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rapid 3D image acquisition and achieves spatial resolutions of 5-15 ÎŒm. For OCE, a mechanical load is applied to the tissue and the resultant deformation is measured using speckle tracking or phase sensitive detection. Early implementations of OCE involved applying a quasi-static compression to the tissue, though more recently dynamic loading has been achieved through the application of a sinusoidal modulation via a contact transducer or acoustic wave. Other imaging modalities with greater optical resolution have also been introduced for optical elastography to probe the microscale between cells and whole tissues. OCT relies on longer wavelengths, of 850 - 1050 nm, and therefore provides a lower optical resolution compared to common light microscopy, which uses visible wavelengths of 400-700 nm, and provides lateral spatial resolutions of <1 ÎŒm. Examples of higher resolution analysis include the use of confocal and light-sheet microscopy respectively for mechanical characterization of multicellular spheroids and for structural analysis of 3D organoids at a single-cell resolution. When using these imaging modalities, quasi-static compression may be induced in the tissue sample by a micro-indentation device, such as a microtweezer. The resultant deformation can be measured from the microscopy images using image-based nodal tracking algorithms, and mechanical properties can be discerned using finite element method (FEM) analyses.
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shear wave travels through the tissue. Local tissue velocity maps are obtained with a conventional speckle tracking technique and provide a full movie of the shear wave propagation through the tissue. There are two principal innovations implemented in SSI. First, by using many near-simultaneous pushes, SSI creates a source of shear waves which is moved through the medium at a supersonic speed. Second, the generated shear wave is visualized by using ultrafast imaging technique. Using inversion algorithms, the shear elasticity of medium is mapped quantitatively from the wave propagation movie. SSI is the first ultrasonic imaging technology able to reach more than 10,000 frames per second of deep-seated organs. SSI provides a set of quantitative and in vivo parameters describing the tissue mechanical properties: Young's modulus, viscosity, anisotropy.
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The principal difference between SWEI and ARFI is that SWEI is based on the use of shear waves propagating laterally from the beam axis and creating elasticity map by measuring shear wave propagation parameters whereas ARFI gets elasticity information from the axis of the pushing beam and uses multiple pushes to create a 2-D stiffness map. No shear waves are involved in ARFI and no axial elasticity assessment is involved in SWEI. SWEI is implemented in supersonic shear imaging (SSI).
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to assess the shear wave speed from which the Young's modulus is deduced under hypothesis of homogeneity, isotropy and pure elasticity (E=3ÏVÂČ). An important advantage of transient elastography compared to harmonic elastography techniques is the separation of shear waves and compression waves. The technique can be implemented in 1D and 2D which required the development of an ultrafast ultrasound scanner.
741:, 2.5% of 4,000 people born in 1991 and 1992 were found by ultrasound scanning at the age of 18 to have non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; five years later transient elastography found over 20% to have the fatty deposits on the liver of steatosis, indicating non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; half of those were classified as severe. The scans also found that 2.4% had the liver scarring of
25:
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575:. A specific implementation of 1D transient elastography called VCTE has been developed to assess average liver stiffness which correlates to liver fibrosis assessed by liver biopsy. This technique is implemented in a device which can also assess the controlled attenuation parameter (CAP) which is good surrogate marker of
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Optical elastography is an emerging technique that that utilizes optical microscopy to obtain tissue images. The most common form of optical elastography, optical coherence elastography (OCE), is based on optical coherence tomography (OCT), which combines interferometry with lateral beam scanning for
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from a focused ultrasound beam. The amount the tissue along the axis of the beam is pushed down is reflective of tissue stiffness; softer tissue is more easily pushed than stiffer tissue. ARFI shows a qualitative stiffness value along the axis of the pushing beam. By pushing in many different places,
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stiffness map is often desired. To do this requires that assumptions be made about the nature of the soft tissue being imaged and about tissue outside of the image. Additionally, under compression, objects can move into or out of the image or around in the image, causing problems with interpretation.
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There are numerous elastographic techniques, in development stages from early research to extensive clinical application. Each of these techniques works in a different way. What all methods have in common is that they create a distortion in the tissue, observe and process the tissue response to infer
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Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) was introduced in the mid-1990s, and multiple clinical applications have been investigated. In MRE, a mechanical vibrator is used on the surface of the patient's body; this creates shear waves that travel into the patient's deeper tissues. An imaging acquisition
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Transient elastography was initially called time-resolved pulse elastography when it was introduced in the late 1990s. The technique relies on a transient mechanical vibration which is used to induce a shear wave into the tissue. The propagation of the shear wave is tracked using ultrasound in order
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One strength of MRE is the resulting 3-D elasticity map, which can cover an entire organ. Because MRI is not limited by air or bone, it can access some tissues ultrasound cannot, notably the brain. It also has the advantage of being more uniform across operators and less dependent on operator skill
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MR elastography has made significant advances over the past few years with acquisition times down to a minute or less and has been used in a variety of medical applications including cardiology research on living human hearts. MR elastography's short acquisition time also makes it competitive with
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to see how fast the wave gets to different lateral positions, the stiffness of the intervening tissue is inferred. Since the terms "elasticity imaging" and "elastography" are synonyms, the original term SWEI denoting the technology for elasticity mapping using shear waves is often replaced by SWE.
