1267:), and injury—so goes the prevailing theory—amounts, when coupled with requisite intent, in most cases, to crime, when it does not admit of civil redress. Thus, again in simple terms, and to the extent that human beings are indeed political beings, crime does seem to have an ontological basis. (For one approach to the question of criminal ontology, see "Understanding Crime and Social Control in Market Economies: Looking Back and Moving Forward" by Robert Bohm in Jeffrey Ian Ross, ed. Cutting the Edge: Current Perspectives in Radical/Critical Criminology and Criminal Justice. Westport, Conn: Praeger, 1998.) This, further, seems to hold if ontology itself is divided into political and trans- or supra- or meta- political ontology—i.e., what once was the realm of Christian theology. It does not matter whether that theology is Christian or belonging to some other apolitical belief. The point is that one may, with some justice, argue persuasively that being is divided. This need not, however, force the question of meta-political crimes. Our purposes here, in this article, are limited to the political. For the question in general see
1003:
commonly cited objective justification for invoking the criminal law is harmful to others, but it cannot deal with all situations. For example, people are not necessarily harmed by public nudity. Feinberg suggests that offence to others also provides an objective reason for invoking the criminal law, but it clearly does not as offence is determined according to conventional morality. Prostitution is another grey area, as some countries allow it in different forms, and it is hard to say whether or not it specifically harms the public in general. One argument may be that prostitution perpetuates the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS, and therefore harms the public which partakes in the act of prostitution. However, the legalization of prostitution would change the way it is regulated, and law enforcement could find a way to prevent the spread of sexually transmitted disease, thus eliminating the health issue and the question of the morality of the profession would be weakened.
1173:). These form conditions placed upon operating in a particular manner and are thus understood in that context. There are few general duties in common law jurisdictions, although these do include the responsibility of a parent to safeguard their children, to a landowner to prevent offences being carried out there, and to someone creating a dangerous situation to attempt to limit that danger. Proponents of limited liability for omissions suggest that the wording for such a law would be vague, possibly involving "reasonable" care or action, and so would be hard to enforce. This would give prosecutors wide discretion, which may be opposed to justice. Morally, omission is viewed by many as a far lesser problem than act; compared to murder, allowing someone to die is seen as much smaller. A requirement to spend one's time and energy helping others would seem to contradict the autonomy many other laws aim to provide the individual with.
1181:, which criminalises: "(1) a person who voluntarily neglects to prevent a serious crime of offense against that person, if that crime could be prevented without personal risk or risk to others; and (2) a person who voluntarily neglects to give, to a person in peril, assistance which could be rendered without personal risk or risk to others." This is common with several other European jurisdictions. Whilst open to the criticisms of vagueness and prosecutor discretion, it has not been seen as overly oppressive.
1251:
American
Founding Fathers, but especially The Federalist) and their Dutch predecessors (see Kossmann, E. H. Political Thought in the Dutch Republic, 2004) ontology proper is deemed beyond the scope of legal thought, in accord with the modern distinction between society and state (which some consider based in the distinction the Romans made between themselves and their Italian allies, the socii, but not given the theoretical articulation we recognize today until emphasized by Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan. See
1275:
result in unwanted consequences. Baker argues that the privacy violations that result from being forced to receive unwanted obscene information in public places (exhibitionism) would amount to a sufficient bad consequence for the purposes of invoking the criminal law, but argues that proportionate punishment means that such conduct should only be punished with fines rather than jail terms.
