's corneal cells be expanded and be usable in more than one patient's eye.
638:
takes in fluid from the aqueous humor and the small blood vessels of the limbus, but a pump ejects the fluid immediately upon entry. When energy is deficient the pump may fail, or function too slowly to compensate, leading to swelling. This arises at death, but a dead eye can be placed in a warm chamber with a reservoir of sugar and glycogen that generally keeps the cornea transparent for at least 24 hours.
476:, which are the cells for general repair and maintenance. They are parallel and are superimposed like book pages. The corneal stroma consists of approximately 200 layers of mainly type I collagen fibrils. Each layer is 1.5-2.5 μm. Up to 90% of the corneal thickness is composed of stroma. There are 2 theories of how transparency in the cornea comes about:
331:, the cornea is solely an extension of the sclera, and is separate from the skin above it, but in more advanced vertebrates it is always fused with the skin to form a single structure, albeit one composed of multiple layers. In fish, and aquatic vertebrates in general, the cornea plays no role in focusing light, since it has virtually the same
622:
706:
47:
637:
Upon death or removal of an eye the cornea absorbs the aqueous humor, thickens, and becomes hazy. Transparency can be restored by putting it in a warm, well-ventilated chamber at 31 °C (88 °F, the normal temperature), allowing the fluid to leave the cornea and become transparent. The cornea
768:
collected from human corneas can restore transparency without provoking a rejection response in mice with corneal damage. For corneal epithelial diseases such as
Stevens Johnson Syndrome, persistent corneal ulcer etc., the autologous contralateral (normal) suprabasal limbus derived in vitro expanded
608:
The optical component is concerned with producing a reduced inverted image on the retina. The eye's optical system consists of not only two but four surfaces—two on the cornea, two on the lens. Rays are refracted toward the midline. Distant rays, due to their parallel nature, converge to a point on
455:
and other HSPGs that protects the corneal stroma. When discussed as a separate entity from the subepithelial basement membrane, Bowman's Layer can be described as an acellular, condensed region of the apical stroma, composed primarily of randomly organized yet tightly woven collagen fibrils. These
2195:
1:posterior segment 2:ora serrata 3:ciliary muscle 4:ciliary zonules 5:Schlemm's canal 6:pupil 7:anterior chamber 8:cornea 9:iris 10:lens cortex 11:lens nucleus 12:ciliary process 13:conjunctiva 14:inferior oblique muscule 15:inferior rectus muscule 16:medial rectus muscle 17:retinal arteries and
806:
There is a global shortage of corneal donations, severely limiting the availability of corneal transplants across most of the world. A 2016 study found that 12.7 million visually impaired people were in need of a corneal transplant, with only 1 cornea available for every 70 needed. Many countries
777:
The majority of ocular therapeutic agents are administered to the eye via the topical route. Cornea is one of the main barriers for drug diffusion because of its highly impermeable nature. Its continuous irrigation with a tear fluid also results in poor retention of the therapeutic agents on the
737:
There are also synthetic corneas (keratoprostheses) in development. Most are merely plastic inserts, but there are also those composed of biocompatible synthetic materials that encourage tissue ingrowth into the synthetic cornea, thereby promoting biointegration. Other methods, such as magnetic
641:
The endothelium controls this pumping action, and as discussed above, damage thereof is more serious, and is a cause of opaqueness and swelling. When damage to the cornea occurs, such as in a viral infection, the collagen used to repair the process is not regularly arranged, leading to an opaque
807:
have years-long waitlists for corneal transplant surgery due to the shortage of donated corneas. Only a handful of countries consistently have a large enough supply of donated corneas to meet local demand without a waitlist, including the United States, Italy, and Sri Lanka.
729:
techniques change the shape of the cornea in order to reduce the need for corrective lenses or otherwise improve the refractive state of the eye. In many of the techniques used today, reshaping of the cornea is performed by photoablation using the
305:, the cornea has a diameter of about 11.5 mm and a thickness of 0.5–0.6 mm in the center and 0.6–0.8 mm at the periphery. Transparency, avascularity, the presence of immature resident immune cells, and
1496:
Richter, Lars; Bruder, Ralf; Schlaefer, Alexander; Schweikard, Achim (2010). "Towards direct head navigation for robot-guided
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation using 3D laserscans: Idea, setup and feasibility".
2196:
veins 18:optic disc 19:dura mater 20:central retinal artery 21:central retinal vein 22:optic nerve 23:vorticose vein 24:bulbar sheath 25:macula 26:fovea 27:sclera 28:choroid 29:superior rectus muscle 30:retina
917:
580:
The ciliary nerves run under the endothelium and exit the eye through holes in the sclera apart from the optic nerve (which transmits only optic signals). The nerves enter the cornea via three levels;
479:
The lattice arrangements of the collagen fibrils in the stroma. The light scatter by individual fibrils is cancelled by destructive interference from the scattered light from other individual fibrils.