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imaging. SSI is used for breast examination with a number of high-resolution linear transducers. A large multi-center breast imaging study has demonstrated both reproducibility and significant improvement in the classification of breast lesions when shear wave elastography images are added to the
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Supersonic shear imaging (SSI) gives a quantitative, real-time two-dimensional map of tissue stiffness. SSI is based on SWEI: it uses acoustic radiation force to induce a 'push' inside the tissue of interest generating shear waves and the tissue's stiffness is computed from how fast the resulting
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Quasistatic elastography (sometimes called simply 'elastography' for historical reasons) is one of the earliest elastography techniques. In this technique, an external compression is applied to tissue, and the ultrasound images before and after the compression are compared. The areas of the image
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Sandrin, Laurent; Fourquet, Bertrand; Hasquenoph, Jean-Michel; Yon, Sylvain; Fournier, Céline; Mal, Frédéric; Christidis, Christos; Ziol, Marianne; Poulet, Bruno; Kazemi, Farhad; Beaugrand, Michel; Palau, Robert (2003). "Transient elastography: a new non-invasive method for assessment of hepatic
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Berg, Wendie A.; Cosgrove, David O.; Doré, Caroline J; SchÀfer, Fritz K. W.; Svensson, William E.; Hooley, Regina J.; Ohlinger, Ralf; Mendelson, Ellen B.; Balu-Maestro, Catherine; Locatelli, Martina; Tourasse, Christophe; Cavanaugh, Barbara C.; Juhan, Valérie; Stavros, A. Thomas; Tardivon, Anne
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gave instructions on many forms of diagnosis using palpation, including palpation of the breasts, wounds, bowels, ulcers, uterus, skin, and tumours. In the modern
Western world, palpation became considered a respectable method of diagnosis in the 1930s. Since then, the practice of palpation has
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Sasso, Magali; Beaugrand, Michel; de
Ledinghen, Victor; Douvin, Catherine; Marcellin, Patrick; Poupon, Raoul; Sandrin, Laurent; Miette, VĂ©ronique (2010). "Controlled attenuation parameter (CAP): a novel VCTE guided ultrasonic attenuation measurement for the evaluation of hepatic steatosis:
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In the food industry, low-intensity ultrasonics has already been used since the 1980s to provide information about the concentration, structure, and physical state of components in foods such as vegetables, meats, and dairy products and also for quality control, for example to evaluate the
368:(i.e. a line), 2-D (a plane), 3-D (a volume), or 0-D (a single value), and it can be a video or a single image. In most cases, the result is displayed to the operator along with a conventional image of the tissue, which shows where in the tissue the different stiffness values occur.
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Because elastography does not have the same limitations as manual palpation, it is being investigated in some areas for which there is no history of diagnosis with manual palpation. For example, magnetic resonance elastography is capable of assessing the stiffness of the
2018:
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Acoustoelasticity in soft solids: Assessment of the nonlinear shear modulus with the acoustic radiation force, J.-L. Gennisson,a M. RĂ©nier, S. Catheline, C. BarriĂšre, J. Bercoff, M. Tanter, and M. Fink, J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 122 6, December
683:. Elastography is particularly advantageous in this case because when fibrosis is diffuse (spread around in clumps rather than continuous scarring), a biopsy can easily miss sampling the diseased tissue, which results in a
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Elastography is used for the investigation of many disease conditions in many organs. It can be used for additional diagnostic information compared to a mere anatomical image, and it can be used to guide
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Shear wave propagation maps obtained using transient elastography VCTE technique in a normal liver (top) and a cirrhotic liver (bottom). The liver stiffness is significantly higher in the cirrhotic liver.
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Ziol, Marianne; Handra-Luca, Adriana; Kettaneh, Adrien; Christidis, Christos; Mal, Frédéric; Kazemi, Farhad; de
Ledinghen, Victor; Marcellin, Patrick; Dhumeaux, Daniel; Trinchet, Jean-Claude (2005).
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Supersonic Shear
Imaging: A New Technique for Soft Tissue Elasticity Mapping. Bercoff J. et al., IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control, Vol. 51, No. 4, April 2004.
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that are least deformed are the ones that are the stiffest, while the most deformed areas are the least stiff. Generally, what is displayed to the operator is an image of the relative distortions (
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the mechanical properties of the tissue, and then display the results to the operator, usually as an image. Each elastographic method is characterized by the way it does each of these things.
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is the practice of feeling the stiffness of a person's or animal's tissues with the health practitioner's hands. Manual palpation dates back at least to 1500 BC, with the
Egyptian
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Sarvazyan, A. P.; Skovoroda, A. R.; Emelianov, S. Y.; Fowlkes, J. B.; Pipe, J. G.; Adler, R. S.; Buxton, R. B.; Carson, P. L. (1995). "Biophysical Bases of
Elasticity Imaging".
