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Zimbabwe. Countries that practice involuntary donation may make available the bodies of dead criminals or unclaimed or unidentified bodies for the purposes of dissection. Such practices may lead to a greater proportion of the poor, homeless and social outcasts being involuntarily donated. Cadavers donated in one jurisdiction may also be used for the purposes of dissection in another, whether across states in the US, or imported from other countries, such as with Libya. As an example of how a cadaver is donated voluntarily, a funeral home in conjunction with a voluntary donation program identifies a body who is part of the program. After broaching the subject with relatives in a diplomatic fashion, the body is then transported to a registered facility. The body is tested for the presence of HIV and hepatitis viruses. It is then evaluated for use as a "fresh" or "prepared" specimen.
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learning. The use of dissection in early stages of medical training has been shown more effective in the retention of the intended information than their simulated counterparts. However, there is use for the computer-generated experience as review in the later stages. The combination of these methods is intended to strengthen the students' understanding and confidence of anatomy, a subject that is infamously difficult to master. There is a growing need for anatomist—seeing as most anatomy labs are taught by graduates hoping to complete degrees in anatomy—to continue the long tradition of anatomy education.
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1116:
658:
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417:, "Herophilus and Erasistratus proceeded in by far the best way: they cut open living men - criminals they obtained out of prison from the kings and they observed, while their subjects still breathed, parts that nature had previously hidden, their position, color, shape, size, arrangement, hardness, softness, smoothness, points of contact, and finally the processes and recesses of each and whether any part is inserted into another or receives the part of another into itself."
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changed the approach taken to accomplish the goal. The process involved the loosening of the tissues in streams of water before the outer layers were sloughed off with soft implements to reach the musculature. To perfect the technique of slicing, the prospective students used gourds and squash. These techniques of dissection gave rise to an advanced understanding of the anatomy and the enabled them to complete procedures used today, such as rhinoplasty.
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favor of dissection alternatives point to studies which have shown that computer-based teaching methods "saved academic and nonacademic staff time … were considered to be less expensive and an effective and enjoyable mode of student learning … contributed to a significant reduction in animal use" because there is no set-up or clean-up time, no obligatory safety lessons, and no monitoring of misbehavior with animal cadavers, scissors, and scalpels.
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972:, software combines X-ray, ultrasound and MRI imaging for display on a screen as large as a body on a table. In a variant of this, a "virtual anatomy" approach being developed at New York University, students wear three dimensional glasses and can use a pointing device to " through the virtual body, its sections as brightly colored as living tissue." This method is claimed to be "as dynamic as
549:
Egypt ruled that "necessity permits the forbidden". This decision allowed for the investigation of questionable deaths by autopsy. In 1982, the decision was made by a fatwa that if it serves justice, autopsy is worth the disadvantages. Though Islam now approves of autopsy, the
Islamic public still disapproves. Autopsy is prevalent in most Muslim countries for medical and judicial purposes. In
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century. The practice of autopsy in
Medieval Western Europe is "very poorly known" as few surgical texts or conserved human dissections have survived. A modern Jesuit scholar has claimed that the Christian theology contributed significantly to the revival of human dissection and autopsy by providing a new socio-religious and cultural context in which the human
2274:"Current scholarship reveals that Europeans had considerable knowledge of human anatomy, not just that based on Galen and his animal dissections. For the Europeans had performed significant numbers of human dissections, especially postmortem autopsies during this era", "Many of the autopsies were conducted to determine whether or not the deceased had died of
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whatever compassion is in our temperament", indicating that while there was no law against it, it was nevertheless uncommon. Islam dictates that the body be buried as soon as possible, barring religious holidays, and that there be no other means of disposal such as cremation. Prior to the 10th century, dissection was not performed on human cadavers. The book
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The knowledge was mostly gained through hunters preparing the recently captured prey. Once the roaming lifestyle was no longer necessary it was replaced in part by the civilization that formed in the Indus Valley. Unfortunately, there is little that remains from this time to indicate whether or not dissection occurred, the civilization was lost to the
2161:"In the 13th century, the realisation that human anatomy could best be taught by dissection of the human body resulted in its legalisation of publicly dissecting criminals in some European countries between 1283 and 1365" - this was, however, still contrary to the edicts of the Church. Philip Cheung "Public Trust in Medical Research?" (2007), page 36
43:
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the 1900s, the university teachers had to continually push against the social taboos of dissection, until around 1850 when the universities decided that it was more cost effective to train Indian doctors than bring them in from
Britain. Indian medical schools were, however, training female doctors well before those in England.
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Dissection in U.S. high schools became prominent in 1987, when a
California student, Jenifer Graham, sued to require her school to let her complete an alternative project. The court ruled that mandatory dissections were permissible, but that Graham could ask to dissect a frog that had died of natural
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Throughout the history of
Christian Europe, the dissection of human cadavers for medical education has experienced various cycles of legalization and proscription in different countries. Dissection was rare during the Middle Ages, but it was practised, with evidence from at least as early as the 13th
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as the primary teaching tool in Europe from the 12th century to the 17th century. There were some that were willing to dissect humans up to the 12th century, for the sake of learning, after which it was forbidden. This attitude remained constant until 1952, when the
Islamic School of Jurisprudence in
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The practice of dissection flourished during the 7th and 8th century. It was under their rule that medical education was standardized. This created a need to better understand human anatomy, so as to have educated surgeons. Dissection was limited by the religious taboo on cutting the human body. This
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The
National Science Teachers Association (NSTA) "supports including live animals as part of instruction in the K-12 science classroom because observing and working with animals firsthand can spark students' interest in science as well as a general respect for life while reinforcing key concepts" of
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Some reports state that students' confidence, satisfaction, and ability to retrieve and communicate information was much higher for those who participated in alternative activities compared to dissection. Three separate studies at universities across the United States found that students who modeled
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Proponents of animal-free teaching methodologies argue that alternatives to animal dissection can benefit educators by increasing teaching efficiency and lowering instruction costs while affording teachers an enhanced potential for the customization and repeat-ability of teaching exercises. Those in
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Human cadavers are often used in medicine to teach anatomy or surgical instruction. Cadavers are selected according to their anatomy and availability. They may be used as part of dissection courses involving a "fresh" specimen so as to be as realistic as possible—for example, when training surgeons.