847:
1081:
528:
monolayer, approx 5 μm thick, of mitochondria-rich cells. These cells are responsible for regulating fluid and solute transport between the aqueous and corneal stromal compartments. (The term
1094:
Hayashi, Shuichiro; Osawa, Tokuji; Tohyama, Koujiro (2002). "Comparative observations on corneas, with special reference to bowman's layer and descemet's membrane in mammals and amphibians".
803:
When a cornea is needed for transplant, as from an eye bank, the best procedure is to remove the cornea from the eyeball, preventing the cornea from absorbing the aqueous humor.
2439:
244:(the refocusing of light to better view near objects) is accomplished by changing the geometry of the lens. Medical terms related to the cornea often start with the prefix "
1873:
Gain P, Jullienne R, He Z, et al. Global Survey of
Corneal Transplantation and Eye Banking. JAMA Ophthalmol. 2016;134(2):167–173. doi:10.1001/jamaophthalmol.2015.4776
955:
410:
have five known layers. The corneas of cats, dogs, wolves, and other carnivores only have four. From the anterior to posterior the layers of the human cornea are:
2179:
165:
2176:
2177:
2182:
2191:
1730:
Parikumar, Periyasamy; Haraguchi, Kazutoshi; Ohbayashi, Akira; Senthilkumar, Rajappa; Abraham, Samuel J. K. (2014). "Successful
Transplantation of
1546:
Du, Yiqin; Carlson, Eric C.; Funderburgh, Martha L.; Birk, David E.; Pearlman, Eric; Guo, Naxin; Kao, Winston W.-Y.; Funderburgh, James L. (2009).
584:. Most of the bundles give rise by subdivision to a network in the stroma, from which fibres supply the different regions. The three networks are,
1613:
Cultivation of
Corneal Limbal Epithelial Cells in a Thermoreversible Polymer (Mebiol Gel) and Their Transplantation in Rabbits: An Animal Model".
1891:
Hara H, Cooper DKC. Xenotransplantation: the future of corneal transplantation? Cornea. 2011;30(4):371-378. doi:10.1097/ICO.0b013e3181f237ef
2178:
2183:
2163:
2039:
1514:
1444:
1239:
657:– a medical condition involving the loss of the surface epithelial layer of the eye's cornea as a result of trauma to the surface of the eye.
141:
761:
to transiently reshape the cornea in order to improve the refractive state of the eye or reduce the need for eyeglasses and contact lenses.
669:– an inflammatory or infective condition of the cornea involving disruption of its epithelial layer with involvement of the corneal stroma.
2169:
482:
The spacing of the neighboring collagen fibrils in the stroma must be < 200 nm for there to be transparency. (Goldman and
Benedek)
1417:
472:): a thick, transparent middle layer, consisting of regularly arranged collagen fibers along with sparsely distributed interconnected
1272:
1001:
739:
675:– excessive ingrowth of blood vessels from the limbal vascular plexus into the cornea, caused by deprivation of oxygen from the air.
1609:
Sitalakshmi, G.; Sudha, B.; Madhavan, H.N.; Vinay, S.; Krishnakumar, S.; Mori, Yuichi; Yoshioka, Hiroshi; Abraham, Samuel (2009). "
1471:"Performance of 97-elements ALPAO membrane magnetic deformable mirror in Adaptive Optics - Optical Coherence Tomography system for
2174:
573:. Research suggests the density of pain receptors in the cornea is 300–600 times greater than skin and 20–40 times greater than
2167:
2186:
2185:
2166:
561:
The cornea is one of the most sensitive tissues of the body, as it is densely innervated with sensory nerve fibres via the
2165:
1734:
Expanded Human
Cadaver Corneal Endothelial Precursor Cells On to a Cadaver Bovine's Eye Using a Nanocomposite Gel Sheet".
160:
1317:"Transgenic Corneal Neurofluorescence in Mice: A New Model for in Vivo Investigation of Nerve Structure and Regeneration"
792:
If the corneal stroma develops visually significant opacity, irregularity, or edema, a cornea of a deceased donor can be
2685:
2630:
2598:
2435:
1188:
Dua, Harminder S.; Faraj, Lana A.; Said, Dalia G.; Gray, Trevor; Lowe, James (2013). "Human
Corneal Anatomy Redefined".
2173:
696:
Corneal foreign body – a foreign object present in the cornea, one of the most common preventable occupational hazards.
2583:
2552:
2544:
2224:
210:
663:– a condition in which one or more parts of the cornea lose their normal clarity due to a buildup of cloudy material.
2184:
2175:
2172:
1882:
Kramer L. Corneal transplant wait list varies across Canada. CMAJ. 2013;185(11):E511-E512. doi:10.1503/cmaj.109-4517
2736:
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672:
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375:. b: Lamellae, the fibers of which are cut across, producing a dotted appearance. c: Corneal corpuscles appearing
2164:
2032:
500:
2187:
2061:
1047:"A comparative study of Bowman's layer in some mammals Relationships with other constituent corneal structures"
124:
1469:
Jones, Steven M.; Balderas-Mata, Sandra E.; Maliszewska, Sylwia M.; Olivier, Scot S.; Werner, John S. (2011).