110:
36:
1205:, and disposes of those who will not obey. There are now more criminal laws and they are penetrating deeper into the social structures of modern societies. Crime control has become an industry, yet it remains ineffective in providing protection to all its citizens from harm. Such as it is, the process is made up of three components:
1417:
Dennis J. Baker, The Right Not to be
Criminalized: Demarcating Criminal Law's Authority (Ashgate 2011) at chapter 3; Dennis J. Baker Dennis, "The Moral Limits of Criminalizing Remote Harms", (2007) 11(3) New Criminal Law Review 371, Joel Feinberg, Harm to Others: The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law,
1189:
When a state debates whether to respond to a source of injury by criminalising the behaviour that produces it, there are no pre-set criteria to apply in formulating social policy. There is no ontological reality to crime. The criminal justice system responds to a substantial number of events that do
1059:
believed that moral behaviour was essential in maintaining the cohesion of a state, and so lawmakers should be entitled to criminalise immoral behaviour. However, opponents of this approach typically suggest use of a harm principle only and that immorality is not a reason in itself since outcomes of
1002:
Leading criminal law philosophers, such as Dennis Baker and Joel
Feinberg have argued that conduct should only be criminalized when it is fair to do so. In particular, such theorists assert that objective reasons are needed to demonstrate that it is fair to criminalize conduct in any given case. The
932:
In formal academically published theory, the real ruling class of a society reaches a temporary view on whether certain acts or behavior are harmful or criminal. Historically this one theory will be modified by scientific, medical evidence, by political change, and the criminal justice system may or
1274:
Baker argues that only objective harms and other objective bad consequences (or actions in the case of inchoate and endangerment offenses) are prima facie criminalizable. By other bad consequences Baker means privacy violations and conduct that does not necessarily result in tangible harm, but does
1221:
For the times when self-enforcement fails, society must create a legal order. This part of the process sees the centralisation of power within the institutions of the political state. Some states justified the criminalization process as demonstrating their concerns about safety and security, the
1176:
Opponents point out these arguments fail to consider the harm that such omissions may cause, in contradiction to the harm principle many legal systems start out with. Life and physical integrity are often the highest priorities of a legal system. Difficulties in definition are in common with many
1092:
argues that the state cannot and should not enforce morality; rather, any attempt to limit individual autonomy should be done only to limit harm. Certain moral ideals may be justifiable if they extend autonomy. If the immoral conduct of others impinges on someone else's autonomy, then that can be
983:
The policy of "social defense" can be seen as an opposing view. It argues that criminalization is used against "any form of activity which threatens good order or is thought reprehensible". The minimization principle may unwittingly prevent the adaptation of the law to new situations. In general,
869:, and only the use of express words by the legislature may rebut this presumption. The power of judges to make new law and retrospectively criminalise behaviour is also discouraged. In a less overt way, where laws have not been strictly enforced, the acts prohibited by those laws may also undergo
1209:
Creation of a social order. This is both a socio-economic process, a "...fundamental ordering of social relations so that those things necessary for social survival can be produced and distributed in some predictable fashion" and an ideological process so that there can be a "...development of
1250:
Put in the most simple terms, ontology deals with or establishes the clear grounds for being. (Heidegger, Martin, Being and Time, introduction, referencing Plato's
Parmenides.) In some of the traditional schools, such as those of the post-1688 English or Americans (many of the writings of the
940:
of the
Council of Europe on the management of criminal justice, advocates that crime policies such as decriminalization, depenalisation or diversion, and mediation should be adopted wherever possible. But the law and order debate between right and left politicians is often superficial and
1661:
Baker, Dennis J. (2009) "The Moral Limits of
Consent as a Defense in the Criminal Law", 12 New Criminal Law Review (2009); Dennis J. Baker (2008) "The Harm Principle vs Kantian Criteria for Ensuring Fair, Principled and Just Criminalisation", 33 Australian Journal of Legal Philosophy 66
1255:.) However, some classical theorists, such as Aristotle, in his Politics and Metaphysics, and to a lesser degree in his Topics, suggest that the distinction is at least problematic. One need consider no further than the claim that man is a political animal to see this is so.
1262:
of old, or the universal human rights advocated vigorously toward establishment today through the matrix of commercialism. At least in the today dominant
American model, deprivation of right amounts to injury (consider especially Justice Stevens dissenting opinion in
1144:. Since such acts publicly are made illegal on the basis of shock, then whether to criminalise depends on a shifting body of public opinion, which varies from place to place and from time to time. The concept of "insult" rather than "offensive" may be more specific.