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Acoustic radiation force impulse imaging (ARFI) uses ultrasound to create a qualitative 2-D map of tissue stiffness. It does so by creating a 'push' inside the tissue using the
567:), and imaging the motion of that distortion as it passes deeper into the body using a 1D ultrasound beam. It then displays a quantitative line of tissue stiffness data (the
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Once the response has been observed, the stiffness can be calculated from it. Most elastography techniques find the stiffness of tissue based on one of two main principles:
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Sandrin, Laurent; Tanter, Michael; Gennisson, Jean-Luc; Catheline, Stefan; Fink, Mathias (2002). "Shear
Elasticity Probe for Soft Tissues with 1D Transient Elastography".
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or, increasingly, replace them entirely. Biopsies are invasive and painful, presenting a risk of hemorrhage or infection, whereas elastography is completely noninvasive.
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An ARFI image of a thyroid nodule in the right thyroid lobe. The shear wave speed inside the box is 6.24 m/s, which is reflective of a high stiffness. Histology revealed
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35:
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Sandrin, Laurent; Catheline, Stefan; Tanter, Michael; Hennequin, Xavier; Fink, Mathias (1999). "Time resolved pulsed elastography with ultrafast ultrasonic imaging".
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Manual palpation has several important limitations: it is limited to tissues accessible to the physician's hand, it is distorted by any intervening tissue, and it is
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Muthupillai R, Lomas DJ, Rossman PJ, et al. Magnetic resonance elastography by direct visualization of propagating acoustic strain waves. Science 1995; 269: 1854-7..
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To image the mechanical properties of tissue, we need to see how it behaves when deformed. There are three main ways of inducing a distortion to observe. These are:
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Some techniques will simply display the distortion and/or response, or the wave speed to the operator, while others will compute the stiffness (specifically the
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Another limit of this technique is that like manual palpation, it has difficulty with organs or tissues that are not close to the surface or easily compressed.
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A Review of
Optical Coherence Elastography: Fundamentals, Techniques and Prospects. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics 2014; 20(2):7101217.
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a map of the tissue stiffness is built up. Virtual Touch imaging quantification (VTIQ) has been successfully used to identify malignant cervical lymph nodes.
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Naturally, elastography sees use for organs and diseases where manual palpation was already widespread. Elastography is used for detection and diagnosis of
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The primary way elastographic techniques are categorized is by what imaging modality (type) they use to observe the response. Elastographic techniques use
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962:, Palmeri ML, Nightingale RW, and Trahey GE, On the feasibility of remote palpation using acoustic radiation force. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2001; 110: 625-34
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Tactile imaging involves translating the results of a digital "touch" into an image. Many physical principles have been explored for the realization of
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Cosgrove, David O.; Berg, Wendie A.; Doré, Caroline J.; Skyba, Danny M.; Henry, Jean-Pierre; Gay, Joel; Cohen-Bacrie, Claude; BE1 Study Group (2012).
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Ophir, J.; CĂ©spides, I.; Ponnekanti, H.; Li, X. (April 1991). "Elastography: A quantitative method for imaging the elasticity of biological tissues".
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In the case of endogenous motion imaging, instead of inducing a disturbance, disturbances naturally created by physiological processes are observed.
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1659:"Non-invasive assessment of liver fibrosis by stiffness measurements: a prospective multicenter study in patients with chronic hepatitis C"
763:: resistive, inductive, capacitive, optoelectric, magnetic, piezoelectric, and electroacoustic principles, in a variety of configurations.
563:(i.e. a line) image of "tissue" stiffness. It functions by vibrating the skin with a motor to create a passing distortion in the tissue (a
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407:) and display that instead. Some techniques present results quantitatively, while others only present qualitative (relative) results.
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Sandrin, Laurent; Tanter, Michael; Catheline, Stefan; Fink, Mathias (2002). "Shear modulus imaging with 2D transient elastography".
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220:. The main idea is that whether the tissue is hard or soft will give diagnostic information about the presence or status of
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614:). The result of an MRE scan is a quantitative 3-D map of the tissue stiffness, as well as a conventional 3-D MRI image.
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571:). This technique is used mainly by the Fibroscan system, which is used for liver assessment, for example, to diagnose
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Lightsheet microscopy integrates single-cell optical visco-elastography and fluorescence cytometry of 3D live tissues
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sequence that measures the velocity of the waves is used, and this is used to infer the tissue's stiffness (the
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An anatomical MRI image of a brain (top) and an MRE elastogram of the same brain (bottom). The stiffness is in
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While not visible on conventional grayscale ultrasound (left), a strain elastography image (centre) of the
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preliminary study and validation in a cohort of patients with chronic liver disease from various causes".
1130:"Shear-wave Elastography Improves the Specificity of Breast US: The BE1 Multinational Study of 939 Masses"
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Tomizawa, Yuji; Wali, Khadija H.; Surti, Manav; Suhail, Yasir; Kshitiz; Hoshino, Kazunori (2024-05-07),
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become widespread, and it is considered an effective method of detecting tumours and other pathologies.
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Conventional ultrasonography (lower image) and elastography (supersonic shear imaging; upper image) of
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There are a great many ultrasound elastographic techniques. The most prominent are highlighted below.