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As for the dissection of cadavers in undergraduate and medical school, traditional dissection is supported by professors and students, with some opposition, limiting the availability of dissection. Upper-level students who have experienced this method along with their professors agree that "Studying
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In modern Europe, dissection is routinely practised in biological research and education, in medical schools, and to determine the cause of death in autopsy. It is generally considered a necessary part of learning and is thus accepted culturally. It sometimes attracts controversy, as when Odense Zoo
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it holds an important place within the judicial structure, and is taught at all the country's medical universities. In Saudi Arabia, whose law is completely dictated by Shari'ah, autopsy is viewed poorly by the population but can be compelled in criminal cases; human dissection is sometimes found at
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During medieval times the anatomical teachings from India spread throughout the known world; however, the practice of dissection was stunted by Islam. The practice of dissection at a university level was not seen again until 1827, when it was performed by the student Pandit
Madhusudan Gupta. Through
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The ancient societies that were rooted in India left behind artwork on how to kill animals during a hunt. The images showing how to kill most effectively depending on the game being hunted relay an intimate knowledge of both external and internal anatomy as well as the relative importance of organs.
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Some alternatives to dissection may present educational advantages over the use of animal cadavers, while eliminating perceived ethical issues. These alternatives include computer programs, lectures, three dimensional models, films, and other forms of technology. Concern for animal welfare is often
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In 2008, the
National Association of Biology Teachers (NABT) affirmed its support for classroom animal dissection stating that they "Encourage the presence of live animals in the classroom with appropriate consideration to the age and maturity level of the students …NABT urges teachers to be aware
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Several peer-reviewed comparative studies examining information retention and performance of students who dissected animals and those who used an alternative instruction method have concluded that the educational outcomes of students who are taught basic and advanced biomedical concepts and skills
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have mistakenly been identified as prohibiting dissection and autopsy, misunderstanding or extrapolation from these edicts may have contributed to reluctance to perform such procedures. The Middle Ages witnessed the revival of an interest in medical studies, including human dissection and autopsy.
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dissection of the organ block, and the technique of Ghon involves dissection of three separate blocks of organs - the thorax and cervical areas, gastrointestinal and abdominal organs, and urogenital organs. Dissection of individual organs involves accessing the area in which the organ is situated,
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in the early part of the third century BC. During this period, the first exploration into full human anatomy was performed rather than a base knowledge gained from 'problem-solution' delving. While there was a deep taboo in Greek culture concerning human dissection, there was at the time a strong
305:. An alternative more cumbersome technique involves the removal of the entire organ body, called the Letulle technique. This technique allows a body to be sent to a funeral director without waiting for the sometimes time-consuming dissection of individual organs. The Rokitansky method involves an
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With software and other non-animal methods, there is also no expensive disposal of equipment or hazardous material removal. Some programs also allow educators to customize lessons and include built-in test and quiz modules that can track student performance. Furthermore, animals (whether dead or
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in 1163 by the
Council of Tours and Pope Boniface VIII's command to terminate the practice of dismemberment of slain crusaders' bodies and boiling the parts to enable defleshing for return of their bones. Such proclamations were commonly misunderstood as a ban on all dissection of either living
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In Britain, dissection remained entirely prohibited from the end of the Roman conquest and through the Middle Ages to the 16th century, when a series of royal edicts gave specific groups of physicians and surgeons some limited rights to dissect cadavers. The permission was quite limited: by the
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The way in which cadaveric specimens are obtained differs greatly according to country. In the UK, donation of a cadaver is wholly voluntary. Involuntary donation plays a role in about 20 percent of specimens in the US and almost all specimens donated in some countries such as South Africa and
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in Syria and Egypt in the 13th century may have practiced dissection, but it remains ambiguous whether or not human dissection was practiced. Ibn al-Nafis, a physician and Muslim jurist, suggested that the "precepts of Islamic law have discouraged us from the practice of dissection, along with
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The current state of dissection in India is deteriorating. The number of hours spent in dissection labs during medical school has decreased substantially over the last twenty years. The future of anatomy education will probably be an elegant mix of traditional methods and integrative computer
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and hepatitis viruses. Specimens are dissected in morgues or anatomy labs. When provided, they are evaluated for use as a "fresh" or "prepared" specimen. A "fresh" specimen may be dissected within some days, retaining the characteristics of a living specimen, for the purposes of training. A
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causes rather than one that was killed for the purposes of dissection; the practical impossibility of procuring a frog that had died of natural causes in effect let Graham opt out of the required dissection. The suit gave publicity to anti-dissection advocates. Graham appeared in a 1987
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California, Connecticut, D.C., Florida, Illinois, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Virginia all have statewide laws or department of education policies that allow students to opt
935:. The deceased may then be interred at a local cemetery. If the family wishes, the ashes of the deceased are then returned to the family. Many institutes have local policies to engage, support and celebrate the donors. This may include the setting up of local monuments at the cemetery.
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The Catholic Church is known to have ordered an autopsy on conjoined twins Joana and Melchiora Ballestero in Hispaniola in 1533 to determine whether they shared a soul. They found that there were two distinct hearts, and hence two souls, based on the ancient Greek philosopher
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at the root of objections to animal dissection. Studies show that some students reluctantly participate in animal dissection out of fear of real or perceived punishment or ostracism from their teachers and peers, and many do not speak up about their ethical objections.
2278:(disease) or whether there had been foul play, poisoning, or physical assault. Indeed, very early in the thirteenth century, a religious official, namely, Pope Innocent III (1198–1216), ordered the postmortem autopsy of a person whose death was suspicious", Toby Huff,
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commercial for the virtual-dissection software Operation Frog. The state of California passed a Student's Rights Bill in 1988 requiring that objecting students be allowed to complete alternative projects. Opting out of dissection increased through the 1990s.
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in the 16th century carried out numerous dissections in his extensive anatomical investigations. He was attacked frequently for his disagreement with Galen's opinions on human anatomy. Vesalius was the first to lecture and dissect the cadaver simultaneously.
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In the United States, dissection of frogs became common in college biology classes from the 1920s, and were gradually introduced at earlier stages of education. By 1988, some 75 to 80 percent of American high school biology students were participating in a
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this supply of cadavers proved insufficient, as the public medical schools were growing, and the private medical schools lacked legal access to cadavers. A thriving black market arose in cadavers and body parts, leading to the creation of the profession of
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The NORINA database lists over 3,000 products which may be used as alternatives or supplements to animal use in education and training. These include alternatives to dissection in schools. InterNICHE has a similar database and a loans system.
