360:
546:
400:
506:-based materials can be used as electrocatalysts. The carbon surfaces of graphene and carbon nanotubes are well suited to the adsorption of many chemical species, which can promote certain electrocatalytic reactions. In addition, their conductivity means they are good electrode materials. Carbon nanotubes have a very high surface area, maximizing surface sites at which electrochemical transformations can occur. Graphene can also serve as a platform for constructing composites with other kinds of
387:. In principle, atoms with lower coordination number (kinks and defects) tend to be more reactive and therefore adsorb the reactants more easily: this may promote kinetics but could also depress it if the adsorbing species isn't the reactant, thus inactivating the catalyst. Advances in nanotechnology make it possible to surface engineer the catalyst so that just some desired crystal planes are exposed to reactants, maximizing the number of effective reaction sites for the desired reaction.
151:
296:, i.e. convert nitrogen gas into molecules such as ammonia. Immobilizing the protein onto an electrode surface and employing an electron mediator greatly improves the efficiency of this process. The effectiveness of bioelectrocatalysts generally depends on the ease of electron transport between the active site of the enzyme and the electrode surface. Other enzymes provide insight for the development of synthetic catalysts. For example,
116:, a drawback is that they can suffer from high activation barriers. The energy diverted to overcome these activation barriers is transformed into heat. In most exothermic combustion reactions this heat would simply propagate the reaction catalytically. In a redox reaction, this heat is a useless byproduct lost to the system. The extra energy required to overcome kinetic barriers is usually described in terms of low
565:
31:
338:. Water electrolysis is conventionally conducted at inert bulk metal electrodes such as platinum or iridium. The activity of an electrocatalyst can be tuned with a chemical modification, commonly obtained by alloying two or more metals. This is due to a change in the electronic structure, especially in the d band which is considered to be responsible for the catalytic properties of noble metals.
572:
Hydrogen and oxygen can be combined through by the use of a fuel cell. In this process, the reaction is broken into two half reactions which occur at separate electrodes. In this situation the reactant's energy is directly converted to electricity. Useful energy can be obtained from the thermal heat
308:
are another way that biological systems can be leveraged for electrocatalytic applications. Microbial-based systems leverage the metabolic pathways of an entire organism, rather than the activity of a specific enzyme, meaning that they can catalyze a broad range of chemical reactions. Microbial fuel
733:
Electrocatalysts are used to promote certain chemical reactions to obtain synthetic products. Graphene and graphene oxides have shown promise as electrocatalytic materials for synthesis. Electrocatalytic methods also have potential for polymer synthesis. Electrocatalytic synthesis reactions can be
704:
hydrogen gas, and water. Although this process is thermodynamically favored, the activation barrier is extremely high, so in practice this reaction is not typically observed. However, electrocatalysts can speed up this reaction greatly, making methanol a possible route to hydrogen storage for fuel
92:
Electrocatalysts can be evaluated according to activity, stability, and selectivity. The activity of electrocatalysts can be assessed quantitatively by the current density is generated, and therefore how fast a reaction is taking place, for a given applied potential. This relationship is described
687:
are those that have a higher energy content, meaning that they can be reused as fuels. Thus, catalyst development focuses on the production of products such as methane and methanol. Homogeneous catalysts, such as enzymes and synthetic coordination complexes have been employed for this purpose. A
403:
An example of a particle-size effect: the number of reaction sites of different kinds depends on the size of the particle. In this four FCC nanoparticles model, the kink site between (111) and (100) planes (coordination number 6, represented by golden spheres) is 24 for all of the four different
371:
Also, higher reaction rates can be achieved by precisely controlling the arrangement of surface atoms: indeed, in nanometric systems, the number of available reaction sites is a better parameter than the exposed surface area in order to estimate electrocatalytic activity. Sites are the positions
88:
required for an electrochemical reaction. Some electrocatalysts change the potential at which oxidation and reduction processes occur. In other cases, an electrocatalyst can impart selectivity by favoring specific chemical interaction at an electrode surface. Given that electrochemical reactions
321:
A heterogeneous electrocatalyst is one that is present in a different phase of matter from the reactants, for example, a solid surface catalyzing a reaction in solution. Different types of heterogeneous electrocatalyst materials are shown above in green. Since heterogeneous electrocatalytic
322:
reactions need an electron transfer between the solid catalyst (typically a metal) and the electrolyte, which can be a liquid solution but also a polymer or a ceramic capable of ionic conduction, the reaction kinetics depend on both the catalyst and the electrolyte as well as on the
390:
To date, a generalized surface dependence mechanism cannot be formulated since every surface effect is strongly reaction-specific. A few classifications of reactions based on their surface dependence have been proposed but there are still many exceptions that do not fall into them.
