887:. Rafael F. Say and Georg Fuchs stated in 2010 that "all archaeal groups as well as the deeply branching bacterial lineages contain a bifunctional fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (FBP) aldolase/phosphatase with both FBP aldolase and FBP phosphatase activity. This enzyme is missing in most other Bacteria and in Eukaryota, and is heat-stabile even in mesophilic marine Crenarchaeota". It is proposed that fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase/phosphatase was an ancestral gluconeogenic enzyme and had preceded glycolysis. But the chemical mechanisms between gluconeogenesis and glycolysis, whether it is anabolic or catabolic, are similar, suggesting they both originated at the same time.
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nonenzymatically at dehydration-desiccation cycles. Such chemistry could have occurred in hydrothermal environments, including temperature gradients and cycling of freezing and thawing. Mineral surfaces might have played a role in the phosphorylation of metabolic intermediates from gluconeogenesis and have to been shown to produce tetrose, hexose phosphates, and pentose from
343:(also known as glyoxylate shunt) to produce four-carbon dicarboxylic acid precursors. The glyoxylate shunt comprises two enzymes, malate synthase and isocitrate lyase, and is present in fungi, plants, and bacteria. Despite some reports of glyoxylate shunt enzymatic activities detected in animal tissues, genes encoding both enzymatic functions have only been found in
640:(the reverse of step 2 in glycolysis). Glucose-6-phosphate can be used in other metabolic pathways or dephosphorylated to free glucose. Whereas free glucose can easily diffuse in and out of the cell, the phosphorylated form (glucose-6-phosphate) is locked in the cell, a mechanism by which intracellular glucose levels are controlled by cells.
457:
Propionate is the principal substrate for gluconeogenesis in the ruminant liver, and the ruminant liver may make increased use of gluconeogenic amino acids (e.g., alanine) when glucose demand is increased. The capacity of liver cells to use lactate for gluconeogenesis declines from the preruminant
537:
Gluconeogenesis is a pathway consisting of a series of eleven enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The pathway will begin in either the liver or kidney, in the mitochondria or cytoplasm of those cells, this being dependent on the substrate being used. Many of the reactions are the reverse of steps found in
891:
is shown to be nonenzymatically synthesized continuously within a freezing solution. The synthesis is accelerated in the presence of amino acids such as glycine and lysine implying that the first anabolic enzymes were amino acids. The prebiotic reactions in gluconeogenesis can also proceed
755:
of synthesizing glucose to only break it down. Pyruvate kinase can be also bypassed by 86 pathways not related to gluconeogenesis, for the purpose of forming pyruvate and subsequently lactate; some of these pathways use carbon atoms originated from glucose.
311:
of amino acids facilitates entering of their carbon skeleton into the cycle directly (as pyruvate or oxaloacetate), or indirectly via the citric acid cycle. The contribution of Cori cycle lactate to overall glucose production increases with
288:, propionate is the principal gluconeogenic substrate. In nonruminants, including human beings, propionate arises from the Ξ²-oxidation of odd-chain and branched-chain fatty acids, and is a (relatively minor) substrate for gluconeogenesis.
166:
can also serve as a substrate, providing a pathway from fatty acids to glucose. Although most gluconeogenesis occurs in the liver, the relative contribution of gluconeogenesis by the kidney is increased in diabetes and prolonged fasting.
821:
Studies have shown that the absence of hepatic glucose production has no major effect on the control of fasting plasma glucose concentration. Compensatory induction of gluconeogenesis occurs in the kidneys and intestine, driven by
1962:
Christos
Chinopoulos (2020), From Glucose to Lactate and Transiting Intermediates Through Mitochondria, Bypassing Pyruvate Kinase: Considerations for Cells Exhibiting Dimeric PKM2 or Otherwise Inhibited Kinase Activity,
339:, which can be converted to oxaloacetate and enter into gluconeogenesis. In contrast, even-chain fatty acids are oxidized to yield only acetyl-CoA, whose entry into gluconeogenesis requires the presence of a
1850:
Overton TR, Drackley JK, Ottemann-Abbamonte CJ, Beaulieu AD, Emmert LS, Clark JH (July 1999). "Substrate utilization for hepatic gluconeogenesis is altered by increased glucose demand in ruminants".
1537:
Weinman EO, Strisower EH, Chaikoff IL (April 1957). "Conversion of fatty acids to carbohydrate; application of isotopes to this problem and role of the Krebs cycle as a synthetic pathway".
1073:
Swe MT, Pongchaidecha A, Chatsudthipong V, Chattipakorn N, Lungkaphin A (June 2019). "Molecular signaling mechanisms of renal gluconeogenesis in nondiabetic and diabetic conditions".
394:
intermediates which are interchangeable with those derived from other physiological sources, such as glucogenic amino acids. In the absence of other glucogenic sources, the 2-carbon
316:
duration. Specifically, after 12, 20, and 40 hours of fasting by human volunteers, the contribution of Cori cycle lactate to gluconeogenesis was 41%, 71%, and 92%, respectively.