955:
principle, that of the minimum criminalization. Under this principle, the general harm principle fails to consider the possibility of other sanctions and the effectiveness of criminalization as a chosen option. Those other sanctions include civil courts, laws of
1064:
have shown this to be flawed and opponents push for a much stricter definition if this approach is to be used. Devlin suggested a jury to give an indication of immoral behaviour. As well as prejudice, views were likely to vary widely on issues such as
1073:
and other matters, particularly those influenced by religion. Agreement would be hard to find. Other opposition has been from liberal groups which favour approaches which maximise individual rights. A moral basis for criminalization would be
1132:). Some acts would effectively become legal within private settings, but illegal in public settings. The justification for this was the concept of shock or offensive to the public. Such a line was favoured by
873:
criminalization through more effective or committed legal enforcement. The process of criminalization takes place through societal institutions including schools, the family, and the criminal justice system.
1140:. Philosophers such as Feinberg struggle to quantify the ideology behind the illegality of acts which in another setting would be acceptable (that acts themselves not causing harm, for example), for example
902:, a focus on the victim promotes rights selectively for certain victims, and advocates the assumption that some victim rights are more important than competing rights or values in society. For example, an
1006:
People experience a range of physical and social injuries in different contexts which will vary according to the level of economic and political development of their country. Some will be injured out of
1035:, there may be hazards at work. Many of these sources of injury will be ignored while the state may delegate powers of control to a number of different agencies within an international framework where
1101:. In general, these people are protected from activities with significant consequences, if they are not in a position to make reasoned decisions themselves. This may involve the criminalization of
1082:, in the most part supporting individual rights from government interferences, still includes a provision for interference "for the protection of health and morals" such as legally requiring
1177:
other areas, theorists such as
Feinburg point out. A non-burdensome rescue is likely to be less valuable than freedom of action. Limited liability is considered as article 223 of the
1210:
values, beliefs, and ideas related to the concrete tasks of production and distribution."(p. 6). Thus, society must develop the apparatus of law creation, law enforcement and
1086:
to be worn (in some jurisdictions) are hard to justify if an individualistic approach is taken, since, if public health provision is ignored, little harm is caused to others.
882:
There has been some uncertainty as to the nature and extent of the contribution to be made by the victims of crime. But, as
Garkawe (2001) indicates, the relationship between
829:
1190:
not produce significant hardship to individual citizens. Moreover, events which do cause serious injuries and perhaps should be dealt with as crimes, e.g. situations of
1060:
such activity can be used to come to a conclusion alone. Devlin's argument uses the disgust of the general public as a definition of morality; however, issues involving
1230:
its functions. This is changing the character and content of the remaining institutions of the state which must now work co-operatively with other for-profit agencies.
1670:; Dennis J. Baker, 'The Sense and Nonsense of Criminalizing Transfers of Obscene Materials: Criminalizing Privacy Violations,’ 26 Singapore Law Review 126 (2008)
1161:
does not often find an actor liable for omission – failing to do something required by the law. Where this has applied it has typically been in industrial
1241:
set agreed targets for state control and then produce actual outputs of the legal order, i.e. of people defined as criminal and processed through that system.
936:
Conversely, when local politics determines that it is no longer a crime, they may be decriminalized. For example, Recommendation No. R (95) 12 adopted by the
968:, for example, prevents the freedom of movement. In this sense, law making that places a greater emphasis on human rights. Most crimes of direct actions (
937:
446:
984:
worldwide policy makers have created a myriad of smaller offences, in contradiction to the minimization principle and more in keeping with the
822:
1685:
1644:
1352:
909:
might seek consistency of treatment for women as victims and, therefore, demand the decriminalization of abortion, adultery, and seduction (
179:
1218:, their enforcement will be a source of friction and disharmony. Conformity to the social order must, for the most part, be self-enforced.
1055:
in a given jurisdiction should be criminalized is controversial. Lying or breaking promises are not in general criminalised, for example.
1136:, who argued that it was a good reason in support of legislation if it effectively prevented "serious offence" to persons other than the
1079:
796:
650:
1832:
1818:
1759:
1745:
1728:
1714:
1700:
815:
79:
46:
1294:
1289:
693:
390:
941:
unscientific, formulating policies based on their appeal to an uninformed electorate rather than properly conducted research.
630:
610:
184:
964:. Having criminal remedies in place is seen as a "last resort" since such actions often infringe personal liberties –
1214:
and the system must be acceptable to the majority of those who live in the community. If the laws do not match the general
980:, for example) are generally not affected by such a stance, but it does require greater justification in less clear cases.