591:
Corneal nerves of the subepithelial layer terminate near the superficial epithelial layer of the cornea in a
2374:
2330:
2188:
793:
787:
549:
439:): when discussed in lieu of a subepithelial basement membrane, Bowman's Layer is a tough layer composed of
31:
1289:
343:
2514:
2407:
2138:
1956:"Structural transformation of collagen fibrils in corneal stroma during drying. An x-ray scattering study"
726:
613:. In some animals, such as species of birds, chameleons and a species of fish, the cornea can also focus.
488:
360:
172:
148:
136:
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2495:
2419:
2357:
2345:
2300:
898:
194:
2190:
2171:
2680:
2025:
1967:
797:
423:
tissue layer (non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium) of fast-growing and easily regenerated
289:
and then diffuses throughout the cornea to keep it healthy. Similarly, nutrients are transported via
2189:
2705:
2411:
2362:
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2340:
2295:
2229:
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2143:
2090:
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pattern. The density of epithelial nerves decreases with age, especially after the seventh decade.
570:
516:
364:
273:
endings sensitive to touch, temperature and chemicals; a touch of the cornea causes an involuntary
241:
2170:
1264:
2675:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2395:
2118:
1820:
Khutoryanskiy, Vitaliy V.; Steele, Fraser; Morrison, Peter W. J.; Moiseev, Roman V. (July 2019).
1759:
1528:
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592:
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1993:
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1413:
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1235:
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1111:
997:
974:
827:
660:
431:
396:
352:
2700:
2638:
2475:
2128:
2080:
1983:
1975:
1931:"Collagen fibril orientation in the human corneal stroma and its implication in keratoconus"
1843:
1833:
1786:
1743:
1702:
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1622:
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1405:
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368:
332:
306:
1869:
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in section. d: Lamellae, the fibers of which are cut longitudinally. e: Transition to the
2613:
2572:
2568:
2490:
754:
424:
1777:
Ludwig, Annick (2005-11-03). "The use of mucoadhesive polymers in ocular drug delivery".
1459:
Onkar A. Commentary: Tackling the corneal foreign body. Indian J Ophthalmol 2020;68:57-8.
2017:
1971:
1045:
Merindano Encina, María
Dolores; Potau, J. M.; Ruano, D.; Costa, J.; Canals, M. (2002).
281:. Because transparency is of prime importance, the healthy cornea does not have or need
2618:
2608:
2593:
2588:
2285:
2277:
2257:
2133:
2108:
1988:
1955:
1848:
1821:
1707:
1690:
1572:
1547:
1382:
1357:
1165:
1138:
822:
505:
464:
403:
324:
294:
237:
214:
202:
60:
1979:
1589:
764:
In 2009, researchers at the
University of Pittsburgh Medical center demonstrated that
2730:
2643:
2578:
2415:
796:. Because there are no blood vessels in the cornea, there are also few problems with
731:
666:
610:
298:
274:
251:
222:
89:
1763:
1499:
2010 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology
1046:
693:– a degenerative disease, the cornea thins and changes shape to be more like a cone.
2603:
2427:
2262:
2244:
1650:"Inherent Risks Associated with Manufacture of Bioengineered Ocular Surface Tissue"
1532:
1155:
918:"Medical Mystery: Preparation for surgery revealed cause of deteriorating eyesight"
758:
282:
84:
1904:
Daxer, Albert; Misof, Klaus; Grabner, Barbara; Ettl, Armin; Fratzl, Peter (1998).
1838:
1123:
504:
In a healthy eye, the cornea presents as a clear, domed, glossy covering over the
1747:
1666:
1649:
1201:
347:
Vertical section of human cornea from near the margin. (Waldeyer.) Magnified. 1:
129:
2695:
2564:
2521:
2459:
2423:
2011:
1691:"Transplantation of a sheet of human corneal endothelial cell in a rabbit model"
842:
837:
690:
574:
545:
1790:
1506:
1373:
2509:
2267:
1626:
457:
420:
384:
267:
218:
1798:
1590:"Stem Cell Therapy Makes Cloudy Corneas Clear, According To Pitt Researchers"
153:
2485:
2480:
2399:
2053:
765:
709:
684:
456:
fibrils interact with and attach onto each other. This layer is eight to 14
376:
290:
52:
1857:
1806:
1755:
1716:
1675:
1634:
1581:
1524:
1391:
1342:
1209:
1174:
1115:
978:
588:
The receptive fields of each nerve ending are very large, and may overlap.
1997:
1946:
1921:
951:"Serum Albumin in Mammalian Cornea: Implications for Clinical Application"
2403:
1781:. Mucoadhesive Polymers: Strategies, Achievements and Future Challenges.
1433:
Ivan R. Schwab; Richard R. Dubielzig; Charles Schobert (5 January 2012).
1333:
1316:
969:
950:
713:
533:
521:
452:
440:
246:
2655:
2556:
2500:
2216:
1107:
448:
444:
407:
328:
313:
226:
99:
17:
1689:
Hitani, K; Yokoo, S; Honda, N; Usui, T; Yamagami, S; Amano, S (2008).