1247:
Nuttall FQ, Ngo A, Gannon MC (September 2008). "Regulation of hepatic glucose production and the role of gluconeogenesis in humans: is the rate of gluconeogenesis constant?".
814:
from the body. Insulin can no longer inhibit the gene expression of enzymes such as PEPCK which leads to increased levels of hyperglycemia in the body. The anti-diabetic drug
430:
In mammals, gluconeogenesis has been believed to be restricted to the liver, the kidney, the intestine, and muscle, but recent evidence indicates gluconeogenesis occurring in
63:
carbon substrates. It is a ubiquitous process, present in plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, and other microorganisms. In vertebrates, gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in the
2176:"Control of blood glucose in the absence of hepatic glucose production during prolonged fasting in mice: induction of renal and intestinal gluconeogenesis by glucagon"
390:
has been shown to end up in glucose when it is supplied in fatty acids, but this can be expected from the incorporation of labelled atoms derived from acetyl-CoA into
281:) can also function as substrates for gluconeogenesis. Generally, human consumption of gluconeogenic substrates in food does not result in increased gluconeogenesis.
434:
of the brain. These organs use somewhat different gluconeogenic precursors. The liver preferentially uses lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids (especially
1976:
Chakravarty K, Cassuto H, Reshef L, Hanson RW (2005). "Factors that control the tissue-specific transcription of the gene for phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase-C".
386:
The existence of the glyoxylate cycle in humans has not been established, and it is widely held that fatty acids cannot be converted to glucose in humans directly.
2831:
818:
reduces blood glucose primarily through inhibition of gluconeogenesis, overcoming the failure of insulin to inhibit gluconeogenesis due to insulin resistance.
747:
activate gluconeogenesis enzymes (pyruvate carboxylase and fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, respectively), while at the same time inhibiting the glycolytic enzyme
3303:
99:
organisms, gluconeogenesis occurs regardless of fasting, low-carbohydrate diets, exercise, etc. In many other animals, the process occurs during periods of
546:
Gluconeogenesis begins in the mitochondria with the formation of oxaloacetate by the carboxylation of pyruvate. This reaction also requires one molecule of
347:, in which they exist as a single bi-functional enzyme. Genes coding for malate synthase alone (but not isocitrate lyase) have been identified in other
3437:
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stage to the ruminant stage in calves and lambs. In sheep kidney tissue, very high rates of gluconeogenesis from propionate have been observed.
473:(PEP) to glucose-6-phosphate are found in the cytosol. The location of the enzyme that links these two parts of gluconeogenesis by converting
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to produce glucose and release an inorganic phosphate. Like two steps prior, this step is not a simple reversal of glycolysis, in which
2127:"Expression profile analysis of long non-coding RNAs involved in the metformin-inhibited gluconeogenesis of primary mouse hepatocytes"
1888:
Donkin SS, Armentano LE (February 1995). "Insulin and glucagon regulation of gluconeogenesis in preruminating and ruminating bovine".
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Single lines: pathways common to most lifeforms. Double lines: pathways not in humans (occurs in e.g. plants, fungi, prokaryotes).
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1444:"Bifunctional glyoxylate cycle protein of Caenorhabditis elegans: a developmentally regulated protein of intestine and muscle"
5051:
3406:
884:
788:
739:/pyruvate carboxylase. These enzymes are typically regulated by similar molecules, but with opposite results. For example,
1488:"Evolution of glyoxylate cycle enzymes in Metazoa: evidence of multiple horizontal transfer events and pseudogene formation"
1803:"Role of the kidney in normal glucose homeostasis and in the hyperglycaemia of diabetes mellitus: therapeutic implications"
3371:
3281:
3229:
853:, insulin fails to block FOXO6 resulting in continued gluconeogenesis even upon feeding, resulting in high blood glucose (
2430:
Say RF, Fuchs G (April 2010). "Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate aldolase/phosphatase may be an ancestral gluconeogenic enzyme".
5071:
4685:
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450:
and gluconeogenesis to produce glucose, whereas the kidney only uses gluconeogenesis. After a meal, the liver shifts to
446:
is quantitatively the largest source of substrate for gluconeogenesis, especially for the kidney. The liver uses both
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Malate is oxidized to oxaloacetate using NAD in the cytosol, where the remaining steps of gluconeogenesis take place.
883:
Gluconeogenesis is considered one of the most ancient anabolic pathways and is likely to have been exhibited in the
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957:
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888:
607:
418:. Thus ketone bodies derived from fatty acids could account for up to 11% of gluconeogenesis during starvation.
4422:
4132:
3919:
3120:
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2782:
2688:
2174:
Mutel E, Gautier-Stein A, Abdul-Wahed A, AmigΓ³-Correig M, Zitoun C, Stefanutti A, et al. (December 2011).