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carried out the first recorded public dissection around 1315. At this time, autopsies were carried out by a team consisting of a Lector, who lectured, the Sector, who did the dissection, and the Ostensor who pointed to features of interest.
266:) is the prevention of human disease to the dissector. Prevention of transmission includes the wearing of protective gear, ensuring the environment is clean, dissection technique and pre-dissection tests to specimens for the presence of
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sought a deeper understanding. However, there were no provisions for artists to obtain cadavers, so they had to resort to unauthorised means, as indeed anatomists sometimes did, such as grave robbing, body snatching, and murder.
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in 1000 A.D., details surgical procedure that differed from the previous standards. The book was an educational text of medicine and surgery which included detailed illustrations. It was later translated and took the place of
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Philippe Charlier, Isabelle Huynh-Charlier, Joël Poupon, Eloïse Lancelot, Paula F. Campos, Dominique Favier, Gaël-François Jeannel, Maurizio Rippa Bonati, Geoffroy Lorin de la Grandmaison, Christian Hervé (May 2014).
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Cadavers may also be pre-dissected by trained instructors. This form of dissection involves the preparation and preservation of specimens for a longer time period and is generally used for the teaching of anatomy.
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were the only two groups permitted to carry out dissections, and had an annual quota of ten cadavers between them. As a result of pressure from anatomists, especially in the rapidly growing medical schools, the
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alive) can be used only once, while non-animal resources can be used for many years—an added benefit that could result in significant cost savings for teachers, school districts, and state educational systems.
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Waters, J.R.; Van Meter, P; Perrotti, W; Drogo, S; Cyr, R.J (2005). "Cat dissection vs. sculpting human structures in clay: An analysis of two approaches to undergraduate human anatomy laboratory education".
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and other primates, assuming their anatomy was basically the same as that of humans, and supplemented these observations with knowledge of human anatomy which he acquired while tending to wounded gladiators.
885:. About six million animals are dissected each year in United States high schools (2016), not counting medical training and research. Most of these are purchased already dead from slaughterhouses and farms.
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that alternatives to dissection have their limitations. NABT supports the use of these materials as adjuncts to the educational process but not as exclusive replacements for the use of actual organisms."
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to opt out of dissection. Other states including Arizona, Hawaii, Minnesota, Texas, and Utah have more general policies on opting out on moral, religious, or ethical grounds. To overcome these concerns,
676:, which would be held no less than every five years. Some European countries began legalizing the dissection of executed criminals for educational purposes in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.
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described the 4 ways that death can occur and their symptoms: drowning, hanging, strangling, or asphyxiation. According to that source, an autopsy should be performed in any case of untimely demise.
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Waters, J.R.; Van Meter, P; Perrotti, W; Drogo, S; Cyr, R.J. (2011). "Human clay models versus cat dissection: How the similarity between the classroom and the exam affects student performance".
2170:"Indeed, very early in the thirteenth century, a religious official, namely, Pope Innocent III (1198-1216), ordered the postmortem autopsy of a person whose death was suspicious". Toby Huff,
2353:""Tried, Convicted, and Condemned, in Almost Every Bar-room and Barber's Shop": Anti-Irish Prejudice in the Trial of Dominic Daley and James Halligan, Northampton, Massachusetts, 1806"
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Anatomization was sometimes ordered as a form of punishment, as, for example, in 1806 to James Halligan and Dominic Daley after their public hanging in Northampton, Massachusetts.
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DeHoff, M.E.; Clark, K.L; Meganathan, K (2011). "Learning outcomes and student perceived value of clay modeling and cat dissection in undergraduate human anatomy and physiology".
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persons or cadavers (Rogers & Waldron, 1986), and progress in anatomical knowledge by human dissection did not thrive in that intellectual climate', Arthur Aufderheide,
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By the 21st century, the availability of interactive computer programs and changing public sentiment led to renewed debate on the use of cadavers in medical education. The
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forbade dissection and autopsy of the human body, so anatomists relied on the cadavers of animals or made observations of human anatomy from injuries of the living.
1918:
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body systems out of clay were significantly better at identifying the constituent parts of human anatomy than their classmates who performed animal dissection.
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Patronek, G.J.; Rauch, A (2007). "Systematic review of comparative studies examining alternatives to the harmful use of animals in biomedical education".
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Another study found that students preferred using clay modeling over animal dissection and performed just as well as their cohorts who dissected animals.
2256:'While during this period the Church did not forbid human dissections in general, certain edicts were directed at specific practices. These included the
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2005:
Chavoushi, Seyed Hadi; Ghabili, Kamyar; Kazemi, Abdolhassan; Aslanabadi, Arash; Babapour, Sarah; Ahmedli, Rafail; Golzari, Samad E.J. (August 2012).
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Plant and animal bodies are dissected to analyze the structure and function of its components. Dissection is practised by students in courses of
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In the field of surgery, the term "dissection" or "dissecting" means more specifically to the practice of separating an anatomical structure (an
1188:"the pope did not forbid anatomical dissections but only the dissections performed with the purpose of preserving the bodies for distant burial"
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271:"prepared" specimen may be preserved in solutions such as formalin and pre-dissected by an experienced anatomist, sometimes with the help of a
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Dewhurt, D; Jenkinson, L (1995). "The impact of computer-based alternatives on the use of animals in undergraduate teaching: A pilot study".
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in 1828, when 16 people were murdered for their cadavers, to be sold to anatomists. The resulting public outcry led to the passage of the
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using non-animal methods are equivalent or superior to those of their peers who use animal-based laboratories such as animal dissection.
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human anatomy with colorful charts is one thing. Using a scalpel and an actual, recently-living person is an entirely different matter."
910:, in 2019 became the first US high school to use synthetic frogs for dissection in its science classes, instead of preserved real frogs.
2858:"Dissection and choice in the science classroom: student experiences, teacher responses, and a critical analysis of the right to refuse"
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Youngblut, C (2001). "Use of multimedia technology to provide solutions to existing curriculum problems: Virtual frog dissection".
2187:"A glimpse into the early origins of medieval anatomy through the oldest conserved human dissection (Western Europe, 13th c. A.D.)"