773:
Corneal retention and permeability in topical drug delivery to the eye
178:
2650:
2560:
2314:
2072:
1548:"Stem Cell Therapy Restores Transparency to Defective Murine Corneas"
743:
525:
380:
320:
278:
56:
1563:
225:. In humans, the refractive power of the cornea is approximately 43
1906:"Collagen fibrils in the human corneal stroma: Structure and aging"
902:
621:
236:
While the cornea contributes most of the eye's focusing power, its
2290:
705:
704:
620:
541:
537:
536:
here. The corneal endothelium is bathed by aqueous humor, not by
509:
499:
390:
387:. f: Small blood vessels cut across near the margin of the cornea.
342:
302:
286:
270:
230:
221:
light, accounting for approximately two-thirds of the eye's total
206:
112:
46:
1255:
Belmonte, Carlos; Gallar Juana (1996). "6: Corneal Nociceptors".
544:, and has a very different origin, function, and appearance from
2204:
2021:
383:, with more distinct fibrillation, and surmounted by a thicker
949:
Nees, David W.; Fariss, Robert N.; Piatigorsky, Joram (2003).
629:
198:
77:
1234:(24th ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 2426–42.
996:. Philadelphia: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 461–2.
577:, making any injury to the structure excruciatingly painful.
2158:
1356:
He, Jiucheng; Bazan, Nicolas G.; Bazan, Haydee E.P. (2010).
848:
List of keratins expressed in the human integumentary system
229:. The cornea can be reshaped by surgical procedures such as
757:
is a method using specialized hard or rigid gas-permeable
1082:
Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD
312:
The most abundant soluble protein in mammalian cornea is
293:
from the tear fluid through the outside surface and the
460:(μm) thick and is absent or very thin in non-primates.
402:
The human cornea has five layers (possibly six, if the
1358:"Mapping the entire human corneal nerve architecture"
650:
The most common corneal disorders are the following:
586:
midstromal, subepithelial/sub-basal, and epithelial.
297:
through the inside surface. Nutrients also come via
2668:
2629:
2543:
2534:
2468:
2388:
2323:
2313:
2276:
2243:
2215:
2203:
2099:
2071:
2060:
1018:"Scientists discover new layer of the human cornea"
992:Romer, Alfred Sherwood; Parsons, Thomas S. (1977).
159:
147:
135:
123:
111:
106:
95:
83:
72:
67:
39:
1648:Schwab, Ivan R.; Johnson, NT; Harkin, DG (2006).
871:. Gainesville, Florida: Triad Publishing Company.
712:image of the cornea, iris and lens (showing mild
371:. a: Oblique fibers in the anterior layer of the
1935:Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science
1910:Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science
1321:Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science
956:Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science
938:. The Association of Contact Lens Manufacturers.
2162:
1822:"Penetration Enhancers in Ocular Drug Delivery"
1230:. In Goldman, Lee; Schafer, Andrew I. (eds.).
1139:"The structure and transparency of the cornea"
2033:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
8:
746:are still in very early stages of research.
738:deformable membranes and optically coherent
1290:"Addressing the Pain of Corneal Neuropathy"
1040:
1038:
886:(7th ed.). Canada: Thompson Wadsworth.
2540:
2320:
2212:
2068:
2040:
2026:
2018:
2012:Facts About The Cornea and Corneal Disease
1080:"eye, human."Encyclopædia Britannica from
45:
1987:
1847:
1837:
1706:
1665:
1571:
1410:Physics of the human body with 135 tables
1381:
1332:
1265:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198523345.001.0001
1164:
1154:
968:
301:supplied by the nerves of the cornea. In
55:showing the cornea as separated from the
1259:. Oxford University Press. p. 146.
1226:Yanoff, Myron; Cameron, Douglas (2012).
1221:
1219:
309:makes the cornea a very special tissue.
285:within it. Instead, oxygen dissolves in
859:
213:. Along with the anterior chamber and
176:
36:
1954:Fratzl, Peter; Daxer, Albert (1993).
1929:Daxer, Albert; Fratzl, Peter (1997).
1436:Evolution's Witness: How Eyes Evolved
1315:Yu, C. Q.; Rosenblatt, M. I. (2007).
625:The cornea becomes opaque after death
7:
1501:. Vol. 2010. pp. 2283–86.
582:scleral, episcleral and conjunctival
419:: an exceedingly thin multicellular
1296:. American Academy of Ophthalmology
395:Corneal cross-section imaged by an
936:"Why does the cornea need oxygen?"
443:(mainly type I collagen fibrils),
319:The human cornea borders with the
27:Transparent front layer of the eye
25:
1412:. Berlin: Springer. p. 642.
740:transcranial magnetic stimulation
916:Finn, Peter (20 December 2012).
899:"Clinical optics and refraction"
867:Cassin, B.; Solomon, S. (1990).
