654:. The same analysis can be applied to locations that are used for temporaries and local data. A different name can then be formed for each such connected set of value definitions and uses. It is possible that the same local variable location was used for more than one variable in different parts of the original program. Even worse it is possible for the data flow analysis to identify a path whereby a value may flow between two such uses even though it would never actually happen or matter in reality. This may in bad cases lead to needing to define a location as a union of types. The decompiler may allow the user to explicitly break such unnatural dependencies which will lead to clearer code. This of course means a variable is potentially used without being initialized and so indicates a problem in the original program.
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the sequence. A pattern matching process in the disassembly phase would probably not recognize the altered pattern. Later phases group instruction expressions into more complex expressions, and modify them into a canonical (standardized) form, making it more likely that even the altered idiom will match a higher level pattern later in the decompilation.
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In general, it is best to delay detection of idiomatic sequences if possible, to later stages that are less affected by instruction ordering. For example, the instruction scheduling phase of a compiler may insert other instructions into an idiomatic sequence, or change the ordering of instructions in
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Third, the decompilation process must, if possible, be confined to the parts of the target program relevant to interoperability. Since one of the purposes of decompilation is to gain an understanding of the program structure, this third limitation may be difficult to meet. Again, the burden of proof
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The final phase is the generation of the high level code in the back end of the decompiler. Just as a compiler may have several back ends for generating machine code for different architectures, a decompiler may have several back ends for generating high level code in different high level languages.
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explicitly provides for a right to decompile in order to achieve interoperability. The result of a heated debate between, on the one side, software protectionists, and, on the other, academics as well as independent software developers, Article 6 permits decompilation only if a number of conditions
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laws. Although the precise scope of what is covered by copyright differs from region to region, copyright law generally provides the author (the programmer(s) or employer) with a collection of exclusive rights to the program. These rights include the right to make copies, including copies made into
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tools may assist with this process. The user may need to enter information that failed to be identified during the type analysis phase, e.g. modifying a memory expression to an array or structure expression. Finally, incorrect IR may need to be corrected, or changes made to cause the output code to
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code. This excludes the runtime initialization code, which should not be decompiled if possible. If available the symbol tables and debug data are also loaded. The front end may be able to identify the libraries used even if they are linked with the code, this will provide library interfaces. If it
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Idiomatic machine code sequences are sequences of code whose combined semantics are not immediately apparent from the instructions' individual semantics. Either as part of the disassembly phase, or as part of later analyses, these idiomatic sequences need to be translated into known equivalent IR.
1130:(unless creating such a copy is essential for using the program). Since the decompilation process involves making multiple such copies, it is generally prohibited without the authorization of the copyright holder. However, because decompilation is often a necessary step in achieving software
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Various high level expressions can be recognized which trigger recognition of structures or arrays. However, it is difficult to distinguish many of the possibilities, because of the freedom that machine code or even some high level languages such as C allow with casts and pointer arithmetic.
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level of the source language, if the object code contains explicit class structure information, it aids the decompilation process. Descriptive information, especially with naming details, also accelerates the compiler's work. Moreover, less optimized code is quicker to decompile since
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instruction results in three constraints, since the operands may be both integer, or one integer and one pointer (with integer and pointer results respectively; the third constraint comes from the ordering of the two operands when the types are different).
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documentation. This is an important limitation. The necessity must be proven by the decompiler. The purpose of this important limitation is primarily to provide an incentive for developers to document and disclose their products' interoperability
979:. This would allow the user to enter comments, and non-generic variable and function names. However, these are almost as easily entered in a post decompilation edit. The user may want to change structural aspects, such as converting a
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343:. The success of decompilation depends on the amount of information present in the code being decompiled and the sophistication of the analysis performed on it. The bytecode formats used by many virtual machines (such as the
1766:"Report from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament and the Economic and Social Committee on the implementation and effects of Directive 91/250/EEC on the legal protection of computer programs"
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format. It should be able to discover basic facts about the input program, such as the architecture (Pentium, PowerPC, etc.) and the entry point. In many cases, it should be able to find the equivalent of the
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Decompilation is the act of using a decompiler, although the term can also refer to the output of a decompiler. It can be used for the recovery of lost source code, and is also useful in some cases for
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what is claimed to be common practice in the software industry. Few
European lawsuits are known to have emerged from the decompilation right. This could be interpreted as meaning one of three things:
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While decompilers are normally used to (re-)create source code from binary executables, there are also decompilers to turn specific binary data files into human-readable and editable sources.
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A good machine code decompiler will perform type analysis. Here, the way registers or memory locations are used result in constraints on the possible type of the location. For example, an
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Various program analyses can be applied to the IR. In particular, expression propagation combines the semantics of several instructions into more complex expressions. For example,
1433:.CPI & .CP codepage file analyzer, validator and decompiler Overview on /Style parameters: ASM source include files Standalone ASM source files Modular ASM source files
1147:, the court held that Accolade could lawfully engage in decompilation in order to circumvent the software locking mechanism used by Sega's game consoles. Additionally, the
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Unstructured code is more difficult to translate into structured code than already structured code. Solutions include replicating some code, or adding
Boolean variables.