139:, multiple electron transfers, and the evolution or consumption of gases in their overall chemical transformations, will often have considerable kinetic barriers. Furthermore, there is often more than one possible reaction at the surface of an electrode. For example, during the
163:
A homogeneous electrocatalyst is one that is present in the same phase of matter as the reactants, for example, a water-soluble coordination complex catalyzing an electrochemical conversion in solution. This technology is not practiced commercially, but is of research interest.
101:(TON). The selectivity of electrocatalysts refers to the product distribution. Selectivity can be quantitatively assessed through a selectivity coefficient, which compares the response of the material to the desired analyte or substrate with the response to other interferents.
89:
occur when electrons are passed from one chemical species to another, favorable interactions at an electrode surface increase the likelihood of electrochemical transformations occurring, thus reducing the potential required to achieve these transformations.
2745:
Ji, Yangyuan; Choi, Youn Jeong; Fang, Yuhang; Pham, Hoang Son; Nou, Alliyan Tan; Lee, Linda S.; Niu, Junfeng; Warsinger, David M. (2023-01-19). "Electric Field-Assisted
Nanofiltration for PFOA Removal with Exceptional Flux, Selectivity, and Destruction".
529:. MOFs provide potential active sites at both metal centers and organic ligand sites. They can also be functionalized, or encapsulate other materials such as nanoparticles. MOFs can also be combined with carbon-based materials to form electrocatalysts.
536:
However, many MOFs are known unstable in chemical and electrochemical conditions, making it difficult to tell if MOFs are actually catalysts or precatalysts. The real active sites of MOFs during electrocatalysis need to be analyzed comprehensively.
1407:
Kleinhaus, Julian T.; Wolf, Jonas; Pellumbi, Kevinjeorjios; Wickert, Leon; Viswanathan, Sangita C.; Junge Puring, Kai; Siegmund, Daniel; Apfel, Ulf-Peter (2023). "Developing electrochemical hydrogenation towards industrial application".
355:
materials have been demonstrated to promote various electrochemical reactions, although none have been commercialized. These catalysts can be tuned with respect to their size and shape, as well as the surface
65:. Homogeneous electrocatalysts, which are soluble, assist in transferring electrons between the electrode and reactants, and/or facilitate an intermediate chemical transformation described by an overall
831:
746:, and are key in destroying byproducts from disinfection, pesticides, and other hazardous compound. There is an emerging effort to enable these processes to destroy more tenacious compounds, especially
2359:
Zheng, Weiran; Liu, Mengjie; Lee, Lawrence Yoon Suk (3 January 2020). "Electrochemical
Instability of Metal–Organic Frameworks: In Situ Spectroelectrochemical Investigation of the Real Active Sites".
188:
There is much interest in replacing traditional chemical catalysis with electrocatalysis. In such a scheme electrons supplied by an electrode are reagents. The topic is a theme within the area of
431:
is commonly considered to be the main parameter relating electrocatalyst size with its activity, to understand the particle-size effect, several more phenomena need to be taken into account:
1545:
Chen, Hui; Simoska, Olja; Lim, Koun; Grattieri, Matteo; Yuan, Mengwei; Dong, Fangyuan; Lee, Yoo Seok; Beaver, Kevin; Weliwatte, Samali; Gaffney, Erin M.; Minteer, Shelley D. (2020-12-09).
533:, particularly those that contain metals, can also serve as electrocatalysts. COFs constructed from cobalt porphyrins demonstrated the ability to reduce carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide.
1467:
Guo, Wenhan; Zhang, Kexin; Liang, Zibin; Zou, Ruqiang; Xu, Qiang (2019). "Electrochemical nitrogen fixation and utilization: Theories, advanced catalyst materials and system design".
588:. In this process, the reaction is broken into two half-reactions which occur at separate electrodes. In this situation the reactant's energy is directly converted to electricity.