1228:"Diseases of the Visual System"
406:is included). Corneas of other
51:Schematic diagram of the right
1779:Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews
1156:10.1113/jphysiol.1957.sp005758
1:
1980:10.1016/S0006-3495(93)81487-5
1839:10.3390/pharmaceutics11070321
869:Dictionary of Eye Terminology
687:– inflammation of the cornea.
2686:Optical coherence tomography
2440:Photosensitive ganglion cell
2014:National Eye Institute (NEI)
1748:10.3109/02713683.2013.838633
1667:10.1001/archopht.124.12.1734
1288:Karmel, Miriam (July 2010).
1202:10.1016/j.ophtha.2013.01.018
882:Goldstein, E. Bruce (2007).
2436:Giant retina ganglion cells
2225:Capillary lamina of choroid
1479:Photonics Letters of Poland
1257:Neurobiology of Nociceptors
1051:European Journal of Anatomy
494:posterior limiting membrane
2753:
2380:Retinal pigment epithelium
2370:External limiting membrane
1791:10.1016/j.addr.2005.07.005
1507:10.1109/IEMBS.2010.5627660
1374:10.1016/j.exer.2010.07.007
884:Sensation & Perception
785:
673:Corneal neovascularization
437:anterior limiting membrane
363:(Descemet's membrane). 5:
29:
2156:
1654:Archives of Ophthalmology
1627:10.1089/ten.tea.2008.0041
1615:Tissue Engineering Part A
1362:Experimental Eye Research
1143:The Journal of Physiology
171:
44:
1475:imaging of human retina"
1439:. OUP USA. p. 106.
1232:Goldman's Cecil Medicine
681:– cloudy morning vision.
361:Posterior elastic lamina
2375:Layer of rods and cones
2331:Inner limiting membrane
1137:Maurice, D. M. (1957).
788:Corneal transplantation
353:Anterior elastic lamina
32:Cornea (disambiguation)
2197:
727:refractive eye surgery
717:
634:
611:positive meniscus lens
513:
399:
388:
173:Anatomical terminology
2691:Eye care professional
2496:Foveal avascular zone
2358:Outer plexiform layer
2346:Inner plexiform layer
2301:Iris sphincter muscle
2194:
1096:Journal of Morphology
708:
646:Clinical significance
624:
503:
394:
346:
307:immunologic privilege
2711:Physiological Optics
2681:Ocular immune system
2420:Retina ganglion cell
1736:Current Eye Research
1334:10.1167/iovs.06-1192
970:10.1167/iovs.02-1161
550:Krukenberg's Spindle
30:For other uses, see
2535:Anatomical regions
2396:Photoreceptor cells
2363:Outer nuclear layer
2351:Inner nuclear layer
2341:Ganglion cell layer
2296:Iris dilator muscle
2091:Trabecular meshwork
1972:1993BpJ....64.1210F
1960:Biophysical Journal
994:The Vertebrate Body
922:The Washington Post
800:of the new cornea.
721:Surgical procedures
627:(provenance: genus
571:long ciliary nerves
563:ophthalmic division
546:vascular endothelia
517:Corneal endothelium
489:Descemet's membrane
435:(also known as the
2198:
1898:General references
1594:Medical News Today
1108:10.1002/jmor.10030
833:Corneal topography
818:Corneal pachymetry
718:
635:
593:logarithmic spiral
514:
470:substantia propria
416:Corneal epithelium
400:
389:
373:substantia propria
357:substantia propria
197:front part of the
2737:Human eye anatomy
2724:
2723:
2716:Visual perception
2664:
2663:
2631:Posterior segment
2599:Posterior chamber
2530:
2529:
2432:Bistratified cell
2336:Nerve fiber layer
2309:
2308:
2253:Ciliary processes
2154:
2153:
1785:(11): 1595–1639.
1516:978-1-4244-4123-5
1446:978-0-19-536974-8
1406:Herman, Irving P.
1241:978-1-4377-1604-7
828:Corneal tattooing
661:Corneal dystrophy
642:patch (leukoma).
187:
186:
182:
16:(Redirected from
2744:
2701:Refractive error
2639:Vitreous chamber
2584:Anterior chamber
2545:Anterior segment
2541:
2321:
2230:Bruch's membrane
2213:
2205:Uvea / vascular
2161:
2081:Episcleral layer
2069:
2042:
2035:
2028:
2019:
2001:
1991:
1950:
1925:
1892:
1889:
1883:
1880:
1874:
1871:
1862:
1861:
1851:
1841:
1817:
1811:
1810:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1727:
1721:
1720:
1710:
1695:Molecular Vision
1686:
1680:
1679:
1669:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1606:
1600:
1597:
1596:. 13 April 2009.
1585:
1575:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1493:
1487:
1486:
1466:
1460:
1457:
1451:
1450:
1430:
1424:
1423:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1385:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1336:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1285:
1279:
1278:
1252:
1246:
1245:
1223:
1214:
1213:
1185:
1179:
1178:
1168:
1158:
1149:(2): 263–286.1.