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In addition, Article 6 prescribes that the information obtained through decompilation may not be used for other purposes and that it may not be given to others.
373:(that is, they attempt to produce output that is very difficult to decompile, or that decompiles to confusing output). This is done to make it more difficult to
276:, requiring more sophisticated techniques. Decompilers are usually unable to perfectly reconstruct the original source code, thus will frequently produce
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88:. The reason given is: There is no information regarding modern decompilation techniques with various programming languages and executable formats.
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Decompilers can be thought of as composed of a series of phases each of which contributes specific aspects of the overall decompilation process.
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with the target program or other programs. Interoperability information should therefore not be readily available, such as through manuals or
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1357:
Miecznikowski, Jerome; Hendren, Laurie (2002). "Decompiling Java
Bytecode: Problems, Traps and Pitfalls". In Horspool, R. Nigel (ed.).
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1151:(PUBLIC LAW 105–304) has proper exemptions for both Security Testing and Evaluation in §1201(i), and Reverse Engineering in §1201(f).
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which, when compiled, will produce an executable whose behavior is the same as the original executable program. By comparison, a
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Just before code generation, it may be desirable to allow an interactive editing of the IR, perhaps using some form of
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The resulting expression is more like high level language, and has also eliminated the use of the machine register
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register (sets it to zero). This can be implemented with a machine independent simplification rule, such as
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of machine code instructions into a machine independent intermediate representation (IR). For example, the
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can determine the compiler or compilers used it may provide useful information in identifying code idioms.
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In a report of 2000 regarding implementation of the
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The penultimate decompilation phase involves structuring of the IR into higher level constructs such as
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Some idiomatic sequences are machine independent; some involve only one instruction. For example,
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Teknisjuridinen selvitys tekijänoikeudesta tietokoneohjelman lähdekoodiin
Suomessa ja Euroopassa
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The success level achieved by decompilers can be impacted by various factors. These include the
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Programming languages and systems: 8th
European Symposium on Programming Languages and Systems
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instruction implies that the operand is an integer; programs do not use such an operation on
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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Cifuentes, Cristina; Gough, K. John (July 1995). "Decompilation of Binary
Programs".
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The example from the previous section could result in the following high level code:
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327:(and an assembler could be used for assembling it back into an executable program).
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and high-level features that make decompilation quite feasible. The application of
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Mycroft, Alan (1999). "Type-Based
Decompilation". In Swierstra, S. Doaitse (ed.).
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loop. These are less readily modified with a simple text editor, although source
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defence has been successfully invoked in decompilation cases. For example, in
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The places where register contents are defined and used must be traced using
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Legal protection of computer programs in Europe: a guide to the EC directive
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1388:"Format description of DOS, OS/2, and Windows NT .CPI, and Linux .CP files"
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Compiler
Construction: 11th International Conference, proceedings / CC 2002
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The first decompilation phase loads and parses the input machine code or
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It is particularly important to recognize the compiler idioms for
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optimization can cause greater deviation from the original code.
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without such metadata or debug data is much harder to decompile.
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could result in the following IR after expression propagation:
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1288:(Android Dalvik, Intel x86, ARM, MIPS, WebAssembly, Ethereum)
1582:"Introducing N-Bref: a neural-based decompiler framework"
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have been developed. Such a decompiler may be trained by
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Overall, the decompilation right provided by
Article 6
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conditional statements. For example, the machine code
501:; edx is set to the sign-extension≠edi,edi +(tex)push
280:. Nonetheless, they remain an important tool in the
1447:"Detecting Co-Derivative Source Code – An Overview"
1170:Second, decompilation must be necessary to achieve
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1627:"U.S. Copyright Office - Copyright Law: Chapter 1"
369:Some compilers and post-compilation tools produce
1121:The majority of computer programs are covered by
578:. Some languages also have extensive support for
1204:) illegal decompilation goes largely undetected.
670:values (except in special library code) or on
256:. It does therefore the opposite of a typical
1212:seemed to support the second interpretation.
27:Program translating executable to source code
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300:is most commonly applied to a program which
1736:Czarnota, Bridget; Hart, Robert J. (1991).
64:Learn how and when to remove these messages
1654:. Program-transformation.org. 2004-12-03.
1712:"Federal Register :: Request Access"
1541:Cifuentes, Cristina (1994). "Chapter 6".
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1066:Learn how and when to remove this message
228:Learn how and when to remove this message
210:Learn how and when to remove this message
1804:) is being considered for deletion. See
1580:Tian, Yuandong; Fu, Cheng (2021-01-27).
137:of all important aspects of the article.
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1163:First, a person or entity must have a
1104:may be able to help recruit an expert.
323:translates an executable program into
133:Please consider expanding the lead to
1093:needs attention from an expert in Law
7:
1167:to use the program to be decompiled.
1137:In the United States, the copyright
1552:Queensland University of Technology
1008:to improve its accuracy over time.
638:. Later analyses may eliminate the
421:program, which is the start of the
1677:"Digital Millennium Copyright Act"
175:link to broken or outdated sources
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1808:to help reach a consensus. ›
1469:Software: Practice and Experience
1386:Paul, Matthias R. (2001-06-10) .