2312:
Sharma, Rakesh Kumar; Yadav, Priya; Yadav, Manavi; Gupta, Radhika; Rana, Pooja; Srivastava, Anju; Zbořil, Radek; Varma, Rajender S.; Antonietti, Markus; Gawande, Manoj B. (2020).
759:
Valenti, G.; Boni, A.; Melchionna, M.; Cargnello, M.; Nasi, L.; Bertoli, G.; Gorte, R. J.; Marcaccio, M.; Rapino, S.; Bonchio, M.; Fornasiero, P.; Prato, M.; Paolucci, F. (2016).
2446:
334:
Electrocatalysis can occur at the surface of some bulk materials, such as platinum metal. Bulk metal surfaces of gold have been employed for the decomposition methanol for
510:
such as single atom catalysts. Because of their conductivity, carbon-based materials can potentially replace metal electrodes to perform metal-free electrocatalysis.
1364:
Wiedner, Eric S.; Appel, Aaron M.; Raugei, Simone; Shaw, Wendy J.; Bullock, R. Morris (2022). "Molecular
Catalysts with Diphosphine Ligands Containing Pendant Amines".
372:
where the reaction could take place; the likelihood of a reaction to occur in a certain site depends on the electronic structure of the catalyst, which determines the
1090:
683:. Electrocatalysts can promote the reduction of carbon dioxide into methanol and other useful fuel and stock chemicals. The most valuable reduction products of CO
2572:
705:
cells. Electrocatalysts such as gold, platinum, and various carbon-based materials have been shown to effectively catalyze this process. An electrocatalyst of
996:
Jiao, Yan; Zheng, Yao; Jaroniec, Mietek; Qiao, Shi Zhang (2015). "Design of electrocatalysts for oxygen- and hydrogen-involving energy conversion reactions".
466:: the crystal lattice of a small nanoparticle is perfect; thus, reactions enhanced by defects as reaction sites get slowed down as the particle size decreases
666:
273:
408:
The interest in reducing as much as possible the costs of the catalyst for electrochemical processes led to the use of fine catalyst powders since the
734:
performed under a constant current, constant potential, or constant cell-voltage conditions, depending on the scale and purpose of the reaction.
1227:
383:, the catalyst surface atoms can be classified as terrace, step or kink atoms according to their position, each characterized by a different
761:"Co-axial heterostructures integrating palladium/titanium dioxide with carbon nanotubes for efficient electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution"
269:
The ammonia represents an energy source since it is combustable. In this way electrification can be seen as a means for energy storage.
1154:
Brown, Micah D.; Schoenfisch, Mark H. (2019-11-27). "Electrochemical Nitric Oxide
Sensors: Principles of Design and Characterization".
2475:
Elgrishi, Noémie; Rountree, Kelley J.; McCarthy, Brian D.; Rountree, Eric S.; Eisenhart, Thomas T.; Dempsey, Jillian L. (2018-02-13).
873:
490:: nanoparticles are often fixed onto a support in order to stay in place, therefore part of their surface is unavailable for reactants
413:
136:
50:
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472:: small nanoparticles have the tendency to lose mass due to the diffusion of their atoms towards bigger particles, according to the
482:: in order to stabilize nanoparticles it is necessary a capping layer, therefore part of their surface is unavailable for reactants
326:
between them. The nature of the electrocatalyst surface determines some properties of the reaction including rate and selectivity.
2450:
300:, a nickel-containing enzyme, has inspired the development of synthetic complexes with similar molecular structures for use in CO
1443:
2696:
Holade, Yaovi; Servat, Karine; Tingry, Sophie; Napporn, Teko W.; Remita, Hynd; Cornu, David; Kokoh, K. Boniface (2017-10-06).
446:: a given size for a nanoparticle corresponds to a certain number of surface atoms and only some of them host a reaction site
176:
catalyze electrochemical reactions, although few have achieved commercial success. Well investigated processes include the
147:
or a four electron process to oxygen. The presence of an electrocatalyst could facilitate either of the reaction pathways.
1976:
2314:"Recent development of covalent organic frameworks (COFs): synthesis and catalytic (organic-electro-photo) applications"
428:
518:
592:
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cells can derive current from the oxidation of substrates such as glucose, and be leveraged for processes such as CO
743:
742:
Water treatment systems often require the degradation of hazardous compounds. These treatment processes are dubbed
574:
530:
2247:"Metal–organic framework derived nanomaterials for electrocatalysis: recent developments for CO2 and N2 reduction"
2799:
364:
1307:"Transition Metal Complexes as Catalysts for the Electroconversion of CO 2 : An Organometallic Perspective"
545:
440:: for any given size of a nanoparticle there is an equilibrium shape which exactly determines its crystal planes
1773:
568:
A schematic of a hydrogen fuel cell. To supply hydrogen, electrocatalytic water splitting is commonly employed.