1134:
1128:
1127:
1091:
1085:
1078:
1059:
1058:
1042:
1033:
1032:
1030:
1028:
1022:sciencedaily.com
1014:
1008:
1007:
989:
983:
982:
972:
946:
940:
939:
932:
926:
925:
913:
907:
906:
901:. Archived from
894:
888:
887:
879:
873:
872:
864:
750:Other procedures
679:Fuchs' dystrophy
655:Corneal abrasion
569:by way of 70–80
567:trigeminal nerve
369:anterior chamber
333:refractive index
211:anterior chamber
201:that covers the
179:edit on Wikidata
49:
37:
21:
2752:
2751:
2747:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2742:
2741:
2727:
2726:
2725:
2720:
2660:
2625:
2614:Capsule of lens
2569:Lacrimal system
2536:
2526:
2486:Parafoveal area
2481:Perifoveal area
2464:
2408:Horizontal cell
2384:
2305:
2272:
2239:
2235:Sattler's layer
2206:
2199:
2193:
2150:
2095:
2086:Schlemm's canal
2064:
2056:
2048:Anatomy of the
2046:
2008:
1953:
1928:
1903:
1900:
1895:
1890:
1886:
1881:
1877:
1872:
1865:
1819:
1818:
1814:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1729:
1728:
1724:
1688:
1687:
1683:
1660:(12): 1734–40.
1647:
1646:
1642:
1608:
1607:
1603:
1588:
1564:10.1002/stem.91
1545:
1544:
1540:
1517:
1495:
1494:
1490:
1468:
1467:
1463:
1458:
1454:
1447:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1420:
1404:
1403:
1399:
1355:
1354:
1350:
1314:
1313:
1309:
1299:
1297:
1287:
1286:
1282:
1275:
1254:
1253:
1249:
1242:
1225:
1224:
1217:
1187:
1186:
1182:
1136:
1135:
1131:
1093:
1092:
1088:
1079:
1062:
1044:
1043:
1036:
1026:
1024:
1016:
1015:
1011:
1004:
991:
990:
986:
948:
947:
943:
934:
933:
929:
915:
914:
910:
896:
895:
891:
881:
880:
876:
866:
865:
861:
857:
852:
813:
790:
784:
782:Transplantation
775:
755:Orthokeratology
752:
723:
703:
648:
626:
619:
606:
601:
559:
341:
266:The cornea has
264:
183:
63:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2750:
2748:
2740:
2739:
2729:
2728:
2722:
2721:
2719:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2647:
2646:
2635:
2633:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2622:
2621:
2619:Zonule of Zinn
2616:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2591:
2589:Aqueous humour
2586:
2581:
2576:
2549:
2547:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2528:
2527:
2525:
2524:
2519:
2518:
2517:
2507:
2506:
2505:
2504:
2503:
2498:
2488:
2483:
2472:
2470:
2466:
2465:
2463:
2462:
2392:
2390:
2386:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2366:
2365:
2360:
2354:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2327:
2325:
2318:
2311:
2310:
2307:
2306:
2304:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2282:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2258:Ciliary muscle
2255:
2249:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2221:
2219:
2210:
2201:
2200:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2148:
2147:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2111:
2105:
2103:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2093:
2088:
2083:
2077:
2075:
2066:
2058:
2057:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2037:
2030:
2022:
2016:
2015:
2007:
2006:External links
2004:
2003:
2002:
1951:
1926:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1893:
1884:
1875:
1863:
1812:
1769:
1722:
1681:
1640:
1601:
1599:
1598:
1558:(7): 1635–42.
1538:
1515:
1488:
1461:
1452:
1445:
1425:
1419:978-3540296041
1418:
1397:
1348:
1327:(4): 1535–42.
1307:
1280:
1273:
1247:
1240:
1215:
1196:(9): 1778–85.
1180:
1129:
1086:
1060:
1034:
1009:
1002:
984:
963:(8): 3339–45.
941:
927:
908:
905:on 2012-05-29.
897:Najjar, Dany.
889:
874:
858:
856:
853:
851:
850:
845:
840:
835:
830:
825:
823:Corneal reflex
820:
814:
812:
809:
786:Main article:
783:
780:
774:
771:
759:contact lenses
751:
748:
722:
719:
702:
699:
698:
697:
694:
688:
682:
676:
670:
664:
658:
647:
644:
618:
615:
605:
602:
600:
597:
558:
555:
554:
553:
497:
485:
484:
483:
480:
465:Corneal stroma
461:
432:Bowman's layer
428:
340:
337:
325:corneal limbus
295:aqueous humour
263:
260:
185:
184:
175:
169:
168:
163:
157:
156:
151:
145:
144:
139:
133:
132:
127:
121:
120:
115:
109:
108:
104:
103:
97:
93:
92:
87:
81:
80:
74:
70:
69:
65:
64:
61:corneal limbus
50:
42:
41:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2749:
2738:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2706:Accommodation
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2667:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2645:
2644:Vitreous body
2642:
2641:
2640:
2637:
2636:
2634:
2632:
2628:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2579:Fibrous tunic
2577:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2542:
2539:
2533:
2523:
2520:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2508:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2478:
2477:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2467:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2416:Amacrine cell
2413:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2394:
2393:
2391:
2387:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2355:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2328:
2326:
2322:
2319:
2316:
2312:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2275:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2242:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2202:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2104:
2102:
2098:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2070:
2067:
2063:
2062:Fibrous tunic
2059:
2055:
2051:
2043:
2038:
2036:
2031:
2029:
2024:
2023:
2020:
2013:
2010:
2009:
2005:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1966:(4): 1210–4.