1310:(Python Bytecode from 1.0 to 3.8)
45:This article has multiple issues.
1412:Paul, Matthias R. (2002-05-13).
1390:(CPI.LST file) (1.30 ed.).
1331:Van Emmerik, Mike (2005-04-29).
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1772:from the original on 2020-12-04
1718:from the original on 2022-01-25
1693:from the original on 2013-12-10
1658:from the original on 2010-09-22
1652:"The Legality of Decompilation"
1633:from the original on 2017-12-25
1561:from the original on 2016-11-22
1445:Elo, Tommi; Hasu, Tero (2003).
1424:from the original on 2018-09-10
1394:from the original on 2016-04-20
1339:from the original on 2010-09-22
125:may be too short to adequately
53:or discuss these issues on the
1544:Reverse Compilation Techniques
1335:. Program-transformation.org.
458:might be translated to the IR
434:The next logical phase is the
135:provide an accessible overview
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1811:Decompilers and Disassemblers
264:translate an executable into
190:or discuss this issue on the
307:programs (the output from a
1046:the claims made and adding
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1603:Information technology law
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354:) often include extensive
1605:(3 ed.). Cavendish.
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1806:templates for discussion
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1742:Butterworths Tolley
1333:"Why Decompilation"
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317:high level language
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1714:. 2018-10-26.
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18:Decompilation
1799:
1774:. Retrieved
1760:
1751:0-40600542-7
1737:
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1720:. Retrieved
1706:
1695:. Retrieved
1671:
1660:. Retrieved
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1635:. Retrieved
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1563:. Retrieved
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1417:
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1396:. Retrieved
1381:
1358:
1352:
1341:. Retrieved
1326:
1313:
1303:Binary Ninja
1222:Disassembler
1207:
1189:
1186:
1179:information.
1153:
1142:
1136:
1120:
1107:
1099:for details.
1092:
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999:
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794:if/then/else
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329:
321:disassembler
297:
295:
292:Introduction
241:
239:
224:
206:
197:
168:
140:
124:
122:lead section
93:
85:
61:
54:
48:
47:Please help
44:
1835:Decompilers
1794:‹ The
1684:US Congress
1418:freedos-dev
1095:. See the
784:Structuring
551:clears the
436:disassembly
430:Disassembly
410:binary file
385:abstraction
313:source code
254:source code
1824:Categories
1776:2020-12-26
1740:. London:
1722:2021-01-31
1697:2013-11-15
1662:2010-09-15
1637:2014-04-10
1587:2022-12-30
1565:2019-12-21
1428:2018-09-10
1398:2016-08-20
1343:2010-09-15
1318:References
1308:uncompyle6
1110:March 2011
1056:April 2013
1040:improve it
983:loop to a
792:loops and
642:register.
568:subroutine
408:program's
360:debug data
305:executable
302:translates
298:decompiler
250:executable
242:decompiler
50:improve it
1830:Compilers
1477:CiteSeerX
1159:are met:
1123:copyright
1097:talk page
1044:verifying
949:v10040000
296:The term
192:talk page
171:citations
127:summarize
56:talk page
1796:template
1770:Archived
1716:Archived
1688:Archived
1656:Archived
1631:Archived
1556:Archived
1422:Archived
1392:Archived
1337:Archived
1216:See also
1192:codifies
1139:fair use
1012:Legality
672:pointers
356:metadata
309:compiler
258:compiler
200:May 2022
143:May 2022
1798:below (
1499:8229401
1297:IDA Pro
1281:dotPeek
1165:licence
1038:Please
580:strings
570:calls,
440:Pentium
347:or the
311:) into
180:Please
86:updated
1815:Curlie
1801:Curlie
1748:
1609:
1524:
1497:
1479:
1369:
1292:Ghidra
858:l0003:
813:l0002:
706:struct
691:struct
574:, and
481:Idioms
400:Loader
392:Design
1691:(PDF)
1680:(PDF)
1559:(PDF)
1548:(PDF)
1495:S2CID
1450:(PDF)
981:while
940:v0004
937:->
922:v0000
919:->
889:while
855:l0002
831:l0003
790:while
775:v0008
772:->
763:v0004
760:->
751:v000C
748:->
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727:v0008
718:v0004
674:. An
557:a = 0
244:is a
173:that
169:uses
1746:ISBN
1607:ISBN
1522:ISBN
1367:ISBN
898:<
415:main
339:and
274:Java
1813:at
1487:doi
1176:API
1128:RAM
1042:by
985:for
955:eax
934:ebx
928:ebx
916:ebx
910:eax
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877:eax
867:eax
861:mov
852:jmp
846:ebx
843:mov
837:eax
834:add
828:jge
825:ebx
819:ebx
810:eax
804:eax
801:xor
769:ebx
757:ebx
745:ebx
733:int
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715:int
700:ebx
676:add
664:and
640:ebx
636:eax
623:eax
617:sub
611:eax
608:add
602:eax
599:mov
582:or
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542:eax
539:xor
525:edx
519:eax
516:sub
513:edx
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498:eax
495:cdq
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