791:
786:
640:
1202:
1056:
441:
698:
61:
1284:
605:
330:
281:
194:
164:
57:
1680:
Dennis J. Baker, The Right Not to be
Criminalized: Demarcating Criminal Law’s Authority, (London: Ashgate, 2011 (
1197:
The criminalization process defines and classifies behaviour. It broadcasts the laws so that no-one may have the
743:
625:
529:
495:
480:
286:
204:
862:
748:
154:
1264:
1170:
1153:
635:
470:
276:
214:
1191:
801:
563:
199:
1093:
legislated against. There are some groups for whom the principle of autonomy is weakened: those under an
1723:. Elias, Robert & Turpin, Jennifer. (eds.). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, pp. 123–31.
1114:
753:
703:
600:
553:
475:
436:
410:
357:
189:
134:
129:
1847:
1764:
Garkawe, Sam. (2001). "Modern Victimology: Its Importance, Scope and Relationship with Criminology".
1674:; Dennis J. Baker, 'The Moral Limits of Criminalizing Remote Harms 10(3) New Criminal Law Review 370
1305:
1259:
723:
718:
708:
660:
620:
615:
578:
522:
431:
325:
159:
1666:; Dennis J. Baker (2008) "Constitutionalizing the Harm Principle", 27(2) Criminal Justice Ethics 3
1310:
1028:
768:
645:
568:
558:
362:
139:
1258:
As a political animal, man has come to see himself as possessed of rights, whether these are the
1121:
1102:
763:
738:
395:
345:
301:
209:
1852:
1828:
1814:
1755:
1741:
1724:
1710:
1696:
1681:
1650:
1640:
1467:
1348:
1299:
1178:
997:
926:
922:
866:
655:
426:
296:
237:
1463:
1223:
1125:
1036:
421:
367:
1733:
Feinberg, Joel, Harm to Others: The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law, OUP, New York: 1984.
1166:
1098:
1094:
758:
400:
340:
335:
320:
252:
247:
169:
1788:
1632:
1315:
1252:
1222:
policy of control, policing, criminal justice, and penal practice. The modern state is
985:
517:
144:
1841:
1792:
1227:
1133:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1052:
965:
895:
861:
or judicial decision. However, there is usually a formal presumption in the rules of
673:
505:
415:
313:
1637:
Lost in Space: The Criminalization, Globalization, and Urban Ecology of Homelessness
1169:
or some personal regulated activity such as driving (for example, in the case of a
1129:
1040:
1012:
949:
Several principles may underpin decisions about criminalization. These include the
899:
668:
242:
1233:
The political order must realign so that the remaining political entities such as
1043:
organisations may offer assistance in responding to the causes of those injuries.
1604:
1464:"Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms Measures"
1616:
1234:
1137:
887:
883:
858:
850:
713:
500:
405:
352:
219:
174:
97:
1825:
Understanding Criminology: Current Theoretical Debates (Crime & Justice S.)
109:
1211:
1162:
1158:
1089:
961:
951:
733:
728:
534:
1795:(1994). "Crime Contradictions: US News Illustrates Flaws in Crime Coverage".
1773:
Victimisation, Moral Panics, and the Distortion of Criminal Justice Policy".
1654:
17:
1083:
1061:
1032:
891:
372:
308:
853:, is "the process by which behaviors and individuals are transformed into
1268:
1110:
1016:
906:
512:
459:
101:
857:
and criminals". Previously legal acts may be transformed into crimes by
1754:. Ezzat A. Fattah (ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 14–23.
1106:
1024:
1008:
977:
903:
573:
543:
1691:
Currie, E. (1991) "The Politics of Crime: the American Experience" in
1198:
1141:
969:
918:
490:
124:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
64:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
1750:
Fattah, Ezzat, A. (1992). "The Need for a Critical Victimology" in
1128:, which examined sexual activities (particularly homosexuality and
1238:
1215:
914:
854:
485:
266:
1615:
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights,
1124:, a distinction between public and private acts was made in the
973:
957:
910:
1020:
29:
1285:
Crime in the United States#Number and growth of criminal laws
1695:. Stenson, Kevin. & Cowell, David. (eds.) London: Sage.