420:
design is based on a polymeric membrane charged in platinum nanoparticles as an electrocatalyst (the so-called
1948:
Carmo, M.; Fritz, D.L.; Mergel, J.; Stolten, D. (2013). "A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis".
462:
399:
359:
2406:"Electrochemical Versus Heat-Engine Energy Technology: A Tribute to Wilhelm Ostwald's Visionary Statements"
1209:
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with an upper efficiency of 60% (for compression ratio of 10 and specific heat ratio of 1.4) based on the
1111:
McCreery, Richard L. (July 2008). "Advanced Carbon
Electrode Materials for Molecular Electrochemistry".
826:
559:
409:
297:
140:
584:. It is also possible to combine the hydrogen and oxygen through redox mechanism as in the case of a
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Wildgoose, Gregory G.; Banks, Craig E.; Leventis, Henry C.; Compton, Richard G. (November 30, 2005).
1914:
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898:"Selected fundamentals of catalysis and electrocatalysis in energy conversion reactions—A tutorial"
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1504:"Renewable electron-driven bioinorganic nitrogen fixation: A superior route toward green ammonia?"
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The standard reduction potential of hydrogen is defined as 0V, and frequently referred to as the
436:
323:
193:
117:
1776:; Cuenya, B.R. (2016). "Nanostructured electrocatalysts with tunable activity and selectivity".
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can be oxidized into the necessary hydrogen ions and electrons required to create electricity.
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Kleijn, Steven E. F.; Lai, Stanley C. S.; Koper, Marc T. M.; Unwin, Patrick R. (2014-04-01).
1704:"Electrocatalysis in microbial fuel cells—from electrode material to direct electrochemistry"
945:
Debe, Mark K. (2012). "Electrocatalyst approaches and challenges for automotive fuel cells".
154:
Types of electrocatalyst materials, including homogeneous and heterogeneous electrocatalysts.
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2641:"Catalyzing Electrosynthesis: A Homogeneous Electrocatalytic Approach to Reaction Discovery"
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reduction is not practiced commercially but remains a topic of research. The reduction of CO
521:, especially conductive frameworks, can be used as electrocatalysts for processes such as CO
486:
473:
417:
549:
Some transition metal complexes that exhibit some activity as homogeneous electrocatalysts.
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surfaces or, most commonly, may be the electrode surface itself. An electrocatalyst can be
526:
499:
197:
98:
1905:
Koper, M.T.M. (2011). "Structure sensitivity and nanoscale effects in electrocatalysis".
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Electronic density difference of a Cl atom adsorbed on a Cu(111) surface obtained with a
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2698:"Advances in Electrocatalysis for Energy Conversion and Synthesis of Organic Molecules"
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2526:"Designing CO 2 reduction electrode materials by morphology and interface engineering"
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2600:"Recent advances in the catalytic applications of GO/rGO for green organic synthesis"
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energy of the reactants together with many other variables not yet fully clarified.
1961:
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Carmo, Marcelo; Fritz, David L.; Mergel, JĂĽrgen; Stolten, Detlef (March 14, 2013).
982:
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189:
30:
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Yang, Jenny Y.; Kerr, Tyler A.; Wang, Xinran S.; Barlow, Jeffrey M. (2020-11-18).
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processes that use protons. This technology remains economically noncompetitive.
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1654:"Reducing CO 2 to HCO 2 – at Mild Potentials: Lessons from Formate Dehydrogenase"
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2101:"Graphene-supported single-atom catalysts and applications in electrocatalysis"
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Singh, Chanderpratap; Mukhopadhyay, Subhabrata; Hod, Idan (January 5, 2021).
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Artero, Vincent; Chavarot-Kerlidou, Murielle; Fontecave, Marc (2011-08-01).
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increases as the average particle size decreases. For instance, most common
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Zhang, Qin; Zhang, Xiaoxiang; Wang, Junzhong; Wang, Congwei (2021-01-15).