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562:. Human dissection is present in the modern day Islamic world, but is rarely published on due to the religious and social stigma.
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Frederick II (1194–1250), the Holy Roman emperor, ruled that any that were studying to be a physician or a surgeon must attend a
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In the United States, 17 states along with Washington, D.C. have enacted dissection-choice laws or policies that allow students
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Oakley, J (2013). ""I didn't feel right about animal dissection": Dissection objectors share their science class experiences".
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Tragically, the prohibition of human dissection by Rome in 150 BC arrested this progress and few of their findings survived.
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in the UK, founded in 2000, became the first modern medical school to carry out its anatomy education without dissection.
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and systematically removing the anatomical connections of that organ to its surroundings. For example, when removing the
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Predavec, M (2001). "Evaluation of E-Rat, a computer-based rat dissection, in terms of student learning outcomes".
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McLachlan, John C.; Patten, Debra (17 February 2006). "Anatomy teaching: ghosts of the past, present and future".
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to determine the cause of death in humans. Less extensive dissection of plants and smaller animals preserved in a
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Stainsstreet, M; Spofforth, N; Williams, T (1993). "Attitudes of undergraduate students to the uses of animals".
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biological sciences. NSTA also supports offering dissection alternatives to students who object to the practice.
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dissection, with a trend towards introduction in elementary schools. The frogs are most commonly from the genus
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595:. A sky burial begins with a ritual dissection of the deceased, and is followed by the feeding of the parts to
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Death in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times: The Material and Spiritual Conditions of the Culture of Death
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Mohammed, Madadin; Kharoshah, Magdy (2014). "Autopsy in Islam and current practice in Arab Muslim countries".
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Research Project on Death and Dead Bodies, last conference: "Death and Dissection" July 2009, Berlin, Germany
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has applied to a greater or lesser extent within Muslim countries, supported by Islamic scholars such as
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861:. Other popular animals for high-school dissection at the time of that survey were, among vertebrates,
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2640:"A Florida high school is the first in the world to provide synthetic frogs for students to dissect"
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128:) is the dismembering of the body of a deceased animal or plant to study its anatomical structure.
3328:"NSTA Position Statement: Responsible Use of Live Animals and Dissection in the Science Classroom"
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Mathiharan, Karunakaran (September 2005). "Origin and Development of Forensic Medicine in India".
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P Prioreschi, 'Determinants of the revival of dissection of the human body in the Middle Ages',
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Hajar A Hajar Albinali (2004). "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting".
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allowed the bodies of executed murderers to be dissected for anatomical research and education.
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Connolly, Andrew J.; Finkbeiner, Walter E.; Ursell, Philip C.; Davis, Richard L. (2015-09-23).
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F. Barbara Orlans; Tom L. Beauchamp; Rebecca Dresser; David B. Morton; John P. Gluck (1998).
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because of the country's hard ground, frozen for most of the year, and the lack of wood for
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Most dissection involves the careful isolation and removal of individual organs, called the
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Charles H. Talbot. Medicine in Medieval England. - London: Oldbourne, 1967. - P. 55, n. 13.
2007:"Surgery for Gynecomastia in the Islamic Golden Age: Al-Tasrif of Al-Zahrawi (936-1013 AD)"
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Knight, A (2007). "The effectiveness of humane teaching methods in veterinary education".
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Jacob, Tony (2013). "History of teaching anatomy in India: from ancient to modern times".
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was another such writer who was familiar with the studies of Herophilus and Erasistratus.
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2728:"The reliance on unclaimed cadavers for anatomical teaching by medical schools in Africa"
1445:"The discovery of the body: Human dissection and its cultural contexts in ancient Greece"
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1561:"Human cadaveric dissection: a historical account from ancient Greece to the modern era"
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Waters, Brenda L. (2009). "2. Principles of Dissection". In Waters, Brenda L (ed.).
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187:. Objections to the use of cadavers have led to the use of alternatives including
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Freedman, David H. (September 2012). "20 Things you didn't know about autopsies".
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decided to dissect lion cadavers in public before a "self-selected audience".
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This article is about the biological examination process. For other uses, see
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3172:"Clay modeling as a method to learn human muscles: A community college study"
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2663:"Florida high school introduces synthetic frogs for science class dissection"
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750:. Though most chose to focus on the external surfaces of the body, some like
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Vienna – A Doctor's Guide: 15 walking tours through Vienna's medical history
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Gangata, Hope; Ntaba, Phatheka; Akol, Princess; Louw, Graham (2010-08-01).
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2614:"Florida high school first in world to use synthetic frogs for dissection"
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882:
878:
790:
739:
712:
695:
604:
541:
500:
343:
339:
295:
153:
152:
classes in middle school and high school, while extensive dissections of
1959:
1936:
Al-Dabbagh, S.A. (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation".
1360:"prosect - definition of prosect in English from the Oxford dictionary"
1169:
1165:
1156:
699:
639:
596:
580:
559:
508:
335:
291:
287:
251:
247:
235:
227:
184:
165:
145:
129:
1491:"Bygone theatres of events: A history of human anatomy and dissection"
738:
studied anatomy to improve their artwork, as seen in this figurine of
688:
made the first public dissection north of the Alps in Vienna in 1404.
262:
A key principle in the dissection of human cadavers (sometimes called
99:
42:
1722:
1507:
1490:
1067:
272:
231:
177:
63:
3351:
2918:"Body image: Computerized table lets students do virtual dissection"
2744:
2727:
156:
of adults and children, both fresh and preserved are carried out by
3188:
3171:
931:
Cadaveric specimens for dissection are, in general, disposed of by
254:. Zoötomy is sometimes used to describe "dissection of an animal".
3380:, 1935, translated by W. G. Spencer (Loeb Classics Library, 1992).
2392:
1030:
968:
One alternative to the use of cadavers is computer technology. At
942:
866:
841:
781:
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656:
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311:
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203:
114:
3405:
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852:
583:, acquired from long-standing experience with human dissection.
554:
university level. Autopsy is performed for judicial purposes in
488:
326:, then this may be deliberately dissected along with the organ.
243:
1916:
Emilie Savage-Smith (1996), "Medicine", in Roshdi Rashed, ed.,
1906:
http://muslimheritage.com/article/ibn-zuhr-and-progress-surgery
1332:
Robertson, Hugh J.; Paige, John T.; Bok, Leonard (2012-07-12).