1707:
Victims Still: The Political Manipulation of Crime Victims
1736:
Fattah, Ezzat, A. (1989). "Victims of Abuse of Power" in
1811:
Victimology: The Victim and the Criminal Justice Process
890:
has become problematic. The concern is that, within the
53:
1345:
Punished: Policing the Lives of Black and Latino Boys
1194:, are either ignored or dealt with as civil matters.
1097:
and those people who are impaired by, for example, a
1783:
Order, Law and Crime: An Introduction to Criminology
1347:. New York and London: New York University Press.
1078:, thereby contrasting with personal autonomy. The
1719:Elias, Robert. (1994). "Crime Wars Forgotten" in
1740:. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 29–73.
1019:which might stem from a major conflict such as
1605:http://www.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrcouncil/
1738:The Plight of Crime Victims in Modern Society
1617:http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_cescr.htm
1572:
1570:
1568:
1549:
1547:
1519:
1517:
1498:
1496:
1494:
1449:
1447:
1437:
1435:
1433:
1117:. Such criminalization is rarely challenged.
823:
8:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1802:Leiper, S. (1994). "Crime and Propaganda".
1051:The extent to which behaviours considered
830:
816:
464:
93:
80:Learn how and when to remove this message
1326:
933:may not treat those matters as crimes.
542:
96:
27:Process of categorising acts as crimes
7:
1827:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1080:European Convention of Human Rights
1023:or from the personal violence in a
1775:Current Issues in Criminal Justice
25:
1676:https://ssrn.com/abstract=1130052
1672:https://ssrn.com/abstract=1369123
1668:https://ssrn.com/abstract=1300356
1664:https://ssrn.com/abstract=1300351
1585:Ashworth (1999). pp. 49–50.
1562:Ashworth (1999). pp. 48–49.
1541:Ashworth (1999). pp. 47–48.
1532:Ashworth (1999). pp. 46–47.
1511:Ashworth (1999). pp. 45–46.
1488:Ashworth (1999). pp. 44–45.
1427:Ashworth (1999). pp. 42–43.
1302:, the reversal of criminalization
867:retrospective application of laws
1295:Criminalization of homosexuality
185:Risk & actuarial criminology
108:
34:
1290:Criminalization of homelessness
1752:Towards A Critical Victimology
921:), and the criminalization of
1:
1693:The Politics of Crime Control
1047:Moral approaches and autonomy
1781:Michalowski, R. J. (1985).
1768:. Vol 14(2), pp. 90–99
1639:. New York: LFB Scholarly.
60:the claims made and adding
1869:
1823:Walklate, Sandra. (2003).
1809:Walklate, Sandra. (1989).
1246:Ontological basis of crime
1151:
995:
165:Expressive function of law
1806:, Vol. 11, pp. 44–6.
1799:May/June, pp. 10–14.
1785:. New York: Random House.
1603:UN Human Rights Council,
1343:Rios, Victor M. (2011).
863:statutory interpretation
155:Differential association
1705:Elias, Robert. (1993).
1594:Ashworth (1999). p. 50.
1576:Ashworth (1999). p. 49.
1553:Ashworth (1999). p. 48.
1523:Ashworth (1999). p. 46.
1502:Ashworth (1999). p. 45.
1453:Ashworth (1999). p. 44.
1441:Ashworth (1999). p. 43.
1408:Ashworth (1999). p. 68.
1399:Ashworth (1999). p. 67.
1265:Castle Rock v. Gonzales
1154:Omission (criminal law)
215:Symbolic interactionism
1192:corporate manslaughter
938:Committee of Ministers
195:Social disorganization
1813:. London: Routledge.
704:Biosocial criminology
411:Uniform Crime Reports
130:Biosocial criminology
1771:Harding, R. (1994).
1418:OUP, 1984: New York.