751:. This system of reciprocal control allow glycolysis and gluconeogenesis to inhibit each other and prevents a
303:. Pyruvate, the first designated substrate of the gluconeogenic pathway, can then be used to generate glucose.
215:
118:
In humans, substrates for gluconeogenesis may come from any non-carbohydrate sources that can be converted to
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711:, three regulated and strongly endergonic reactions are replaced with more kinetically favorable reactions.
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806:(a cyclic AMP regulated kinase) resulting in inhibition of glycolysis and stimulation of gluconeogenesis.
619:
588:
547:
524:
Gluconeogenesis pathway with key molecules and enzymes. Many steps are the opposite of those found in the
490:
194:
requires 4 molecules of ATP and 2 molecules of GTP to proceed spontaneously. These ATPs are supplied from
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2021:"Metformin and insulin suppress hepatic gluconeogenesis through phosphorylation of CREB binding protein"
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catalyzes the conversion of glucose and ATP into G6P and ADP. Glucose is shuttled into the cytoplasm by
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2592:"An appeal to magic? The discovery of a non-enzymatic metabolism and its role in the origins of life"
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2386:
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1662:"A novel role for glucose 6-phosphatase in the small intestine in the control of glucose homeostasis"
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810:
counteracts glucagon by inhibiting gluconeogenesis. Type 2 diabetes is marked by excess glucagon and
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633:
611:
551:
324:
228:
135:
72:
218:. Amino acids are classified according to the abilities of their products to enter gluconeogenesis:
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720:
660:
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191:
454:, whereas the kidney increases gluconeogenesis. The intestine uses mostly glutamine and glycerol.
150:, odd-chain fatty acids (although not even-chain fatty acids, see below); and from other parts of
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2001:
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861:
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811:
2316:
Hundal RS, Krssak M, Dufour S, Laurent D, Lebon V, Chandramouli V, et al. (December 2000).
2275:
Hundal RS, Krssak M, Dufour S, Laurent D, Lebon V, Chandramouli V, et al. (December 2000).
210:
1939:
414:, and up to ~60% of acetone may be oxidized in the liver to the pyruvate precursors acetol and
402:, since an equivalent two carbon atoms are released as carbon dioxide during the cycle. During
5061:
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1141:
Ferrier DR, Champe PC, Harvey RA (1 August 2004). "20. Amino Acid
Degradation and Synthesis".
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and TCA cycle intermediates is restricted to the mitochondrion, and the enzymes that convert
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340:
868:. For this reason, gluconeogenesis is a target of therapy for type 2 diabetes, such as the
422:
also produces energy in the form of ATP that is necessary for the gluconeogenesis pathway.
323:
can be converted into glucose in animals has been a longstanding question in biochemistry.
4873:
4138:
3979:
3691:
3570:
3457:
3110:
875:, which inhibits gluconeogenic glucose formation, and stimulates glucose uptake by cells.
865:
827:
748:
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236:
22:
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2443:
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2085:
1703:"Gain of glucose-independent growth upon metastasis of breast cancer cells to the brain"
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520:
489:, or dispersed evenly between the two, as it is in humans. Transport of PEP across the
398:
derived from the oxidation of fatty acids cannot produce a net yield of glucose via the
4973:
4949:
4927:. Click any text (name of pathway or metabolites) to link to the corresponding article.
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2020:
1827:
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1702:
1514:
1487:
1145:. Lippincott's Illustrated Reviews. Hagerstwon, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
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1015:
783:. The rate of gluconeogenesis is ultimately controlled by the action of a key enzyme,
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671:
559:
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304:
199:
80:
34:
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1932:
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Kondrashov FA, Koonin EV, Morgunov IG, Finogenova TV, Kondrashova MN (October 2006).
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is accomplished by dedicated transport proteins; however no such proteins exist for
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68:
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26:
2005:
1718:
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1014:
Kaleta C, de
Figueiredo LF, Werner S, Guthke R, Ristow M, Schuster S (July 2011).
2533:"Nonenzymatic gluconeogenesis-like formation of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate in ice"
1403:"Can sugars be produced from fatty acids? A test case for pathway analysis tools"
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Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
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2036:
2019:
He L, Sabet A, Djedjos S, Miller R, Sun X, Hussain MA, et al. (May 2009).
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3266:
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2909:
2890:
2822:
2765:
2708:
2704:
1989:
1572:
Reichard GA, Haff AC, Skutches CL, Paul P, Holroyde CP, Owen OE (April 1979).
740:
712:
708:
675:
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599:
555:
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443:
395:
360:
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328:
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269:. Altogether, they account for over 90% of the overall gluconeogenesis. Other
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159:
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104:
38:
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242:
Some amino acids are catabolized into both glucogenic and ketogenic products.