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The observation of the tissue response can take many forms. In terms of the image obtained, it can be
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In shear-wave elasticity imaging (SWEI), similar to ARFI, a 'push' is induced deep in the tissue by
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Elastography is used to investigate disease in the liver. Liver stiffness is usually indicative of
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Tegin, J; Wikander, J (2005). "Tactile sensing in intelligent robotic manipulation â a review".
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1425:(1999). "A solution to diffraction biases in sonoelasticity: The acoustic impulse technique".
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1292:(1999). "A solution to diffraction biases in sonoelasticity: The acoustic impulse technique".
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1208:"Use of an ultrasonic technique to evaluate the rheological properties of cheese and dough"
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Any of several imaging modalities that map degrees of soft-tissue elasticity and stiffness
1480:(April 2002). "Shear elasticity probe for soft tissues with 1-D transient elastography".
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297:. Elastography, the measurement of tissue stiffness, seeks to address these challenges.
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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This approach demonstrated clinical benefit in breast, thyroid, liver, prostate, and
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Using distortions created by normal physiological processes, e.g. pulse or heartbeat.
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1843:"A Review of Optical Coherence Elastography: Fundamentals, Techniques and Prospects"
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RĂŒger, Holger; Psychogios, Georgios; Jering, Monika; Zenk, Johannes (October 2020).
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Shear wave elasticity imaging: a new ultrasonic technology of medical diagnostics.
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Supersonic shear imaging of the stiffness during contraction of the hand muscles
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1169:"Ultrasonics in food engineering. Part I: Introduction and experimental methods"
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to evaluate cortical fibrosis have been published showing promising results. In
489:. The disturbance created by this push travels sideways through the tissue as a
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180:, a malignant cancer. The cancer (red) is much stiffer than the healthy tissue.
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262:, women look for hard lumps, as cancer is usually stiffer than healthy tissue.
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243:(MRI) to make both the stiffness map and an anatomical image for comparison.
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detects a cancer (dark red area at lower left). The finding is confirmed by
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Sandrin, Laurent; Tanter, Mickaël; Gennisson, Jean-Luc; Catheline, Stefan;
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imaging using ultrasound to remotely create a 'push' inside the tissue, and
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Magnetic resonance elastography: Non-invasive mapping of tissue elasticity
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675:), which are in turn indicative of numerous disease conditions, including
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Kennedy, Brendan F.; Kennedy, Kelsey M.; Sampson, David D. (March 2014).
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Kennedy, Brendan F.; Wijesinghe, Philip; Sampson, David D. (April 2017).
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IEEE Transactions on
Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control
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IEEE Transactions on
Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control
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IEEE Transactions on Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control
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imaging, and they can determine the mechanical properties and state of
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tumours will often be harder than the surrounding tissue, and diseased
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if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and
2019:"Magnetic Resonance Elastography - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
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interpretation of standard B-mode and Color mode ultrasound images.
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911:"Imaging the elastic properties of tissue: the 20 year perspective"
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1066:"Shear wave elastography for breast masses is highly reproducible"
803:"Medical ultrasound: imaging of soft tissue strain and elasticity"
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638:
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395:) travel faster through stiffer tissue than through softer tissue.
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Hansen, Kristoffer; Nielsen, Michael; Ewertsen, Caroline (2015).
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Sarvazyan A, Hall TJ, Urban MW, Fatemi M, Aglyamov SR, Garra BS.
2107:"Experts warn of fatty liver disease 'epidemic' in young people"
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Assessing tissue stiffness may boost breast imaging specificity.
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Sarvazyan AP, Rudenko OV, Swanson SD, Fowlkes JB, Emelianov SY.
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Overview of elastographyâan emerging branch of medical imaging
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361:(s). There are a handful of other methods that exist as well.
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cancers. Certain types of elastography are also suitable for
1523:
Ganne-Carrié N; Ziol M; de Ledinghen V; et al. (2006).
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both giving instructions on diagnosis with palpation. In
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Pushing/deforming or vibrating the surface of the body (
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Parker, K J; Doyley, M M; Rubens, D J (February 2011).
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IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics
1804:"The emergence of optical elastography in biomedicine"
858:. Current Medical Imaging Reviews, 2011, 7(4):255-282.
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From the relative distortion image, however, making a
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In 2015, preliminary reports on elastography used on
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2045:"Ultrasonography of the Kidney: A Pictorial Review"
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1574:"Clinical applications of transient elastography"
1167:Povey, M. J. W.; McClements, D. J. (1988-01-01).
427:Manual compression (quasistatic) elastography of
726:on elastography in healthy and diseased brains.
456:Acoustic radiation force impulse imaging (ARFI)
618:than most methods of ultrasound elastography.
49:Please review the contents of the article and
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8:
1427:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
1294:Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
559:Transient elastography gives a quantitative
1783:Manduca A, Oliphant TE, Dresner MA, et al.
1112:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
752:Other techniques include elastography with
258:has long been used to detect disease. In a
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1022:Ultrasound Med Biol. 1998; 24(9): 1419-35.
522:(B). The scale is in kPa of shear modulus.
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419:Quasistatic elastography / strain imaging
3025:Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging
1206:Lee, H.O.; Luan, H.; Daut, D.G. (1992).