1306:Drug criminalization
1260:Rights of Englishmen
579:Solitary confinement
1311:Overcriminalization
769:Radical criminology
140:Collective efficacy
1766:Acta Criminologica
1103:under-age drinking
1031:may be damaged by
45:possibly contains
1804:Propaganda Review
1686:978-1-4094-2765-0
1646:978-1-59332-297-7
1468:Council of Europe
1354:978-0-8147-7637-7
1333:Michalowski p. 6.
1300:Decriminalization
1179:French Penal Code
1115:sexual activities
998:Victimless crimes
927:sexual harassment
923:domestic violence
840:
839:
586:
585:
523:Prisoners' rights
427:Positivist school
90:
89:
82:
47:original research
16:(Redirected from
1860:
1721:Rethinking Peace
1709:. London: Sage.
1658:
1620:
1613:
1607:
1601:
1595:
1592:
1586:
1583:
1577:
1574:
1563:
1560:
1554:
1551:
1542:
1539:
1533:
1530:
1524:
1521:
1512:
1509:
1503:
1500:
1489:
1486:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1475:
1460:
1454:
1451:
1442:
1439:
1428:
1425:
1419:
1415:
1409:
1406:
1400:
1397:
1386:
1383:
1377:
1374:
1368:
1367:Walklate (2003).
1365:
1359:
1358:
1340:
1334:
1331:
1165:, in matters of
1126:Wolfenden report
832:
825:
818:
465:
422:Crime statistics
348:
112:
94:
85:
78:
74:
71:
65:
62:inline citations
38:
37:
30:
21:
1868:
1867:
1863:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1858:
1857:
1838:
1837:
1777:, Vol. 6, 27-42
1647:
1633:Amster, Randall
1631:
1628:
1626:Further reading
1623:
1614:
1610:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1584:
1580:
1575:
1566:
1561:
1557:
1552:
1545:
1540:
1536:
1531:
1527:
1522:
1515:
1510:
1506:
1501:
1492:
1487:
1483:
1473:
1471:
1462:
1461:
1457:
1452:
1445:
1440:
1431:
1426:
1422:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1389:
1384:
1380:
1375:
1371:
1366:
1362:
1355:
1342:
1341:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1281:
1248:
1187:
1167:social security
1156:
1150:
1099:mental disorder
1095:age of majority
1049:
1000:
994:
947:
880:
847:criminalisation
843:Criminalization
836:
807:
806:
782:
774:
773:
699:Anthropological
689:
681:
680:
596:
588:
587:
462:
452:
451:
401:Critical theory
386:
378:
377:
358:State-corporate
346:
269:
258:
257:
253:Archibald Reiss
248:Cesare Lombroso
233:
232:Major theorists
225:
224:
200:Social learning
180:Rational choice
170:Labeling theory
150:Criminalization
120:
86:
75:
69:
66:
51:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1866:
1864:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1840:
1839:
1836:
1835:
1821:
1807:
1800:
1786:
1779:
1769:
1762:
1748:
1734:
1731:
1717:
1703:
1689:
1678:
1659:
1645:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1621:
1608:
1596:
1587:
1578:
1564:
1555:
1543:
1534:
1525:
1513:
1504:
1490:
1481:
1455:
1443:
1429:
1420:
1410:
1401:
1387:
1385:Currie (1991).
1378:
1369:
1360:
1353:
1335:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1319:
1318:
1316:Zero tolerance
1313:
1308:
1303:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1280:
1277:
1247:
1244:
1243:
1242:
1231:
1224:decentralising
1219:
1186:
1183:
1152:Main article:
1149:
1146:
1057:Patrick Devlin
1048:
1045:
993:
990:
986:social defence
946:
943:
879:
876:
838:
837:
835:
834:
827:
820:
812:
809:
808:
805:
804:
799:
794:
789:
783:
780:
779:
776:
775:
772:
771:
766:
761:
756:
754:Organizational
751:
746:
741:
736:
731:
726:
721:
716:
711:
706:
701:
696:
690:
687:
686:
683:
682:
679:
678:
677:
676:
671:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
638:
633:
628:
623:
618:
613:
608:
603:
597:
594:
593:
590:
589:
584:
583:
582:
581:
576:
571:
566:
564:Transformative
561:
556:
548:
547:
540:
539:
538:
537:
532:
530:Rehabilitation
527:
526:
525:
520:
518:Prisoner abuse
510:
509:
508:
503:
498:
488:
483:
481:Incapacitation
478:
473:
463:
458:
457:
454:
453:
450:
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
387:
384:
383:
380:
379:
376:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
318:
317:
316:
306:
305:
304:
299:
291:
290:
289:
284:
279:
270:
264:
263:
260:
259:
256:
255:
250:
245:
240:
238:Émile Durkheim
234:
231:
230:
227:
226:
223:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
190:Social control
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
145:Crime analysis
142:
137:
135:Broken windows
132:
127:
121:
118:
117:
114:
113:
105:
104:
88:
87:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1865:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1845:
1843:
1834:
1833:0-335-20951-3
1830:
1826:
1822:
1820:
1819:0-04-445160-1
1816:
1812:
1808:
1805:
1801:
1798:
1794:
1793:Naureckas, J.