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2318:"Mechanism by which metformin reduces glucose production in type 2 diabetes"
2277:"Mechanism by which metformin reduces glucose production in type 2 diabetes"
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Messner CB, Driscoll PC, Piedrafita G, De Volder MF, Ralser M (July 2017).
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1997:
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The final step in gluconeogenesis, the formation of glucose, occurs in the
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2359:
2228:"FoxO integration of insulin signaling with glucose and lipid metabolism"
2125:
Wang Y, Tang H, Ji X, Zhang Y, Xu W, Yang X, et al. (January 2018).
2068:
Hatting M, Tavares CD, Sharabi K, Rines AK, Puigserver P (January 2018).
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Chen J, Lee HJ, Wu X, Huo L, Kim SJ, Xu L, et al. (February 2015).
1350:"Gluconeogenesis and the Cori cycle in 12-, 20-, and 40-h-fasted humans"
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614:, using one water molecule and releasing one phosphate (in glycolysis,
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75:. It is one of two primary mechanisms β the other being degradation of
56:
2191:
1589:
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707:
While most steps in gluconeogenesis are the reverse of those found in
481:(PEPCK) β is variable by species: it can be found entirely within the
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3612:
3608:
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3600:
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802:); it triggers phosphorylation of enzymes and regulatory proteins by
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348:
1175:"Renal gluconeogenesis: its importance in human glucose homeostasis"
291:
Lactate is transported back to the liver where it is converted into
1965:
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2020.543564/full
1016:"In silico evidence for gluconeogenesis from fatty acids in humans"
842:
519:
209:
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96:
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573:, a step required for its transportation out of the mitochondria.
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3384:
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1401:
de
Figueiredo LF, Schuster S, Kaleta C, Fell DA (January 2009).
986:
Beitz DC (2004). "Carbohydrate metabolism.". In Reese WO (ed.).
3634:
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2677:
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Rodwell VW, Bender DA, Botham KM, Kennelly PJ, Weil PA (2018).
579:
Oxaloacetate is decarboxylated and then phosphorylated to form
4852:
3357:
3353:
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562:
in the liver) and inhibited by high levels of ADP and glucose.
497:. Therefore, in species that lack intra-mitochondrial PEPCK,
162:. Under conditions of prolonged fasting, acetone derived from
690:
363:. Mammals found to possess the malate synthase gene include
1173:
Gerich JE, Meyer C, Woerle HJ, Stumvoll M (February 2001).
845:
normally promotes gluconeogenesis in the fasted state, but
626:). This is also the rate-limiting step of gluconeogenesis.
95:, because dietary carbohydrates tend to be metabolized by
1223:. USA: Brooks/Cole, Thomson Learning. pp. 578, 585.
787:, which is also regulated through signal transduction by
598:
The next steps in the reaction are the same as reversed
1442:
Liu F, Thatcher JD, Barral JM, Epstein HF (June 1995).
990:(12th ed.). Cornell Univ. Press. pp. 501β15.
666:
2906:(amino acidβpyruvate, acetyl CoA, or TCA intermediate)
1978:
Critical
Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
775:. The latter exists as an isozyme located in both the
83:) β used by humans and many other animals to maintain
2483:"Nonenzymatic Metabolic Reactions and Life's Origins"
1660:
Mithieux G, Rajas F, Gautier-Stein A (October 2004).
3672:
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2813:
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2756:
2745:
2719:
2375:"Life as a guide to prebiotic nucleotide synthesis"
1625:
3596:Fructose 6-P,2-kinase:fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase
794:Global control of gluconeogenesis is mediated by
763:responsible for gluconeogenesis are found in the
1574:"Plasma acetone metabolism in the fasting human"
1319:(31st ed.). McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.
663:located in the endoplasmic reticulum's membrane.
438:) while the kidney preferentially uses lactate,
249:In humans the main gluconeogenic precursors are
2669:: Interactive representation of gluconeogenesis
2481:Muchowska KB, Varma SJ, Moran J (August 2020).
2221:
2219:
1242:
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1118:Harper's illustrated Biochemistry, 30th edition
517:in order to allow gluconeogenesis to continue.
1883:
1881:
1343:
1341:
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554:. This enzyme is stimulated by high levels of
406:, however, acetyl-CoA from fatty acids yields
3646:
3297:
2689:
1481:
1479:
1396:
1394:
1221:Principles of Biochemistry with a Human Focus
849:blocks FOXO6 upon feeding. In a condition of
651:, where glucose-6-phosphate is hydrolyzed by
231:do not. These products may still be used for
8:
2131:International Journal of Molecular Medicine
1655:
1653:
1619:
1617:
981:
979:
958:"The Chemical Logic Behind Gluconeogenesis"
3653:
3639:
3631:
3483:
3338:
3304:
3290:
3282:
3171:
3088:
2981:
2974:
2886:
2862:
2753:
2696:
2682:
2674:
2661:The chemical logic behind gluconeogenesis
2074:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1925:
1923:
1921:
1919:
860:Insulin resistance is a common feature of
2623:
2566:
2556:
2406:
2341:
2300:
2251:
2199:
2150:
2101:
2044:
1826:
1777:
1767:
1726:
1677:
1597:
1513:
1503:
1459:
1418:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1190:
1049:
1039:
174:until it is coupled to the hydrolysis of
3438:Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
1249:Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews
727:enzymes of glycolysis are replaced with
186:. For example, the pathway leading from
2070:"Insulin regulation of gluconeogenesis"
1752:"Cerebral Gluconeogenesis and Diseases"
917:
335:, the latter serving as a precursor to
1750:Yip J, Geng X, Shen J, Ding Y (2017).