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807:Journal of the Royal Society, Interface
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444:), which is often of clinical utility.
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1054:Diagnostic Imaging. 2009;31(12):15-17.
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1908:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1572:Jung, Kyu Sik; Kim, Seung Up (2012).
583:Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE)
353:(MRI) and pressure/stress sensors in
7:
2123:Kennedy BF, Kennedy KM, Sampson DD.
978:Ultrasound in Medicine & Biology
481:Shear-wave elasticity imaging (SWEI)
1050:Mendelson EB, Chen J, Karstaedt P.
2832:Sestamibi parathyroid scintigraphy
1746:. Vol. 21. pp. 223â240.
1721:10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2010.07.005
1709:Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology
1636:10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2003.07.001
1624:Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology
990:10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2020.06.005
493:. By using an image modality like
235:The most prominent techniques use
14:
1787:. Med Image Anal 2001; 5: 237-54.
1578:Clinical and Molecular Hepatology
1421:Catheline, Stefan; Wu, Francois;
1288:Catheline, Stefan; Wu, Francois;
722:, and there is a growing body of
544:rheological qualities of cheese.
3087:
3086:
331:acoustic radiation force impulse
130:
115:
23:
2589:Cholangiopancreatography (MRCP)
2105:Sarah Boseley (12 April 2019).
2041:Content initially copied from:
916:Physics in Medicine and Biology
622:other elastography techniques.
605:Magnetic resonance elastography
391:Mechanical waves (specifically
388:) less than does softer tissue.
232:are stiffer than healthy ones.
2837:Radioactive iodine uptake test
506:Supersonic shear imaging (SSI)
51:add the appropriate references
1:
2817:Radionuclide ventriculography
2291:Lower gastrointestinal series
2283:Upper gastrointestinal series
1224:10.1016/s0260-8774(01)00073-5
801:Wells, P. N. T. (June 2011).
3008:Optical coherence tomography
2930:Myocardial perfusion imaging
2518:Dental panoramic radiography
1752:10.1007/978-1-4615-1943-0_23
1185:10.1016/0260-8774(88)90015-5
938:10.1088/0031-9155/57/16/5359
885:10.1016/0161-7346(91)90079-W
754:optical coherence tomography
1212:Journal of Food Engineering
1173:Journal of Food Engineering
384:), stiffer tissue deforms (
380:For a given applied force (
372:Processing and presentation
178:papillary thyroid carcinoma
36:reliable medical references
3129:
2812:Ventilation/perfusion scan
2287:Small-bowel follow-through
2062:10.3390/diagnostics6010002
1859:10.1109/JSTQE.2013.2291445
1259:10.1177/016173469902100402
602:
351:magnetic resonance imaging
241:magnetic resonance imaging
3082:
3053:Dynamic angiothermography
2797:
2721:Abdominal ultrasonography
2227:
2150:10.1108/01439910510573318
1982:10.1101/2024.04.20.590392
1918:"Optica Publishing Group"
1881:"Optica Publishing Group"
1590:10.3350/cmh.2012.18.2.163
1082:10.1007/s00330-011-2340-y
520:first dorsal interosseous
429:invasive ductal carcinoma
326:) with a probe or a tool,
169:
139:This article needs to be
42:or relies too heavily on
3043:Non-contact thermography
2822:Radionuclide angiography
2674:Doppler echocardiography
487:acoustic radiation force
474:acoustic radiation force
208:modalities that map the
2827:Radioisotope renography
1146:10.1148/radiol.11110640
411:Ultrasound elastography
260:breast self-examination
2862:Gastric emptying study
1820:10.1038/nphoton.2017.6
819:10.1098/rsif.2011.0054
652:
600:
552:
539:Transient elastography
523:
516:abductor digiti minimi
469:
436:
341:Observing the response
263:
2523:X-ray motion analysis
2406:X-ray microtomography
2325:Hysterosalpingography
2232:Pneumoencephalography
2023:www.sciencedirect.com
1930:10.1364/boe.10.002409
724:scientific literature
642:
590:
550:
513:
463:
426:
310:Inducing a distortion
254:
247:Historical background
204:is any of a class of
3048:Contact thermography
2758:Emergency ultrasound
2696:Transcranial Doppler
2447:Abdominal and pelvis
745:, which can lead to
731:transplanted kidneys
626:Optical elastography
3015:Confocal microscopy
2893:Indium-111 WBC scan
2716:Echoencephalography
2452:Virtual colonoscopy
1893:10.1364/oe.3.000199
1439:1999ASAJ..105.2941C
1306:1999ASAJ..105.2941C
929:2012PMB....57.5359P
739:Children of the 90s
673:fatty liver disease
466:papillary carcinoma
275:Edwin Smith Papyrus
3003:Optical tomography
2852:Dacryoscintigraphy
2847:Immunoscintigraphy
2486:Whole body imaging
2237:Dental radiography
1744:Acoustical Imaging
1247:Ultrasonic Imaging
1070:European Radiology
873:Ultrasonic Imaging
735:Bristol University
653:
601:
553:
524:
470:
437:
264:
210:elastic properties
3100:
3099:
3062:Target conditions
2985:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2901:
2900:
2842:Bone scintigraphy
2807:Scintimammography
2802:Cholescintigraphy
2647:contrast-enhanced
2541:
2540:
2501:
2500:
2491:Full-body CT scan
2391:General operation
2370:
2369:
2340:Angiocardiography
1761:978-1-4613-5797-1
1715:(11): 1825â1835.