1790:
1787:
1784:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1767:
1763:
1761:
1760:0-312-07551-0
1757:
1753:
1749:
1747:
1746:0-312-61758-5
1743:
1739:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1729:1-55587-488-6
1726:
1722:
1718:
1716:
1715:0-8039-5052-7
1712:
1708:
1704:
1702:
1701:0-8039-8342-5
1698:
1694:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1629:
1625:
1618:
1612:
1609:
1606:
1600:
1597:
1591:
1588:
1582:
1579:
1573:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1559:
1556:
1550:
1548:
1544:
1538:
1535:
1529:
1526:
1520:
1518:
1514:
1508:
1505:
1499:
1497:
1495:
1491:
1485:
1482:
1469:
1465:
1459:
1456:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1438:
1436:
1434:
1430:
1424:
1421:
1414:
1411:
1405:
1402:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1388:
1382:
1379:
1376:Elias (1993).
1373:
1370:
1364:
1361:
1356:
1350:
1346:
1339:
1336:
1330:
1327:
1321:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1278:
1276:
1272:
1270:
1266:
1261:
1256:
1254:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1229:
1225:
1220:
1217:
1213:
1208:
1207:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1193:
1184:
1182:
1180:
1174:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1155:
1147:
1145:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1134:Joel Feinberg
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1091:
1087:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1076:paternalistic
1072:
1071:contraception
1068:
1067:homosexuality
1063:
1058:
1054:
1053:morally wrong
1046:
1044:
1042:
1039:agencies and
1038:
1037:supranational
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1010:
1004:
999:
991:
989:
987:
981:
979:
975:
971:
967:
966:incarceration
963:
959:
954:
953:
944:
942:
939:
934:
930:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
905:
901:
897:
896:Right Realism
893:
889:
885:
877:
875:
872:
868:
864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
844:
833:
828:
826:
821:
819:
814:
813:
811:
810:
803:
800:
798:
797:Organizations
795:
793:
790:
788:
785:
784:
778:
777:
770:
767:
765:
762:
760:
757:
755:
752:
750:
747:
745:
744:Environmental
742:
740:
737:
735:
732:
730:
727:
725:
722:
720:
717:
715:
712:
710:
707:
705:
702:
700:
697:
695:
692:
691:
685:
684:
675:
672:
670:
667:
666:
664:
662:
661:Postmodernist
659:
657:
654:
652:
651:Neo-classical
649:
647:
644:
642:
639:
637:
634:
632:
629:
627:
626:Environmental
624:
622:
619:
617:
614:
612:
609:
607:
604:
602:
599:
598:
592:
591:
580:
577:
575:
572:
570:
567:
565:
562:
560:
557:
555:
554:Participatory
552:
551:
550:
549:
545:
541:
536:
533:
531:
528:
524:
521:
519:
516:
515:
514:
511:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
493:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
468:
467:
466:
461:
456:
455:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
417:
416:Crime mapping
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
388:
382:
381:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
363:Transnational
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
344:
342:
339:
337:
334:
332:
331:International
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
315:
312:
311:
310:
307:
303:
300:
298:
295:
294:
292:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
274:
272:
271:
268:
262:
261:
254:
251:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
235:
229:
228:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
122:
116:
115:
111:
107:
106:
103:
99:
95:
92:
84:
81:
73:
63:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
32:
31:
19:
18:Criminalizing
1824:
1810:
1803:
1796:
1782:
1776:
1772:
1765:
1751:
1737:
1720:
1706:
1692:
1636:
1611:
1599:
1590:
1581:
1558:
1537:
1528:
1507:
1484:
1474:20 September
1472:. Retrieved
1458:
1423:
1413:
1404:
1381:
1372:
1363:
1344:
1338:
1329:
1273:
1257:
1249:
1235:legislatures
1196:
1188:
1175:
1157:
1130:prostitution
1119:
1088:
1050:
1041:human rights
1015:, others by
1013:malnutrition
1005:
1001:
982:
950:
948:
935:
931:
900:Left Realism
881:
878:The problems
870:
865:against the
846:
842:
841:
749:Experimental
471:Denunciation
437:Quantitative
347:Public-order
302:White-collar
243:Hans Eysenck
149:
91:
76:
67:
44:
1848:Criminology
1789:Jackson, J.