1547:"Fundamentals, Applications, and Future Directions of Bioelectrocatalysis"
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196:. Several conversions that use of hydrogen gas could be transformed into
97:. In assessing the stability of electrocatalysts, the a key parameter is
34:
A platinum cathode electrocatalyst's stability being measured by chemist
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Jiao, Long; Wang, Yang; Jiang, Hai-Long; Xu, Qiang (November 27, 2017).
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1444:"Dream or Reality? Electrification of the Chemical Process Industries"
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reduction, including carbon-based materials and framework materials.
285:
249:
53:. Electrocatalysts are a specific form of catalysts that function at
2007:"Advanced Carbon Electrode Materials for Molecular Electrochemistry"
1305:
Kinzel, Niklas W.; Werlé, Christophe; Leitner, Walter (2021-01-19).
1855:"Strain-controlled electrocatalysis on multimetallic nanomaterials"
2200:"Metal-Organic Frameworks as Platforms for Catalytic Applications"
544:
398:
149:
2054:"Chemically Modified Carbon Nanotubes for Use in Electroanalysis"
747:
143:, the anode can oxidize water through a two electron process to
832:
Non-faradaic electrochemical modification of catalytic activity
404:
nanoparticles, while the number of other surface sites varies.
292:, an enzyme that contains a MoFe cluster, can be leveraged to
1596:"Nitrogenase Bioelectrochemistry for Synthesis Applications"
458:
of a nanoparticle changes and its band structure fades away
1040:"Electrocatalysis 101 | GCEP Symposium - October 11, 2012"
2164:"Carbon-based catalysts for metal-free electrocatalysis"
1211:
Electrochemical methods: fundamentals and applications
1059:
Electrochemical methods: fundamentals and applications
688:
variety of nanomaterials have also been studied for CO
1900:
1898:
1896:
1502:
Wang, Bo; Zhang, Yifeng; Minteer, Shelley D. (2023).
713:
on carbon backed tin-dioxide nanoparticles can break
2477:"A Practical Beginner's Guide to Cyclic Voltammetry"
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1853:Luo, Mingchuan; Guo, Shaojun (September 26, 2017).
1594:Milton, Ross D.; Minteer, Shelley D. (2019-12-17).
700:
Aqueous solutions of methanol can decompose into CO
679:into useable products is a potential way to combat
132:would require its own specialized electrocatalyst.
27:
Catalyst participating in electrochemical reactions
1743:"A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis"
1702:Qiao, Yan; Bao, Shu-Juan; Li, Chang Ming (2010).
1913:(5). The Royal Society of Chemistry: 2054–2073.
69:. Major challenges in electrocatalysts focus on
1977:"CNTs tuned to provide electrocatalyst support"
738:Advanced oxidation processes in water treatment
2449:. Science learning New Zealand. Archived from
272:Another process attracting much effort is the
8:
192:, because the electrons can be sourced from
667:Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide
274:electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide
104:In many electrochemical systems, including
1089:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1057:Bard, Allen J.; Larry R. Faulkner (2001).
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1950:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1747:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1658:Journal of the American Chemical Society
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203:Another example is found in the area of
29:
2410:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
1820:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
1311:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
1263:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
848:
657:HER can be promoted by many catalysts.
2748:Environmental Science & Technology
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2193:
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2005:McCreery, Richard L. (June 17, 2008).
2000:
1998:
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184:Electrification of catalytic processes
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1208:; Faulkner, Larry R. (January 2001).
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124:. In these systems, each of the two
7:
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1104:
1102:
1100:
1038:Jaramillo, Tom (September 3, 2014).
891:
889:
887:
885:
554:Water splitting / Hydrogen evolution
2750:. American Chemical Society (ACS).
2168:Current Opinion in Electrochemistry
1816:"Electrochemistry of Nanoparticles"
858:Handbook of Heterogeneous Catalysis
288:can function as electrocatalysts.
2530:Energy & Environmental Science
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1708:Energy & Environmental Science
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531:Covalent organic frameworks (COFs)
25:
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2454:(QuickTime video and transcript)
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244:In the electrified version, the
168:Synthetic coordination complexes
2575:. techradar.com. Archived from
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519:Metal—organic frameworks (MOFs)
2604:Green Processing and Synthesis
1962:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.01.151
1759:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.01.151
717:at room temperature with only
444:Reaction sites relative number
317:Heterogeneous electrocatalysts
84:An electrocatalyst lowers the
1:
2645:Accounts of Chemical Research
2481:Journal of Chemical Education
2447:"What is an electrocatalyst?"