1676:10.1002/hep.20506
1630:(12): 1705â1713.
1542:10.1002/hep.21420
1494:10.1109/58.996561
1447:10.1109/58.996561
1392:10.1109/58.996560
1349:10.1109/58.996561
984:(10): 2677â2682.
813:(64): 1521â1549.
199:
198:
160:
159:
124:
123:
100:
3120:
3090:
3089:
2913:
2795:
2785:
2669:Echocardiography
2528:Hounsfield scale
2381:
2300:Cholecystography
2225:
2216:
2191:
2184:
2177:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2138:Industrial Robot
2133:
2127:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2102:
2096:
2092:
2082:
2064:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2029:
2015:
2009:
2008:
2007:
2006:
1993:
1967:
1958:
1957:
1955:
1954:
1941:
1914:
1903:
1902:
1900:
1899:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1838:
1832:
1831:
1808:Nature Photonics
1799:
1788:
1781:
1775:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1739:
1733:
1732:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1678:
1654:
1648:
1647:
1618:
1612:
1611:
1601:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1544:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1433:(5): 2941â2950.
1418:
1412:
1411:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1314:10.1121/1.426907
1300:(5): 2941â2950.
1285:
1279:
1278:
1242:
1236:
1235:
1218:(1/2): 127â150.
1203:
1197:
1196:
1164:
1158:
1157:
1124:
1118:
1117:
1111:
1103:
1093:
1076:(5): 1023â1032.
1061:
1055:
1048:
1042:
1038:
1032:
1029:
1023:
1016:
1010:
1009:
969:
963:
957:
951:
950:
940:
906:
897:
896:
868:
859:
852:
841:
840:
830:
798:
776:
195:
174:
162:
155:
152:
146:
134:
133:
126:
119:
118:
110:
107:
101:
99:
58:
27:
26:
19:
3128:
3127:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3119:
3118:
3117:
3113:Medical imaging
3103:
3102:
3101:
3096:
3078:
3057:
3029:
2977:
2963:PET mammography
2934:
2897:
2883:Gallium-67 scan
2878:Octreotide scan
2866:
2774:
2625:
2537:
2497:
2420:
2401:High-resolution
2366:
2330:Skeletal survey
2296:Cholangiography
2209:
2200:
2198:Medical imaging
2195:
2165:
2135:
2134:
2130:
2122:
2118:
2104:
2103:
2099:
2042:
2040:
2036:
2027:
2025:
2017:
2016:
2012:
2004:
2002:
1969:
1968:
1961:
1952:
1950:
1916:
1915:
1906:
1897:
1895:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1840:
1839:
1835:
1801:
1800:
1791:
1782:
1778:
1773:
1769:
1762:
1741:
1740:
1736:
1705:
1704:
1700:
1656:
1655:
1651:
1620:
1619:
1615:
1571:
1570:
1566:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1420:
1419:
1415:
1377:
1376:
1372:
1334:
1333:
1329:
1287:
1286:
1282:
1244:
1243:
1239:
1205:
1204:
1200:
1166:
1165:
1161:
1126:
1125:
1121:
1104:
1063:
1062:
1058:
1049:
1045:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1026:
1017:
1013:
971:
970:
966:
958:
954:
908:
907:
900:
870:
869:
862:
853:
844:
800:
799:
788:
784:
773:
769:
761:tactile sensors
704:musculoskeletal
637:
628:
607:
585:
577:liver steatosis
569:Young's modulus
561:one-dimensional
541:
532:musculoskeletal
508:
483:
458:
421:
413:
401:Young's modulus
374:
355:tactile imaging
343:
312:
303:
249:
224:. For example,
206:medical imaging
191:
181:
156:
150:
147:
144:
135:
131:
120:
116:
111:
105:
102:
59:
48:
44:primary sources
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3126:
3124:
3116:
3115:
3105:
3104:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3094:
3083:
3080:
3079:
3077:
3076:
3071:
3065:
3063:
3059:
3058:
3056:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3039:
3037:
3031:
3030:
3028:
3027:
3022:
3020:Endomicroscopy
3017:
3012:
3011:
3010:
2999:
2997:
2987:
2986:
2983:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2949:
2947:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2932:
2926:
2924:
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2899:
2898:
2896:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2874:
2872:
2868:
2867:
2865:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
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2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
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2814:
2809:
2804:
2798:
2792:
2782:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2772:
2771:
2770:
2765:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2734:
2733:
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2698:
2693:
2692:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2666:
2665:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2635:
2633:
2627:
2626:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2617:
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2606:
2596:
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2580:
2579:
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2539:
2538:
2536:
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2525:
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2494:
2493:
2483:
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2473:
2472:
2471:
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2443:
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2421:
2419:
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2378:
2372:
2371:
2368:
2367:
2365:
2364:
2359:
2354:
2349:
2348:
2347:
2342:
2332:
2327:
2322:
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2307:
2302:
2293:
2280:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2260:
2259:
2249:
2244:
2239:
2234:
2228:
2222:
2213:
2202:
2201:
2196:
2194:
2193:
2186:
2179:
2171:
2164:
2163:
2128:
2116:
2097:
2034:
2010:
1959:
1922:opg.optica.org
1904:
1885:opg.optica.org
1872:
1853:(2): 272â288.