827:, which increased the legal supply of cadavers for dissection.
334:
Dissection is used to help to determine the cause of death in
267:
3302:
Position Statements: National Association of Biology Teachers
2695:
EMU's Cadaver Dissection Gives Pre-Med Students Big Advantage
3362:
3170:
Motoike, H.K.; O'Kane, R.L.; Lenchner, E; Haspel, C (2009).
322:
are separated. If pathological connections exist, such as a
3411:
Alternatives To Animal Dissection in School Science Classes
645:
A non-existent "Ecclesia abhorret a sanguine" edict of the
3304:. National Association of Biology Teachers. Archived from
475:
Page from a 1531 Latin translation by Peter Argellata of
1620:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 5.
447:
Early in the history of India (2nd to 3rd century), the
3423:
Dissection photographs for study and teaching from the
1757:
The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology
479:'s c. 1000 treatise on surgical and medical instruments
176:. Consequently, dissection is typically conducted in a
3050:
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association
2574:"Frogs' Best Friends: Students Who Won't Dissect Them"
1870:
Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences
365:, dissection of a pig. Engraving made in Venice, 1565
144:
solution is typically carried out or demonstrated in
2298:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 7.
2144:
2142:
2140:
246:
studies. In medical schools, students dissect human
3421:
Evolutionary Biology Digital Dissection Collections
2598:
2292:Wolfgang Regal; Michael Nanut (December 13, 2007).
80:
75:
35:
2785:"Dissection: The Scientific Case for Alternatives"
2071:Strober, Deborah Hart; Strober, Gerald S. (2005).
1643:Nutton, Vivian, 'The Unknown Galen', (2002), p. 89
183:Dissection has been used for centuries to explore
2520:Apple Computer's 'Frog' Ad Is Taken Off the Air.
2074:His Holiness the Dalai Lama: The Oral Biography
1866:"Attitudes toward dissection in medieval Islam"
1856:
1854:
1670:Hanuman's Tale: The Messages of a Divine Monkey
47:Dissection of a pregnant rat in a biology class
2393:"Odense Zoo animal dissections: EAZA response"
724:, who believed the soul resided in the heart.
579:developed a rather sophisticated knowledge of
342:in other animals) and is an intrinsic part of
214:in order to minimize unwanted damage during a
164:as a part of the teaching in subjects such as
2966:
2964:
2104:Tao and Dharma: Chinese Medicine and Ayurveda
1919:Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science
8:
2395:. European Association of Zoos and Aquaria.
2233:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
394:into a hub of scientific study. For a time,
2944:"The Virtual Anatomy, Ready for Dissection"
2462:; Morton, David B.; Gluck, John P. (1998).
832:Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry
118:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1259:
1257:
374:Human dissections were carried out by the
3298:"The Use of Animals in Biology Education"
3187:
2873:
2789:Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science
2743:
2368:
2210:
2032:
2022:
1881:
1592:
1506:
1460:
2538:. Oxford University Press. p. 210.
1449:The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine
846:A teenage school pupil dissecting an eye
2458:Orlans, F. Barbara; Beauchamp, Tom L.;
1274:Handbook of Autopsy Practice - Springer
1210:
1181:
1019:
746:Human dissection was also practised by
275:. This preparation is sometimes called
2419:"Animals used for scientific purposes"
2226:
1904:Ibn Zuhr and the Progress of Surgery,
1825:Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine
1818:
1816:
1814:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1698:
97:
32:
3332:National Science Teachers Association
2721:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2713:
2711:
2522:Los Angeles Times, November 10, 1987.
2000:
1998:
1996:
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1810:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1802:
1800:
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1690:
1688:
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1684:
1682:
1680:
1678:
1394:Autopsy Pathology: A Manual and Atlas
1327:
869:, and cats; and among invertebrates,
599:on the hill tops. Over time, Tibetan
7:
2468:. Oxford University Press. pp.
1554:
1552:
1550:
1548:
1546:
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1384:
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1321:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1313:
1311:
1309:
1307:
649:and an early 14th-century decree of
2661:Lewis, Sophie (November 26, 2019).
2638:Elassar, Alaa (November 30, 2019).
435:The Ayurvedic Man., c. 18th century
290:with No. 20 and No. 12 blades, two
2942:Singer, Natasha (7 January 2012).
2123:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 388.
1769:10.1097/01.paf.0000163839.24718.b8
1559:Ghosh, Sanjib Kumar (2015-09-01).
899:in primary and secondary education
642:was no longer seen as sacrosanct.
14:
2612:Aaro, David (November 30, 2019).
2498:American Anti-Vivisection Society
1105:Dissection in a secondary school
1093:Cow brain prepared for dissection
286:Dissection tools. Left to right:
16:Cutting procedure used in anatomy
3256:Advances in Physiology Education
3221:Advances in Physiology Education
3129:Advances in Physiology Education
2862:Journal of Teaching and Learning
2399:from the original on 13 May 2016
1232:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2006.02401.x
1125:in Bovine articulation (tarsus)
1114:
1098:
1086:
1074:
1059:
1044:
1022:
124:"to cut to pieces"; also called
53:
41:
3445:Biological techniques and tools
2992:Journal of Biological Education
2351:Brown, Richard D. (June 2011).
2263:The Scientific Study of Mummies
1618:The Scientific Study of Mummies
1616:Aufderheide, Arthur C. (2003).
2922:Stanford Medicine: News Center
2572:Johnson, Dirk (May 29, 1997).
789:headstone of an 1823 grave in
1:
3176:Anatomical Sciences Education
3004:10.1080/00219266.2000.9655746
2732:Anatomical Sciences Education
1952:10.1016/s0140-6736(78)90318-5
1711:Anatomical Sciences Education
1489:Brenna, Connor T. A. (2021).
603:knowledge found its way into
520:
499:. Islamic physicians such as
402:, for example, dissected the
2843:10.1080/03075079312331382359
2320:Andreas Vesalius' Pilgrimage
2258:Ecclesia Abhorret a Sanguine
1397:. Elsevier Health Sciences.
1121:Technique of dissection and
980:Advantages and disadvantages
607:and to a lesser extent into
587:had adopted the practice of
62:seed in dissection, showing
2831:Studies in Higher Education
2801:10.1207/S15327604JAWS0402_3
2783:Balcombe, Jonathan (2001).