896:, glyceraldehyde, and glycolaldehyde.
170:The gluconeogenesis pathway is highly
2373:Harrison SA, Lane N (December 2018).
1938:. John Wiley & Sons Inc. p.
1578:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
1294:(2nd ed.). Cornell Univ. Press.
988:Dukes' Physiology of Domestic Animals
277:intermediates (through conversion to
7:
2806:Electron acceptors other than oxygen
1009:
1007:
928:Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry
55:that results in the biosynthesis of
1666:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
1348:Katz J, Tayek JA (September 1998).
1292:Nutritional Ecology of the Ruminant
767:; the exceptions are mitochondrial
126:(see figure). For the breakdown of
1354:The American Journal of Physiology
800:released when blood glucose is low
14:
3503:Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase
2656:Interactive diagram at uakron.edu
1317:Harper's Illustrated Biochemistry
1120:. USA: McGraw Hill. p. 193.
931:. USA: Worth Publishers. p.
773:phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase
461:In all species, the formation of
182:, effectively making the process
16:Biosynthesis of glucose molecules
5023:
5007:
4991:
4979:
4967:
4955:
4943:
4931:
4913:
3680:
1930:Voet D, Voet J, Pratt C (2008).
1819:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2009.02894.x
442:and glycerol. Lactate from the
67:and, to a lesser extent, in the
2827:Substrate-level phosphorylation
1366:10.1152/ajpendo.1998.275.3.E537
1330:Baynes J, Dominiczak M (2014).
1219:Garrett RH, Grisham CM (2002).
3407:Fructose-bisphosphate aldolase
1075:Journal of Cellular Physiology
885:last universal common ancestor
1:
3230:Reverse cholesterol transport
1719:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-14-2268
1551:10.1152/physrev.1957.37.2.252
1420:10.1093/bioinformatics/btn621
2882:(proteinβpeptideβamino acid)
2232:The Journal of Endocrinology
1934:Fundamentals of Biochemistry
1041:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1002116
3393:Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase
2502:10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00191
2334:10.2337/diabetes.49.12.2063
2293:10.2337/diabetes.49.12.2063
2226:Lee S, Dong HH (May 2017).
1801:Gerich JE (February 2010).
785:fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
733:fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase
604:fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase
565:Oxaloacetate is reduced to
130:, these substrates include
5098:
3620:Bisphosphoglycerate mutase
3267:Phospagen system (ATP-PCr)
2737:Primary nutritional groups
2399:10.1038/s41467-018-07220-y
2037:10.1016/j.cell.2009.03.016
1020:PLOS Computational Biology
925:Nelson DL, Cox MM (2000).
513:, and converted back into
20:
3669:
3433:
3425:Triosephosphate isomerase
3402:
3341:
3129:
3101:Anoxygenic photosynthesis
3091:
3055:
3023:Pentose phosphate pathway
3018:
3001:
2984:
2778:Oxidative phosphorylation
1990:10.1080/10409230590935479
1890:Journal of Animal Science
1852:Journal of Animal Science
1756:Frontiers in Pharmacology
1628:Vander's Human Physiology
1334:(4th ed.). Elsevier.
889:Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
791:and its phosphorylation.
608:fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
420:Catabolism of fatty acids
327:can be oxidized to yield
216:proteinogenic amino acids
3121:Entner-Doudoroff pathway
2783:electron transport chain
2770:Pyruvate decarboxylation
2651:Overview at indstate.edu
1769:10.3389/fphar.2016.00521
1192:10.2337/diacare.24.2.382
257:(which is a part of the
21:Not to be confused with
5057:Carbohydrate metabolism
4938:carbohydrate metabolism
3448:Phosphoglycerate mutase
3443:Phosphoglycerate kinase
3317:carbohydrate metabolism
3215:Sphingolipid metabolism
3116:DeLey-Doudoroff pathway
2964:carbohydrate catabolism
2959:Carbohydrate metabolism
2945:Purine nucleotide cycle
2596:The Biochemical Journal
2590:Ralser M (2018-08-30).
2558:10.1073/pnas.1702274114
1632:. McGraw Hill. p.