1833:
1814:(4): 215â221.
1789:
1776:
1767:
1760:
1734:
1698:
1649:
1613:
1564:
1515:
1488:(4): 436â446.
1468:
1413:
1386:(4): 426â435.
1370:
1343:(4): 436â446.
1327:
1280:
1253:(4): 259â272.
1237:
1198:
1179:(4): 217â245.
1159:
1140:(2): 435â449.
1119:
1056:
1043:
1033:
1024:
1011:
964:
960:Nightingale KR
952:
898:
879:(2): 111â134.
860:
842:
785:
783:
780:
779:
778:
768:
765:
756:(i.e. light).
687:misdiagnosis.
685:false negative
645:prostate gland
636:
633:
627:
624:
603:Main article:
584:
581:
540:
537:
507:
504:
482:
479:
457:
454:
420:
417:
412:
409:
397:
396:
389:
373:
370:
359:tactile sensor
342:
339:
338:
337:
334:
327:
311:
308:
302:
299:
279:ancient Greece
248:
245:
197:
196:
189:
183:
182:
175:
167:
166:
158:
157:
138:
136:
129:
122:
121:
114:
112:
65:"Elastography"
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3125:
3114:
3111:
3110:
3108:
3093:
3085:
3084:
3081:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3060:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3036:
3032:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3009:
3006:
3005:
3004:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2925:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2904:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2888:Ga-68-DOTATOC
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2875:
2873:
2869:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2799:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2777:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2760:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2723:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2701:Intravascular
2699:
2697:
2694:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2670:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2636:
2634:
2632:
2628:
2622:
2621:Synthetic MRI
2619:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2601:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2578:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2556:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2548:
2544:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2510:
2508:
2504:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2457:
2453:
2450:
2449:
2448:
2445:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2429:
2427:
2423:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2411:Electron beam
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2363:
2362:Orbital x-ray
2360:
2358:
2355:
2353:
2350:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2258:
2257:Bronchography
2255:
2254:
2253:
2250:
2248:
2245:
2243:
2240:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2230:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2192:
2187:
2185:
2180:
2178:
2173:
2172:
2169:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2132:
2129:
2125:
2120:
2117:
2112:
2108:
2101:
2098:
2095:
2090:
2086:
2081:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2038:
2035:
2024:
2020:
2014:
2011:
2001:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1974:
1966:
1964:
1960:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1905:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1876:
1873:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1837:
1834:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1780:
1777:
1771:
1768:
1763:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1738:
1735:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1702:
1699:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1653:
1650:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1617:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1584:(2): 163â73.
1583:
1579:
1575:
1568:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1543:
1538:
1535:(6): 1511â7.
1534:
1530:
1526:
1519:
1516:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1478:Fink, Mathias
1472:
1469:
1464:
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1423:Fink, Mathias
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1290:Fink, Mathias
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923:(2): R1âR29.
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623:
619:
615:
613:
612:shear modulus
606:
598:
597:shear modulus
594:
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570:
566:
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549:
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455:
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434:
433:breast cancer
430:
425:
418:
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405:shear modulus
402:
394:
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271:Ebers Papyrus
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77:
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70:
67: â
66:
62:
61:Find sources:
56:
52:
46:
45:
41:
37:
32:This article
30:
21:
20:
3069:Acute stroke
3035:Thermography
2790:scintigraphy
2780:Radionuclide
2768:pre-hospital
2614:Tractography
2533:Radiodensity
2435:calcium scan
2396:Quantitative
2144:(1): 64â70.
2141:
2137:
2131:
2119:
2111:The Guardian
2110:
2100:
2052:
2048:
2037:
2026:. Retrieved
2022:
2013:
2003:, retrieved
1972:
1951:. Retrieved
1921:
1896:. Retrieved
1884:
1875:
1850:
1846:
1836:
1811:
1807:
1779:
1770:
1743:
1737:
1712:
1708:
1701:
1669:(1): 48â54.
1666:
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1627:
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1122:
1108:cite journal
1073:
1069:
1059:
1046:
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1027:
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920:
914:
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872:
810:
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774:
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728:
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689:
662:
654:
635:Applications
629:
620:
616:
608:
558:
554:
542:
529:
525:
484:
471:
449:quantitative
448:
446:
438:
414:
398:
375:
363:
344:
322:) or organ (
313:
304:
301:How it works
295:quantitative
288:
265:
234:
202:Elastography
201:
200:
165:Elastography
148:
140:
103:
93:
86:
79:
72:
60:
40:verification
33:
2958:Cardiac PET
2731:renal tract
2706:Gynecologic
2638:Techniques
2609:restriction
2584:Angiography
2567:Neurography
2513:Fluoroscopy
2459:Angiography
2440:angiography
2384:Techniques:
2345:Aortography
2335:Angiography
2315:Cystography
2305:Mammography
2247:Myelography
2242:Sialography
2211:radiography
2094:(CC-BY 4.0)
2049:Diagnostics
1622:fibrosis".