1965:
1961:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1902:
1901:
1897:
1888:
1885:
1879:
1876:
1870:
1868:
1864:
1859:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1826:Pharmaceutics
1823:
1816:
1813:
1808:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1773:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1726:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1685:
1682:
1677:
1673:
1668:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1644:
1641:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1621:(2): 407–15.
1620:
1616:
1612:
1605:
1602:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1586:
1583:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1542:
1539:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1492:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1474:
1465:
1462:
1456:
1453:
1448:
1442:
1438:
1437:
1429:
1426:
1421:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1401:
1398:
1393:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1375:
1371:
1368:(4): 513–23.
1367:
1363:
1359:
1352:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1311:
1308:
1295:
1291:
1284:
1281:
1276:
1274:9780198523345
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1248:
1243:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1222:
1220:
1216:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1191:
1190:Ophthalmology
1184:
1181:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1133:
1130:
1125:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1102:(3): 247–58.
1101:
1097:
1090:
1087:
1083:
1077:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1023:
1019:
1013:
1010:
1005:
1003:0-03-910284-X
999:
995:
988:
985:
980:
976:
971:
966:
962:
958:
957:
952:
945:
942:
937:
931:
928:
923:
919:
912:
909:
904:
900:
893:
890:
885:
878:
875:
870:
863:
860:
854:
849:
846:
844:
841:
839:
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
819:
816:
815:
810:
808:
804:
801:
799:
795:
789:
781:
779:
772:
770:
767:
762:
760:
756:
749:
747:
745:
741:
735:
733:
732:excimer laser
728:
720:
715:
711:
707:
700:
695:
692:
689:
686:
683:
680:
677:
674:
671:
668:
667:Corneal ulcer
665:
662:
659:
656:
653:
652:
651:
645:
643:
639:
632:
631:
623:
616:
614:
612:
603:
598:
596:
594:
589:
587:
583:
578:
576:
572:
568:
564:
556:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
518:
511:
507:
502:
498:
495:
491:
490:
486:
481:
478:
477:
475:
471:
467:
466:
462:
459:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
433:
429:
426:
422:
418:
417:
413:
412:
411:
409:
405:
398:
393:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
345:
338:
336:
334:
330:
326:
322:
317:
315:
310:
308:
304:
300:
299:neurotrophins
296:
292:
288:
284:
283:blood vessels
280:
277:to close the
276:
272:
269:
261:
259:
257:
253:
249:
248:
243:
242:Accommodation
239:
234:
232:
228:
224:
223:optical power
220:
217:, the cornea
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
180:
174:
170:
167:
164:
162:
158:
155:
152:
150:
146:
143:
140:
138:
134:
131:
128:
126:
122:
119:
116:
114:
110:
105:
101:
98:
94:
91:
90:Visual system
88:
86:
82:
79:
75:
71:
66:
62:
58:
54:
48:
43:
38:
33:
19:
2710:
2604:Ciliary body
2444:Diencephalon
2443:
2428:Parasol cell
2412:Bipolar cell
2263:Pars plicata
2245:Ciliary body
2113:
2100:
1963:
1959:
1941:(1): 121–9.
1938:
1934:
1916:(3): 644–8.
1913:
1909:
1887:
1878:
1829:
1825:
1815:
1782:
1778:
1772:
1742:(5): 522–6.
1739:
1735:
1731:
1725:
1698:
1694:
1684:
1657:
1653:
1643:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1604:
1593:
1555:
1551:
1541:
1498:
1491:
1482:
1478:
1472:
1464:
1455:
1435:
1428:
1409:
1400:
1365:
1361:
1351:
1324:
1320:
1310:
1298:. Retrieved
1293:
1283:
1256:
1250:
1231:
1193:
1189:
1183:
1146:
1142:
1132:
1099:
1095:
1089:
1057:(3): 133–40.
1054:
1050:
1025:. Retrieved
1021:
1012:
993:
987:
960:
954:
944:
930:
921:
911:
903:the original
892:
883:
877:
868:
862:
805:
802:
794:transplanted
791:
776:
763:
753:
744:human retina
736:
724:
649:
640:
636:
628:
617:Transparency
607:
590:
585:
581:
579:
560:
557:Nerve supply
529:
515:
493:
487:
469:
463:
436:
430:
414:
401:
339:Microanatomy
318:
311:
268:unmyelinated
265:
255:
254:word κέρας,
245:
235:
190:
188:
142:A15.2.02.012
117:
2696:Eye disease
2676:Keratocytes
2565:Conjunctiva
2522:Ora serrata
2460:Muller glia
2424:Midget cell
2144:Endothelium
2134:Dua's layer
1485:(4): 147–9.