2599:"Your Right Not to Dissect"
2191:Archives of Medical Science
2102:Svoboda, Robert E. (1996).
1338:. OUP USA. pp. 15–20.
799:Royal College of Physicians
28:Dissection (disambiguation)
3471:
2280:The Rise Of Modern Science
2172:The Rise Of Modern Science
2117:Classen, Albrecht (2016).
2056:Wujastyk, Dominik (2001).
1837:10.1016/j.jflm.2014.02.005
1565:Anatomy & Cell Biology
1364:www.oxforddictionaries.com
904:J. W. Mitchell High School
803:Company of Barber-Surgeons
705:De humani corporis fabrica
569:
503:(Avenzoar) (1091–1161) in
483:From the beginning of the
25:
18:
2903:10.1163/15685306-12341267
2357:The New England Quarterly
1577:10.5115/acb.2015.48.3.153
1288:10.1007/978-1-59745-127-7
515:during the 12th century,
92:
52:
40:
3378:On Medicine, I, Proem 23
3268:10.1152/advan.00094.2010
3233:10.1152/advan.00030.2009
3141:10.1152/advan.00033.2004
3105:10.14573/altex.2007.2.91
2535:The Human Use of Animals
2465:The Human Use of Animals
1922:, Vol. 3, pp. 903–962 .
1081:Human abdomen and thorax
947:Cadaveric dissection at
908:New Port Richey, Florida
19:Not to be confused with
3406:Virtual Frog Dissection
3396:Dissection Alternatives
2689:Jenner, Andrew (2012).
2203:10.5114/aoms.2013.33331
1652:Von Staden, Heinrich,
1335:Simulation in Radiology
970:Stanford Medical School
918:Acquisition of cadavers
752:Michelangelo Buonarotti
686:Galeazzo di Santa Sofia
379:Herophilus of Chalcedon
314:, connects such as the
210:) from its surrounding
3062:10.2460/javma.230.1.37
2916:White, Tracie (2011).
2875:10.22329/jtl.v8i2.3349
1926:, London and New York.
1029:Dissection of a human
952:
949:Siriraj Medical School
847:
821:Burke and Hare murders
797:mid-18th century, the
793:
756:Antonio del Pollaiuolo
743:
736:Antonio del Pollaiuolo
709:
669:
634:
480:
442:Aryan people migrating
436:
415:On Medicine I Proem 23
366:
298:
180:or in an anatomy lab.
119:
94:Anatomical terminology
3425:University at Buffalo
3391:How to dissect a frog
3027:Doctoral Dissertation
2891:Society & Animals
2152:(2001) 56(2), 229–234
2058:The Roots of Ayurveda
1883:10.1093/jhmas/50.1.67
1495:The Anatomical Record
1419:"Interactive Autopsy"
946:
927:Disposal of specimens
845:
785:
730:
694:
660:
647:1163 Council of Tours
622:
546:The Canon of Medicine
474:
434:
383:Erasistratus of Chios
357:
285:
2370:10.1162/tneq_a_00087
1862:Savage-Smith, Emilie
1441:von Staden, Heinrich
1155:, founder of modern
1066:Dissection of human
390:government to build
330:Autopsy and necropsy
3430:The Free Dictionary
3035:2001PhDT........42Y
2318:See C. D. O'Malley
2060:. Penguin Classics.
2024:10.5402/2012/934965
1421:. Australian Museum
1370:on November 6, 2015
819:, and the infamous
812:By the 19th century
748:Renaissance artists
732:Renaissance artists
370:Classical antiquity
324:fibrous pericardium
242:, and sometimes in
3450:Forensic pathology
2948:The New York Times
2856:Oakley, J (2012).
2578:The New York Times
2518:Howard Rosenberg:
2448:Cheung, pp. 33, 35
2150:Medical Hypotheses
1666:Lutgendorf, Philip
1137:1788 Doctors' riot
953:
848:
794:
744:
710:
670:
651:Pope Boniface VIII
635:
572:Tree of physiology
481:
437:
367:
320:inferior vena cava
316:superior vena cava
299:
240:veterinary science
216:surgical procedure
189:virtual dissection
3401:Human Dissections
2545:978-0-19-511908-4
2479:978-0-19-511908-4
2439:Cheung, pp. 37–44
2322:, Isis 45:2, 1954
2305:978-3-211-48952-9
2130:978-3-11-043697-6
2077:. Wiley. p.
1297:978-1-58829-841-6
1220:Medical Education
1016:Additional images
764:Leonardo da Vinci
760:Baccio Bandinelli
698:with a dissected
303:Virchow technique
212:connective tissue
174:forensic medicine
138:forensic medicine
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2460:Dresser, Rebecca
2455:
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2421:. European Union
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1366:. Archived from
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1301:
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1267:
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1251:
1215:
1199:
1195:
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1153:Andreas Vesalius
1139:in New York City
1118:
1102:
1090:
1078:
1063:
1051:Dissection of a
1048:
1026:
939:Use in education
825:Anatomy Act 1832
678:Mondino de Luzzi
674:human dissection
662:Mondino de Luzzi
623:A dissection in
615:Christian Europe
609:Chinese medicine
577:Tibetan medicine
525:
522:
376:Greek physicians
361:(129–c.200 AD),
258:Human dissection
158:medical students
122:
100:edit on Wikidata
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404:Barbary macaque
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193:computer models
162:medical schools
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3385:External links
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3308:on 13 May 2015
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3227:(2): 227–236.
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2282:(2003), p. 195
2276:natural causes
2267:
2249:
2240:
2197:(2): 366–373.
2176:
2163:
2154:
2136:
2129:
2109:
2094:
2088:978-0471680017
2087:
2063:
2048:
1992:
1973:
1946:(8074): 1148.
1928:
1909:
1897:
1850:
1790:
1763:(3): 254–260.
1744:
1674:
1672:(2007), p. 348
1658:
1656:(1989), p. 140
1645:
1636:
1627:978-0521177351
1626:
1608:
1571:(3): 153–169.
1538:
1476:
1455:(3): 223–241.
1432:
1410:
1403:
1380:
1351:
1344:
1303:
1296:
1253:
1226:(3): 243–253.