403:or similar
393:shear waves
357:(TI) using
291:qualitative
283:Hippocrates
218:soft tissue
34:needs more
2871:Full body:
2657:endoscopic
2631:Ultrasound
2560:functional
2357:Lymphogram
2352:Venography
2320:Arthrogram
2028:2024-01-07
2005:2024-08-28
1953:2024-08-28
1898:2024-08-28
1663:Hepatology
1529:Hepatology
782:References
565:shear wave
495:ultrasound
491:shear wave
347:ultrasound
237:ultrasound
151:April 2018
106:April 2018
76:newspapers
3074:Pregnancy
2953:Brain PET
2921:gamma ray
2857:DMSA scan
2711:Obstetric
2604:diffusion
2599:Sequences
2577:perfusion
2469:Pulmonary
2416:Cone beam
2310:Pyelogram
2071:2075-4418
1867:1077-260X
1828:1749-4893
1232:0260-8774
1193:0260-8774
1134:Radiology
1006:220484342
747:cirrhosis
737:'s study
681:hepatitis
677:cirrhosis
669:steatosis
649:histology
573:cirrhosis
267:Palpation
256:Palpation
226:cancerous
214:stiffness
3107:Category
3092:Category
2944:positron
2464:Coronary
2158:17274884
2089:26838799
2055:(1): 2.
2000:38766194
1991:11100606
1948:31143496
1729:20870345
1693:23294239
1685:15690481
1644:14698338
1608:22893866
1559:21900022
1551:17133503
1510:26431531
1502:11989699
1463:26431531
1455:11989699
1408:24131440
1400:11989698
1365:26431531
1357:11989699
1322:10335643
1275:40873227
1267:10801211
1154:22282182
1128:(2012).
1100:22210408
998:32651021
947:21119234
837:21680780
743:fibrosis
700:prostate
665:fibrosis
658:biopsies
518:(A) and
324:prostate
293:but not
2991:Optical
2973:PET-MRI
2753:Carotid
2748:Scrotal
2642:doppler
2572:Cardiac
2481:Thyroid
2425:Targets
2376:CT scan
2080:4808817
1939:6524572
1599:3415879
1435:Bibcode
1302:Bibcode
1091:3321140
925:Bibcode
893:1858217
828:3177611
712:tendons
708:muscles
696:thyroid
442:strains
386:strains
222:disease
193:D054459
141:updated
90:scholar
55:removed
2968:PET-CT
2743:Breast
2738:Rectal
2662:duplex
2594:Breast
2431:Heart
2156:
2087:
2077:
2069:
1998:
1988:
1946:
1936:
1865:
1826:
1758:
1727:
1691:
1683:
1642:
1606:
1596:
1557:
1549:
1508:
1500:
1461:
1453:
1406:
1398:
1363:
1355:
1320:
1273:
1265:
1230:
1191:
1152:
1098:
1088:
1004:
996:
945:
891:
835:
825:
698:, and
692:breast
382:stress
329:Using
230:livers
92:
85:
78:
71:
63:
2995:Laser
2917:SPECT
2726:renal
2555:Brain
2506:Other
2206:X-ray
2154:S2CID
1689:S2CID
1555:S2CID
1506:S2CID
1459:S2CID
1404:S2CID
1361:S2CID
1271:S2CID
1002:S2CID
767:Notes
720:brain
97:JSTOR
83:books
2763:FAST
2476:Head
2085:PMID
2067:ISSN
1996:PMID
1944:PMID
1863:ISSN
1824:ISSN
1756:ISBN
1725:PMID
1681:PMID
1640:PMID
1604:PMID
1547:PMID
1498:PMID
1451:PMID
1396:PMID
1353:PMID
1318:PMID
1263:PMID
1228:ISSN
1189:ISSN
1150:PMID
1114:link
1096:PMID
1041:2007
994:PMID
943:PMID
889:PMID
833:PMID
710:and
679:and
431:, a
320:skin
273:and
212:and
187:MeSH
69:news
38:for
2940:PET
2908:ECT
2906:3D/
2788:2D/
2689:ICE
2684:TEE
2679:TTE
2547:MRI
2278:DXR
2274:DXA
2269:KUB
2264:AXR
2252:CXR
2146:doi
2075:PMC
2057:doi
1986:PMC
1978:doi
1934:PMC
1926:doi
1889:doi
1855:doi
1816:doi
1748:doi
1717:doi
1671:doi
1632:doi
1594:PMC
1586:doi
1537:doi
1490:doi
1443:doi
1431:105
1388:doi
1345:doi
1310:doi
1298:105
1255:doi
1220:doi
1181:doi
1142:doi
1138:262
1086:PMC
1078:doi
986:doi
933:doi
881:doi
823:PMC
815:doi
667:or
595:of
593:kPa
499:MRI
497:or
366:1-D
239:or
216:of
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2946:):
2923:):
2652:3D
2220:2D
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