501:must be converted into
471:Phosphoenolpyruvic acid
87:, avoiding low levels (
3576:Glycerol dehydrogenase
3184:Fatty acid degradation
2904:Amino acid degradation
2143:10.3892/ijmm.2017.3243
1679:10.1074/jbc.R400011200
1505:10.1186/1745-6150-1-31
1461:10.1006/dbio.1995.1156
695:
550:, and is catalyzed by
529:
491:mitochondrial membrane
485:, entirely within the
271:glucogenic amino acids
246:
223:Glucogenic amino acids
132:glucogenic amino acids
109:low-carbohydrate diets
5052:Biochemical reactions
4986:amino acid metabolism
3527:Lactate dehydrogenase
3377:Phosphofructokinase 1
3366:Glucose 6-phosphatase
3220:Eicosanoid metabolism
3176:Fatty acid metabolism
2940:Pyrimidine metabolism
2799:Anaerobic respiration
2379:Nature Communications
1864:10.2527/1999.7771940x
1539:Physiological Reviews
1448:Developmental Biology
1290:Van Soest PJ (1994).
729:glucose-6-phosphatase
694:
670:Metabolism of common
653:glucose-6-phosphatase
649:endoplasmic reticulum
638:phosphoglucoisomerase
616:phosphofructokinase 1
595:during this reaction.
523:
325:Odd-chain fatty acids
301:lactate dehydrogenase
229:Ketogenic amino acids
213:
196:fatty acid catabolism
138:); from breakdown of
136:ketogenic amino acids
4962:cellular respiration
3551:Alanine transaminase
3498:Pyruvate carboxylase
3480:Gluconeogenesis only
3194:Fatty acid synthesis
2899:Amino acid synthesis
1902:10.2527/1995.732546x
1332:Medical Biochemistry
769:pyruvate carboxylase
759:The majority of the
661:glucose transporters
634:fructose 6-phosphate
612:fructose 6-phosphate
552:pyruvate carboxylase
509:, exported from the
122:or intermediates of
5072:Exercise physiology
4134:Transcription &
2758:Aerobic respiration
2608:10.1042/BCJ20160866
2549:2017PNAS..114.7403M
2452:10.1038/nature08884
2444:2010Natur.464.1077S
2438:(7291): 1077β1081.
2391:2018NatCo...9.5176H
2244:10.1530/JOE-17-0002
2086:2018NYASA1411...21H
1672:(43): 44231β44234.
1624:Widmaier E (2006).
1032:2011PLSCB...7E2116K
721:phosphofructokinase
678:, gluconeogenesis,
630:Glucose-6-phosphate
581:phosphoenolpyruvate
319:Whether even-chain
192:glucose-6-phosphate
5082:Metabolic pathways
4921:metabolic pathways
3262:Ethanol metabolism
3210:Steroid metabolism
2935:Nucleotide salvage
2867:Protein metabolism
2094:10.1111/nyas.13435
1116:Rodwell V (2015).
964:on August 26, 2009
862:metabolic syndrome
851:insulin resistance
838:In the liver, the
834:Insulin resistance
812:insulin resistance
696:
530:
452:glycogen synthesis
247:
85:blood sugar levels
5039:
5038:
4909:
4908:
4869:Neurotransmitters
4248:Nucleotide sugars
3981:Direct / C4 / CAM
3628:
3627:
3584:
3583:
3475:
3474:
3372:Glucose isomerase
3279:
3278:
3275:
3274:
3238:
3237:
3151:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3134:Xylose metabolism
3080:
3079:
2953:
2952:
2930:Purine metabolism
2875:Protein synthesis
2852:
2851:
2774:Citric acid cycle
2732:Metabolic network
2727:Metabolic pathway
2602:(16): 2577β2592.
2543:(28): 7403β7407.
2496:(15): 7708β7744.
2328:(12): 2063β2069.
2287:(12): 2063β2069.