1228:privatising
1171:hit and run
1122:British law
1029:environment
917:offense in
888:criminology
884:victimology
859:legislation
851:criminology
739:Development
714:Criminology
636:Integrative
574:Utilitarian
569:Retributive
559:Restorative
546:in penology
432:Qualitative
406:Ethnography
391:Comparative
297:Blue-collar
220:Victimology
175:Psychopathy
98:Criminology
70:August 2019
1842:Categories
1322:References
1212:punishment
1163:regulation
1159:Common law
1090:Joseph Raz
1084:seat belts
996:See also:
962:regulation
952:de minimis
945:Principles
919:sharia law
734:Demography
656:Positivist
535:Recidivism
476:Deterrence
368:Victimless
210:Subculture
54:improve it
1655:221150739
1203:ignorance
1185:Procedure
1062:prejudice
1033:pollution
892:dialectic
759:Political
688:Subfields
611:Classical
601:Anarchist
496:abolition
396:Profiling
341:Political
336:Organized
321:Corporate
309:Cold case
265:Types of
58:verifying
1853:Politics
1635:(2008).
1279:See also
1269:Ontology
1148:Omission
1111:gambling
1017:violence
907:feminist
871:de facto
792:Journals
719:Critical
709:Conflict
694:American
665:Realism
631:Feminist
621:Critical
616:Conflict
513:Prisoner
460:Penology
326:Juvenile
277:Humanity
273:Against
160:Deviance
102:penology
1107:smoking
1025:robbery
1009:poverty
978:assault
904:Islamic
724:Culture
646:Marxist
641:Italian
606:Chicago
595:Schools
544:Justice
385:Methods
314:Perfect
52:Please
1831:
1817:
1797:EXTRA!
1791:&
1758:
1744:
1727:
1713:
1699:
1684:
1653:
1643:
1470:. 2010
1351:
1239:judges
1199:excuse
1142:nudity
1027:. The
970:murder
802:People
781:Browse
764:Public
506:reform
491:Prison
293:Class
282:Person
205:Strain
125:Anomie
119:Theory
1253:state
1216:mores
1138:actor
915:Hudud
913:is a
855:crime
849:, in
787:Index
729:Cyber
674:Right
486:Trial
447:NIBRS
353:State
287:State
267:crime
1829:ISBN
1815:ISBN
1756:ISBN
1742:ISBN
1725:ISBN
1711:ISBN
1697:ISBN
1682:ISBN
1651:OCLC
1641:ISBN
1476:2011
1349:ISBN
1237:and
1226:and
1113:and
1011:and
992:Harm
974:rape
960:and
958:tort
925:and
911:Zina
898:and
886:and
669:Left
501:open
100:and
1201:of
1120:In
1021:war
894:of
845:or
442:BJS
373:War
56:by
1844::
1688:.)
1649:.
1567:^
1546:^
1516:^
1493:^
1466:.
1446:^
1432:^
1390:^
1271:.
1109:,
1105:,
1069:,
988:.
976:,
972:,
929:.
1657:.
1619:.
1478:.
1357:.
831:e
824:t
817:v
418:]
83:)
77:(
72:)
68:(
50:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