1300:30 December
843:Keratometry
838:Eye disease
691:Keratoconus
575:dental pulp
530:endothelium
520:: a simple
474:keratocytes
458:micrometres
404:Dua's layer
365:Endothelium
250:" from the
195:transparent
107:Identifiers
2537:of the eye
2510:Optic disc
2268:Pars plana
2139:Descemet's
2119:Epithelium
1832:(7): 321.
1552:Stem Cells
855:References
701:Management
604:Refraction
421:epithelial
385:epithelium
349:Epithelium
335:as water.
240:is fixed.
2515:Optic cup
2400:Cone cell
2054:human eye
1799:0169-409X
798:rejection
766:stem cell
710:Slit lamp
685:Keratitis
291:diffusion
262:Structure
76:Front of
53:human eye
2731:Category
2404:Rod cell
2209:(middle)
2124:Bowman's
1858:31324063
1807:16198021
1764:23131826
1756:24144454
1732:In Vitro
1717:18246029
1676:17159033
1635:18724830
1582:19544455
1525:21097016
1408:(2007).
1392:20650270
1343:17389482
1210:23714320
1175:13429485
1116:12386895
1027:14 April
979:12882779
811:See also
725:Various
714:cataract
599:Function
534:misnomer
526:cuboidal
522:squamous
453:perlecan
441:collagen
408:primates
377:fusiform
329:lampreys
227:dioptres
219:refracts
96:Function
2656:Choroid
2557:Eyebrow
2501:Foveola
2317:(inner)
2217:Choroid
2065:(outer)
2052:of the
1998:8494978
1989:1262438
1968:Bibcode
1947:9008637
1922:9501878
1849:6681039
1708:2267690
1701:: 1–9.
1611:Ex Vivo
1573:2877374
1533:3092563
1473:in vivo
1383:2939211
1166:1358888
742:of the
565:of the
524:or low
449:nidogen
445:laminin
367:of the
323:at the
314:albumin
193:is the
130:D003315
100:Refract
73:Part of
68:Details
59:by the
18:Corneal
2651:Retina
2561:Eyelid
2553:Adnexa
2476:Macula
2456:K cell
2452:M cell
2448:P cell
2324:Layers
2315:Retina
2286:Stroma
2129:Stroma
2114:layers
2109:Limbus
2101:Cornea
2073:Sclera
1996:
1986:
1945:
1920:
1856:
1846:
1805:
1797:
1762:
1754:
1715:
1705:
1674:
1633:
1580:
1570:
1531:
1523:
1513:
1443:
1416:
1390:
1380:
1341:
1294:EyeNet
1271:
1238:
1208:
1173:
1163:
1124:790199
1122:
1114:
1000:
977:
492:(also
468:(also
397:SD-OCT
381:sclera
321:sclera
303:humans
279:eyelid
275:reflex
247:kerat-
209:, and
191:cornea
118:cornea
85:System
57:sclera
40:Cornea
2669:Other
2573:Orbit
2491:Fovea
2469:Other
2406:) → (
2389:Cells
2291:Pupil
2207:tunic
2050:globe
1760:S2CID
1529:S2CID
1120:S2CID
542:lymph
538:blood
532:is a
510:pupil
425:cells
359:. 4:
355:. 3:
351:. 2:
327:. In
287:tears
271:nerve
252:Greek
238:focus
231:LASIK
207:pupil
177:[
166:58238
113:Latin
102:light
2609:Lens
2594:Iris
2442:) →
2418:) →
2410:) →
2278:Iris
1994:PMID
1943:PMID
1918:PMID
1854:PMID
1803:PMID
1795:ISSN
1752:PMID
1713:PMID
1672:PMID
1631:PMID
1578:PMID
1521:PMID
1511:ISBN
1441:ISBN
1414:ISBN
1388:PMID
1339:PMID
1302:2017
1269:ISBN
1236:ISBN
1206:PMID
1171:PMID
1112:PMID
1084:2009
1029:2018
998:ISBN
975:PMID
508:and
506:iris
256:horn
215:lens
203:iris
189:The
154:6744
137:TA98
125:MeSH
2414:→ (
1984:PMC
1976:doi
1844:PMC
1834:doi
1787:doi
1744:doi
1703:PMC
1662:doi
1658:124
1623:doi
1568:PMC
1560:doi
1503:doi
1378:PMC
1370:doi
1329:doi
1261:doi
1198:doi
1194:120
1161:PMC
1151:doi
1147:136
1104:doi
1100:254
965:doi
630:Bos
540:or
199:eye
161:FMA
149:TA2
78:eye
2733::
2571:,
2567:,
2563:,
2559:,
2458:,
2454:,
2450:,
2446::
2438:,
2434:,
2430:,
2426:,
2402:,
1992:.
1982:.
1974:.
1964:64
1962:.
1958:.
1939:38
1937:.
1933:.
1914:39
1912:.
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1828:.
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1793:.
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1758:.
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1697:.
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1554:.
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