2162:Dai, Liming (June 13, 2017).
1975:Wang, Xin (19 January 2008).
1600:Accounts of Chemical Research
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2181:10.1016/j.coelec.2017.06.004
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914:10.1016/j.cattod.2017.05.091
744:Advanced oxidation processes
573:of this reaction through an
541:Research on electrocatalysis
454:: below a certain size, the
429:surface area to volume ratio
159:Homogeneous electrocatalysts
2502:10.1021/acs.jchemed.7b00361
1564:10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00472
1378:10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c01001
1168:10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00797
593:standard hydrogen electrode
248:is provided in the form of
178:hydrogen evolution reaction
2821:
2272:10.1186/s40580-020-00251-6
1879:10.1038/natrevmats.2017.59
1772:Mistry, H.; Varela, A.S.;
696:Ethanol-powered fuel cells
664:
575:internal combustion engine
557:
2070:10.1007/s00604-005-0449-x
1798:10.1038/natrevmats.2016.9
721:as a by-product, so that
135:Half-reactions involving
51:electrochemical reactions
2373:10.1021/acscatal.9b03790
2125:10.1088/1361-6528/abbd70
1859:Nature Reviews Materials
1778:Nature Reviews Materials
1469:Chemical Society Reviews
1410:Chemical Society Reviews
998:Chemical Society Reviews
661:Carbon dioxide reduction
294:fix atmospheric nitrogen
261:+ 6 H + 6 e → 2 NH
2756:10.1021/acs.est.2c04874
671:Electrocatalysis for CO
2715:10.1002/cphc.201700447
2423:10.1002/anie.200903603
2216:10.1002/adma.201703663
1832:10.1002/anie.201306828
1324:10.1002/anie.202006988
1275:10.1002/anie.201007987
569:
550:
495:Carbon-based materials
405:
368:
174:coordination complexes
155:
38:
2617:10.1515/gps-2020-0055
827:Electrolysis of water
765:Nature Communications
567:
560:Electrolysis of water
548:
410:specific surface area
402:
362:
298:formate dehydrogenase
153:
141:electrolysis of water
112:and various forms of
80:Background and theory
49:that participates in
33:
1670:10.1021/jacs.0c07965
606:Reduction Potential
451:Electronic structure
395:Particle size effect
306:Microbial fuel cells
63:platinized electrode
2493:2018JChEd..95..197E
2263:2021NanoC...8....1S
2117:2021Nanot..32c2001Z
1919:2011Nanos...3.2054K
1871:2017NatRM...217059L
1790:2016NatRM...116009M
1664:(46): 19438–19445.
1557:(23): 12903–12993.
1372:(14): 12427–12474.
1317:(21): 11628–11686.
1162:(22): 11551–11575.
967:10.1038/nature11115
959:2012Natur.486...43D
785:10.1038/ncomms13549
777:2016NatCo...713549V
599:
582:thermodynamic cycle
514:Framework materials
385:coordination number
336:hydrogen production
209:Haber-Bosch process
194:renewable resources
128:and its associated
118:faradaic efficiency
2542:10.1039/D0EE00900H
2330:10.1039/C9MH00856J
2318:Materials Horizons
2204:Advanced Materials
1983:on 22 January 2009
1927:10.1039/c0nr00857e
1523:10.1039/D2EE03132A
1481:10.1039/C9CS00159J
1422:10.1039/D3CS00419H
1010:10.1039/C4CS00470A
753:Additional reading
729:Chemical synthesis
598:
570:
551:
406:
369:
207:. The traditional
156:
114:electrolytic cells
39:
2708:(19): 2573–2605.
2416:(49): 9230–9237.
2058:Microchimica Acta
2023:10.1021/cr068076m
1956:(12): 4901–4934.
1826:(14): 3558–3586.
1753:(12): 4901–4934.
1606:(12): 3351–3360.
1475:(24): 5658–5716.
1448:www.aiche-cep.com
1416:(21): 7305–7332.
1269:(32): 7238–7266.
1229:978-0-471-04372-0
1125:10.1021/cr068076m
655:
654:
437:Equilibrium shape
379:According to the
205:nitrogen fixation
145:hydrogen peroxide
86:activation energy
16:(Redirected from
2812:
2800:Electrochemistry
2784:
2783:
2742:
2736:
2735:
2717:
2693:
2687:
2686:
2676:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2619:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2586:
2584:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2536:(8): 2275–2309.