1209:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1200:
1190:
1180:
1179:
1177:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1159:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1120:
1113:
1111:
1104:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1073:
1071:
1065:
1058:
1056:
1050:
1043:
1041:
1036:Gray's Anatomy
1028:
1021:
1017:
1014:
981:
978:
961:
958:
940:
937:
928:
925:
919:
916:
891:Apple Computer
839:
836:
817:body snatching
787:Body snatching
779:
776:
625:Realdo Colombo
616:
613:
567:
564:
468:
465:
428:
425:
371:
368:
351:
348:
331:
328:
259:
256:
223:
220:
106:
105:
96:
90:
89:
84:
78:
77:
73:
72:
58:
50:
49:
46:
38:
37:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3467:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3442:
3440:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3388:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3374:
3370:
3364:
3359:
3356:
3353:
3348:
3345:
3333:
3329:
3323:
3320:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3293:
3290:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3250:
3247:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3215:
3212:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3166:
3163:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3122:
3119:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3099:(2): 91–109.
3098:
3094:
3087:
3084:
3079:
3075:
3071:
3067:
3063:
3059:
3055:
3051:
3044:
3041:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3021:
3018:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2986:
2983:
2979:(4): 521–530.
2978:
2974:
2967:
2965:
2961:
2949:
2945:
2938:
2935:
2923:
2919:
2912:
2909:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
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2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
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2822:
2810:
2806:
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2759:
2755:
2751:
2746:
2741:
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2722:
2720:
2718:
2716:
2714:
2712:
2708:
2696:
2692:
2685:
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2670:
2669:
2664:
2657:
2654:
2641:
2634:
2631:
2619:
2615:
2608:
2605:
2600:
2594:
2591:
2579:
2575:
2568:
2565:
2562:, pp. 209–211
2561:
2555:
2552:
2547:
2541:
2537:
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2528:
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2515:
2512:
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2297:
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2271:
2268:
2264:
2259:
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2250:
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2236:
2230:
2222:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2180:
2177:
2173:
2167:
2164:
2158:
2155:
2151:
2145:
2143:
2141:
2137:
2132:
2126:
2122:
2121:
2113:
2110:
2106:. p. 89.
2105:
2098:
2095:
2090:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2075:
2067:
2064:
2059:
2052:
2049:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1988:
1984:
1977:
1974:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1940:
1932:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1920:
1913:
1910:
1907:
1901:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1876:(1): 67–110.
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1857:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
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1514:
1509:
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1481:
1477:
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1468:
1463:
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1446:
1442:
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1433:
1420:
1414:
1411:
1406:
1404:9780323287807
1400:
1396:
1395:
1387:
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1381:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1355:
1352:
1347:
1345:9780199764624
1341:
1337:
1336:
1328:
1326:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1318:
1316:
1314:
1312:
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1281:
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1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1135:
1134:
1130:
1124:
1123:glycerination
1117:
1112:
1108:
1101:
1096:
1089:
1084:
1077:
1072:
1069:
1062:
1057:
1054:
1053:spiny dogfish
1047:
1042:
1038:
1037:
1032:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
998:
994:
990:
986:
979:
977:
975:
971:
966:
959:
957:
950:
945:
938:
936:
934:
926:
924:
917:
915:
911:
909:
905:
900:
895:
892:
886:
884:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
859:
854:
844:
838:United States
837:
835:
833:
828:
826:
822:
818:
813:
809:
804:
800:
792:
788:
784:
777:
775:
771:
768:
765:
761:
757:
753:
749:
741:
737:
733:
729:
725:
723:
717:
714:
707:
706:
701:
697:
693:
689:
687:
682:
679:
675:
667:
663:
659:
655:
652:
648:
643:
641:
632:
631:
626:
621:
614:
612:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
573:
565:
563:
561:
557:
552:
547:
543:
538:
535:, written by
534:
529:
518:
514:
511:'s physician
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
487:faith in 610
486:
478:
473:
467:Islamic world
466:
464:
460:
456:
452:
450:
445:
443:
433:
426:
424:
422:
418:
416:
412:
408:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
384:
380:
377:
369:
364:
360:
356:
349:
347:
345:
341:
337:
329:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
308:
304:
297:
293:
289:
284:
280:
278:
274:
269:
265:
257:
255:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
221:
219:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
196:
194:
190:
186:
181:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
126:anatomization
123:
121:
116:
112:
101:
95:
91:
88:
85:
83:
79:
74:
69:
65:
61:
56:
51:
44:
39:
34:
29:
22:
3377:
3358:
3347:
3335:. Retrieved
3331:
3322:
3310:. Retrieved
3306:the original
3301:
3292:
3262:(1): 68–75.
3259:
3255:
3249:
3224:
3220:
3214:
3182:(1): 19–23.
3179:
3175:
3165:
3135:(1): 27–34.
3132:
3128:
3121:
3096:
3092:
3086:
3056:(1): 37–43.
3053:
3049:
3043:
3026:
3020:
2998:(2): 75–80.
2995:
2991:
2985:
2976:
2972:
2951:. Retrieved
2947:
2937:
2925:. Retrieved
2921:
2911:
2894:
2890:
2884:
2865:
2861:
2851:
2834:
2830:
2824:
2812:. Retrieved
2792:
2788:
2778:
2735:
2731:
2698:. Retrieved
2694:
2684:
2674:November 30,
2672:. Retrieved
2666:
2656:
2646:November 30,
2644:. Retrieved
2633:
2623:November 30,
2621:. Retrieved
2617:
2607:
2593:
2581:. Retrieved
2577:
2567:
2559:
2554:
2534:
2527:
2514:
2502:. Retrieved
2497:
2494:"Dissection"
2488:
2464:
2453:
2444:
2435:
2423:. Retrieved
2413:
2401:. Retrieved
2387:
2360:
2356:
2346:
2337:
2333:
2327:
2319:
2314:
2294:
2287:
2279:
2270:
2265:(2003), p. 5
2262:
2257:
2252:
2243:
2229:cite journal
2194:
2190:
2179:
2171:
2166:
2157:
2149:
2119:
2112:
2103:
2097:
2073:
2066:
2057:
2051:
2014:
2011:ISRN Surgery
2010:
1986:
1982:
1976:
1943:
1937:
1931:
1917:
1912:
1900:
1873:
1869:
1828:
1824:
1760:
1756:
1717:(5): 351–8.