2521:
2515:
2514:
2504:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2463:
2461:
2456:on 29 April 2023
2455:
2442:
2436:
2435:
2425:
2401:
2395:
2394:
2384:
2356:
2350:
2349:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2292:
2274:
2251:Nano Convergence
2242:
2236:
2235:
2195:
2186:
2185:
2183:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2096:
2090:
2089:
2064:(3–4): 187–214.
2049:
2043:
2042:
2017:(7): 2646–2687.
2011:Chemical Reviews
2002:
1993:
1992:
1990:
1988:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1902:
1891:
1890:
1850:
1844:
1843:
1811:
1802:
1801:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1720:10.1039/b923503e
1699:
1690:
1689:
1649:
1640:
1639:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1566:
1551:Chemical Reviews
1542:
1527:
1526:
1508:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1455:
1454:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1404:
1398:
1397:
1366:Chemical Reviews
1361:
1355:
1354:
1344:
1326:
1302:
1287:
1286:
1254:
1241:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1202:
1196:
1195:
1156:Chemical Reviews
1151:
1145:
1144:
1119:(7): 2646–2687.
1113:Chemical Reviews
1108:
1095:
1094:
1088:
1080:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1035:
1022:
1021:
1004:(8): 2060–2086.
993:
987:
986:
942:
936:
935:
925:
893:
880:
879:
853:
817:Electrochemistry
806:
796:
600:
500:Carbon nanotubes
474:Ostwald ripening
265:
240:
21:
18:Electrocatalysis
2820:
2819:
2815:
2814:
2813:
2811:
2810:
2809:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2787:
2744:
2743:
2739:
2695:
2694:
2690:
2638:
2637:
2633:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2582:
2580:
2579:on 2 March 2009
2570:
2569:
2565:
2523:
2522:
2518:
2474:
2473:
2469:
2459:
2457:
2453:
2444:
2443:
2439:
2403:
2402:
2398:
2358:
2357:
2353:
2311:
2310:
2306:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2210:(37): 1703663.
2197:
2196:
2189:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2098:
2097:
2093:
2051:
2050:
2046:
2004:
2003:
1996:
1986:
1984:
1974:
1973:
1969:
1947:
1946:
1942:
1904:
1903:
1894:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1813:
1812:
1805:
1771:
1770:
1766:
1740:
1739:
1735:
1701:
1700:
1693:
1651:
1650:
1643:
1593:
1592:
1588:
1544:
1543:
1530:
1506:
1501:
1500:
1496:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1452:
1450:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1406:
1405:
1401:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1304:
1303:
1290:
1256:
1255:
1244:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1204:
1203:
1199:
1153:
1152:
1148:
1110:
1109:
1098:
1081:
1069:
1056:
1055:
1051:
1037:
1036:
1025:
995:
994:
990:
953:(7401): 43–51.
944:
943:
939:
902:Catalysis Today
895:
894:
883:
876:
855:
854:
850:
845:
813:
758:
755:
740:
731:
703:
698:
691:
686:
678:
674:
669:
663:
645:
641:
637:
622:
611:
562:
556:
543:
527:water splitting
524:
516:
497:
397:
349:
344:
332:
319:
312:
303:
282:
264:
260:
256:
252:and electrons:
239:
235:
231:
227:
198:electrochemical
186:
170:
161:
99:turnover number
82:
76:
43:electrocatalyst
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2818:
2816:
2808:
2807:
2802:
2792:
2791:
2786:
2785:
2737:
2688:
2651:(3): 547–560.
2631:
2610:(1): 515–537.
2590:
2563:
2516:
2487:(2): 197–206.
2467:
2437:
2396:
2351:
2324:(2): 411–454.
2304:
2237:
2187:
2154:
2105:Nanotechnology
2091:
2044:
1994:
1967:
1940:
1892:
1845:
1803:
1764:
1733:
1691:
1641:
1586:
1528:
1517:(2): 404–420.
1494:
1459:
1435:
1399:
1356:
1288:
1242:
1228:
1206:Bard, Allen J.