1714:
1710:
1669:
1661:
1653:
1648:
1639:
1631:
1617:
1611:
1568:
1564:
1498:
1494:
1452:
1448:
1435:
1423:. Retrieved
1413:
1393:
1372:. Retrieved
1368:the original
1363:
1354:
1334:
1273:
1223:
1219:
1213:
1193:
1184:
1034:
1010:
1006:
1002:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
967:
963:
960:Alternatives
954:
930:
921:
912:
896:
887:
875:grasshoppers
856:
849:
829:
795:
772:
769:
745:
718:
711:
703:
684:The Italian
683:
671:
665:
644:
636:
628:
575:
545:
532:
528:Ibn al-Nafis
517:Abd el-Latif
493:Shari'ah law
482:
461:
457:
453:
449:Arthashastra
446:
438:
419:
414:
409:
386:push by the
373:
362:
333:
306:
300:
263:
261:
225:
208:blood vessel
197:
188:
182:
142:formaldehyde
125:
117:
110:
109:
3376:C. Celsus,
2953:15 February
2927:20 February
2814:15 February
2504:16 February
1989:(2): 74–85.
1983:Heart Views
1278:. pp.
1143:Vivisection
524: 1200
363:Opera omnia
132:is used in
76:Identifiers
68:gametophyte
3439:Categories
3363:InterNICHE
3337:3 February
3312:3 February
2691:"EMU News"
2017:: 934965.
1939:The Lancet
1654:Herophilus
1501:(4): 2–5.
1374:2016-05-10
1206:References
951:, Thailand
871:earthworms
863:fetal pigs
722:Empedocles
601:anatomical
589:sky burial
570:See also:
537:Al-Zahrawi
505:Al-Andalus
497:Al-Ghazali
477:Al-Zahrawi
392:Alexandria
346:medicine.
277:prosection
111:Dissection
36:Dissection
2809:143465900
2754:1935-9780
2334:Discovery
1924:Routledge
1585:2093-3665
1533:237608991
1517:1932-8494
1170:anatomist
1148:Forensics
933:cremation
666:Anathomia
593:cremation
533:Al-Tasrif
519:in Egypt
513:Ibn Jumay
413:wrote in
396:Roman law
388:Ptolemaic
264:androtomy
250:to learn
170:pathology
134:pathology
120:dissecare
21:Bisection
3284:19112983
3276:21386004
3241:21652509
3206:28441790
3198:19189347
3157:28694409
3149:15718380
3113:17728975
3070:17199490
3012:85201408
2770:22596215
2762:20544835
2700:25 April
2668:CBS News
2618:Fox News
2601:. PETA2.
2397:Archived
2379:57560527
2221:24904674
2043:23050167
1968:43154531
1864:(1995).
1845:24661712
1831:: 80–3.
1785:29095914
1777:16121082
1739:25807230
1731:23495119
1603:26417475
1525:34551186
1443:(1992).
1248:30909540
1240:16483327
1131:See also
883:starfish
879:crayfish
791:Stirling
740:Hercules
734:such as
713:Vesalius
696:Vesalius
605:Ayurveda
597:vultures
585:Tibetans
542:Avicenna
501:Ibn Zuhr
344:forensic
340:necropsy
338:(called
296:scissors
288:scalpels
248:cadavers
222:Overview
154:cadavers
3455:Corpses
3078:5164145
3031:Bibcode
2558:Orlans
2212:4042035
2034:3459224
1892:7876530
1594:4582158
1471:1285450
1462:2589595
1166:surgeon
1157:anatomy
778:Britain
702:in his
700:cadaver
640:cadaver
581:anatomy
560:Tunisia
509:Saladin
485:Islamic
350:History
336:autopsy
307:in situ
292:forceps
252:anatomy
236:zoology
228:biology
185:anatomy
166:anatomy
146:biology
130:Autopsy
87:D004210
3352:NORINA
3282:
3274:
3239:
3204:
3196:
3155:
3147:
3111:
3076:
3068:
3010:
2807:
2768:
2760:
2752:
2560:et al.
2542:
2500:. 2016
2476:
2425:15 May
2403:15 May
2377:
2302:
2219:
2209:
2127:
2085:
2041:
2031:
1966:
1958:
1890:
1843:
1783:
1775:
1737:
1729:
1624:
1601:
1591:
1583:
1531:
1523:
1515:
1469:
1459:
1425:10 May
1401:
1342:
1294:
1246:
1238:
1068:axilla
1039:(1918)
881:, and
762:, and
742:, 1470
708:, 1543
668:, 1541
633:, 1559
526:, and
411:Celsus
273:diener
238:, and
232:botany
178:morgue
113:(from
64:embryo
60:Ginkgo
3280:S2CID
3202:S2CID
3153:S2CID
3093:ALTEX
3074:S2CID
3008:S2CID
2868:(2).
2805:S2CID
2766:S2CID
2642:. CNN
2583:1 May
2375:S2CID
2340:: 72.
1964:S2CID
1960:77431
1781:S2CID
1735:S2CID
1529:S2CID
1282:–12.
1244:S2CID
1176:Notes
1109:class
1033:from
1031:cheek
867:perch
566:Tibet
556:Qatar
551:Egypt
427:India
421:Galen
400:Galen
359:Galen
312:heart
204:nerve
200:organ
115:Latin
98:[
3339:2015
3314:2015
3272:PMID
3237:PMID
3194:PMID
3145:PMID
3109:PMID
3066:PMID
2973:ATLA
2955:2016
2929:2016
2816:2016
2758:PMID
2750:ISSN
2702:2016
2676:2019
2648:2019
2625:2019
2585:2010
2540:ISBN
2506:2016
2474:ISBN
2427:2016
2405:2016
2300:ISBN
2235:link
2217:PMID
2125:ISBN
2083:ISBN
2039:PMID
2015:2012
1956:PMID
1888:PMID
1841:PMID
1773:PMID
1727:PMID
1622:ISBN
1599:PMID
1581:ISSN
1521:PMID
1513:ISSN
1467:PMID
1427:2016
1399:ISBN
1340:ISBN
1292:ISBN
1236:PMID
1198:out.
1168:and
1107:GCSE
974:Imax
858:Rana
853:frog
801:and
558:and
489:A.D.
381:and
318:and
294:and
244:arts
172:and
148:and
136:and
82:MeSH
66:and
3264:doi
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