1197:
1146:
1096:
1067:
1049:
1023:
988:
937:
881:
875:978-3527312412
874:
847:
846:
844:
841:
840:
839:
837:Tafel equation
834:
829:
824:
819:
812:
809:
808:
807:
754:
751:
739:
736:
730:
727:
719:carbon dioxide
701:
697:
694:
689:
684:
681:climate change
676:
672:
665:Main article:
662:
659:
653:
652:
647:
643:
639:
638:+ 4H + 4e → 2H
635:
630:
629:
624:
620:
615:
614:
609:
604:
603:Half Reaction
558:Main article:
555:
552:
542:
539:
525:reduction and
522:
515:
512:
496:
493:
492:
491:
483:
480:Capping agents
477:
467:
459:
447:
441:
422:platinum black
414:PEM fuel cells
396:
393:
348:
345:
343:
340:
331:
330:Bulk materials
328:
318:
315:
310:
301:
281:
278:
267:
266:
242:
241:
185:
182:
169:
166:
160:
157:
137:multiple steps
122:overpotentials
106:galvanic cells
95:Tafel equation
81:
78:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2817:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2795:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2741:
2738:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2692:
2689:
2684:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2635:
2632:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2594:
2591:
2578:
2574:
2567:
2564:
2559:
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2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
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2531:
2527:
2520:
2517:
2512:
2508:
2503:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2471:
2468:
2452:
2448:
2441:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2400:
2397:
2392:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2361:ACS Catalysis
2355:
2352:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2308:
2305:
2300:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2241:
2238:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2194:
2192:
2188:
2182:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2158:
2155:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2111:(3): 032001.
2110:
2106:
2102:
2095:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2048:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1944:
1941:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1901:
1899:
1897:
1893:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1865:(11): 17059.
1864:
1860:
1856:
1849:
1846:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
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1068:0-471-04372-9
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505:
501:
494:
489:
488:
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481:
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464:
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457:
456:work function
453:
452:
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445:
442:
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438:
434:
433:
432:
430:
427:Although the
425:
423:
419:
418:electrolyzers
415:
411:
401:
394:
392:
388:
386:
382:
377:
375:
366:
361:
357:
354:
351:A variety of
347:Nanoparticles
346:
342:Nanomaterials
341:
339:
337:
329:
327:
325:
316:
314:
307:
299:
295:
291:
287:
279:
277:
275:
270:
255:
254:
253:
251:
247:
226:
225:
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222:
218:
217:hydrogenation
214:
210:
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199:
195:
191:
183:
181:
179:
175:
167:
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119:
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79:
77:
74:
72:
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67:half reaction
64:
60:
59:heterogeneous
56:
52:
48:
44:
37:
36:Xiaoping Wang
32:
19:
2747:
2740:
2705:
2702:ChemPhysChem
2701:
2691:
2648:
2644:
2634:
2607:
2603:
2593:
2581:. Retrieved
2577:the original
2566:
2533:
2529:
2519:
2484:
2480:
2470:
2458:. Retrieved
2451:the original
2440:
2413:
2409:
2399:
2382:10397/100175
2367:(1): 81–92.
2364:
2360:
2354:
2321:
2317:
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2254:
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2207:
2203:
2174:(1): 18–25.
2171:
2167:
2157:
2108:
2104:
2094:
2061:
2057:
2047:
2014:
2010:
1985:. Retrieved
1981:the original
1970:
1953:
1949:
1943:
1910:
1906:
1862:
1858:
1848:
1823:
1819:
1781:
1777:
1774:Strasser, P.
1767:
1750:
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1736:
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1603:
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1589:
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1462:
1451:. Retrieved
1447:
1438:
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1409:
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1369:
1365:
1359:
1314:
1310:
1266:
1262:
1233:. Retrieved
1210:
1200:
1159:
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1052:
1043:
1001:
997:
991:
950:
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901:
857:
851:
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764:
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715:carbon bonds
699:
670:
656:
649:
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618:
607:
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571:
535:
517:
498:
485:
479:
469:
461:
449:
443:
435:
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389:
378:
370:
353:nanoparticle
350:
333:
320:
283:
271:
268:
243:
202:
190:green energy
187:
171:
162:
134:
103:
91:
83:
75:
42:
40:
2583:27 February
2460:27 February
1987:27 February
1784:(4): 1–14.
1235:27 February
1044:Youtube.com
908:: 263–268.
619:2H + 2e → H
367:simulation.
313:reduction.
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