2192:10.2337/db11-0571
1949:978-0-470-12930-2
1807:Diabetic Medicine
1643:978-0-07-282741-5
1590:10.1172/JCI109344
1230:978-0-03-097369-7
1152:978-0-7817-2265-0
1127:978-0-07-182537-5
1087:10.1002/jcp.27598
942:978-1-57259-153-0
870:antidiabetic drug
771:and, in animals,
737:PEP carboxykinase
700:
699:
618:converts F6P and
591:is hydrolyzed to
583:using the enzyme
479:PEP carboxykinase
400:citric acid cycle
392:citric acid cycle
381:placental mammals
299:using the enzyme
275:citric acid cycle
225:have this ability
59:from certain non-
53:metabolic pathway
31:Glyceroneogenesis
5089:
5033:
5030:lipid metabolism
5027:
5026:
5021:
5011:
5010:
5005:
4995:
4994:
4989:
4983:
4982:
4977:
4971:
4970:
4965:
4959:
4958:
4953:
4947:
4946:
4941:
4935:
4934:
4917:
4916:
4899:
4892:
4883:
4876:
4874:thyroid hormones
4864:
4855:
4848:
4841:
4832:
4823:
4816:
4809:
4800:
4793:
4786:
4769:
4760:
4753:
4744:
4737:
4730:
4723:
4711:
4704:
4695:
4688:
4681:
4674:
4662:
4655:
4633:
4620:
4607:
4598:
4583:
4576:
4567:
4560:
4547:
4534:
4527:
4520:
4506:
4494:
4487:
4473:
4459:
4450:
4441:
4434:
4427:
4418:
4409:
4400:
4391:
4384:
4375:
4368:
4359:
4352:
4345:
4338:
4331:
4324:
4317:
4308:
4301:
4292:
4285:
4278:
4271:
4264:
4257:
4250:
4243:
4231:
4224:
4215:
4198:
4186:
4182:
4171:
4167:
4158:
4154:
4145:
4141:
4135:
4126:
4122:
4111:
4107:
4098:
4094:
4085:
4081:
4072:
4068:
4059:
4055:
4046:
4042:
4031:
4027:
4016:
4012:
4001:
3997:
3988:
3984:
3973:
3969:
3956:
3952:
3941:
3937:
3926:
3922:
3913:
3909:
3896:
3892:
3881:
3877:
3866:
3862:
3851:
3847:
3833:
3830:
3820:
3817:
3809:
3806:
3796:
3793:
3781:
3778:
3766:
3763:
3753:
3750:
3740:
3737:
3727:
3724:
3712:
3709:
3699:
3696:
3684:
3673:
3655:
3648:
3641:
3632:
3484:
3339:
3306:
3299:
3292:
3283:
3250:Metal metabolism
3172:
3157:Lipid metabolism
3089:
2982:
2975:
2887:
2863:
2789:
2754:
2698:
2691:
2684:
2675:
2638:
2637:
2627:
2587:
2581:
2580:
2570:
2560:
2528:
2522:
2521:
2490:Chemical Reviews
2487:
2478:
2472:
2471:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2410:
2370:
2364:
2363:
2355:
2345:
2314:
2304:
2272:
2266:
2265:
2255:
2223:
2214:
2213:
2203:
2171:
2165:
2164:
2154:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2105:
2065:
2059:
2058:
2048:
2016:
2010:
2009:
1973:
1967:
1960:
1954:
1953:
1937:
1927:
1914:
1913:
1885:
1876:
1875:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1830:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1781:
1771:
1747:
1741:
1740:
1730:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1681:
1657:
1648:
1647:
1631:
1621:
1612:
1611:
1601:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1517:
1507:
1483:
1474:
1473:
1463:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1422:
1398:
1389:
1388:
1386:
1385:
1376:. Archived from
1345:
1336:
1335:
1327:
1321:
1320:
1312:
1306:
1305:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1261:10.1002/dmrr.863
1244:
1235:
1234:
1216:
1205:
1204:
1194:
1170:
1157:
1156:
1138:
1132:
1131:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1081:(6): 8134β8151.
1070:
1064:
1063:
1053:
1043:
1011:
1002:
1001:
983:
974:
973:
971:
969:
960:. Archived from
953:
947:
946:
922:
830:, and acidosis.
804:Protein Kinase A
667:
587:. A molecule of
359:, and even some
341:glyoxylate cycle
146:), they include
5097:
5096:
5092:
5091:
5090:
5088:
5087:
5086:
5042:
5041:
5040:
5035:
5034:
5024:
5022:
5008:
5006:
4992:
4990:
4980:
4978:
4968:
4966:
4956:
4954:
4944:
4942:
4932:
4930:
4928:
4925:metro-style map
4918:
4910:
4905:
4904:
4903:
4902:
4901:
4900:
4895:
4893:
4889:
4886:
4884:
4879:
4877:
4871:
4867:
4865:
4861:
4860:Polyunsaturated
4858:
4856:
4851:
4849:
4844:
4842:
4838:
4835:
4833:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4819:
4817:
4812:
4810:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4796:
4794:
4789:
4787:
4776:
4772:
4770:
4766:
4763:
4761:
4756:
4754:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4740:
4738:
4733:
4731:
4726:
4724:
4718:
4714:
4712:
4707:
4705:
4701:
4698:
4696:
4691:
4689:
4684:
4682:
4677:
4675:
4669:
4665:
4663:
4658:
4656:
4645:
4636:
4634:
4627:
4623:
4621:
4614:
4610:
4608:
4604:
4601:
4599:
4595:
4586:
4584:
4579:
4577:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4563:
4561:
4554:
4550:
4548:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4530:
4528:
4523:
4521:
4517:
4514:
4509:
4507:
4501:
4497:
4495:
4490:
4488:
4482:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4468:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4437:
4435:
4430:
4428:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4387:
4385:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4371:
4369:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4355:
4353:
4348:
4346:
4341:
4339:
4334:
4332:
4327:
4325:
4320:
4318:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4304:
4302:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4288:
4286:
4281:
4279:
4274:
4272:
4267:
4265:
4260:
4258:
4253:
4251:
4246:
4244:
4238:
4234:
4232:
4227:
4225:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4208:
4201:
4199:
4195:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4180:
4178:
4174:
4172:
4165:
4161:
4159:
4152:
4148:
4146:
4139:
4137:
4133:
4129:
4127:
4120:
4118:
4114:
4112:
4105:
4101:
4099:
4092:
4088:
4086:
4080:Steroidogenesis
4079:
4075:
4073:
4066:
4062:
4060:
4053:
4049:
4047:
4040:
4038:
4034:
4032:
4025:
4023:
4019:
4017:
4011:phosphorylation
4010:
4008:
4004:
4002:
3995:
3991:
3989:
3982:
3980:
3976:
3974:
3967:
3965:
3963:
3959:
3957:
3950:
3948:
3944:
3942:
3935:
3933:
3929:
3927:
3920:
3916:
3914:
3907:
3905:
3903:
3899:
3897:
3890:
3888:
3884:
3882:
3875:
3873:
3869:
3867:
3860:
3858:
3854:
3852:
3845:
3843:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3828:
3826:
3823:
3821:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3791:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3776:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3748:
3746:
3743:
3741:
3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3722:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3707:
3705:
3702:
3700:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3685:
3665:
3659:
3629:
3624:
3580:
3571:Glycerol kinase
3555:
3531:
3507:
3471:
3458:Pyruvate kinase
3429:
3398:
3330:
3325:gluconeogenesis
3310:
3280:
3271:
3255:Iron metabolism
3234:
3198:
3159:
3143:
3125:
3111:Carbon fixation
3076:
3051:
3014:
2997:
2993:Gluconeogenesis
2966:
2961:
2949:
2921:
2914:
2885:
2858:
2848:
2809:
2793:
2781:
2748:
2741:
2715:
2702:
2647:
2642:
2641:
2589:
2588:
2584:
2530:
2529:
2525:
2485:
2480:
2479:
2475:
2429:
2428:
2424:
2372:
2371:
2367:
2357:
2315:
2274:
2273:
2269:
2225:
2224:
2217:
2186:(12): 3121β31.
2173:
2172:
2168:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2067:
2066:
2062:
2018:
2017:
2013:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1929:
1928:
1917:
1887:
1886:
1879:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1707:Cancer Research
1700:
1699:
1695:
1659:
1658:
1651:
1644:
1623:
1622:
1615:
1571:
1570:
1566:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1485:
1484:
1477:
1441:
1440:
1436:
1400:
1399:
1392:
1383:
1381:
1347:
1346:
1339:
1329:
1328:
1324:
1314:
1313:
1309:
1302:
1289:
1288:
1284:
1246:
1245:
1238:
1231:
1218:
1217:
1208:
1172:
1171:
1160:
1153:
1140:
1139:
1135:
1128:
1115:
1114:
1110:
1072:
1071:
1067:
1026:(7): e1002116.
1013:
1012:
1005:
998:
985:
984:
977:
967:
965:
955:
954:
950:
943:
924:
923:
919:
914:
902:
881:
866:type 2 diabetes
836:
828:glucocorticoids
749:pyruvate kinase
725:pyruvate kinase
705:
672:monosaccharides
632:is formed from
535:
428:
245:
237:lipid synthesis
208:
45:Gluconeogenesis
42:
23:Glucuronidation
17:
12:
11:
5:
5095:
5093:
5085:
5084:
5079:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5044:
5043:
5037:
5036:
4974:cell signaling
4950:photosynthesis
4948:Violet nodes:
4936:Orange nodes:
4912:
4911:
4907:
4906:
4894:
4885:
4878:
4866:
4857:
4850:
4843:
4834:
4825:
4818:
4811:
4802:
4795:
4788:
4771:
4762:
4755:
4746:
4739:
4732:
4725:
4713:
4706:
4697:
4690:
4683:
4676:
4664:
4657:
4635:
4622:
4609:
4600:
4593:
4585:
4578:
4569:
4562:
4549:
4539:Aromatic amino
4536:
4529:
4522:
4508:
4496:
4489:
4475:
4461:
4452:
4446:Branched-chain
4443:
4436:
4429:
4420:
4411:
4402:
4393:
4386:
4377:
4370:
4361:
4354:
4347:
4340:
4333:
4326:
4319:
4310:
4303:
4294:
4287:
4280:
4273:
4266:
4259:
4252:
4245:
4233:
4226:
4217:
4200:
4191:
4173:
4160:
4147:
4128:
4113:
4100:
4087:
4074:
4061:
4048:
4033:
4018:
4003:
3996:Light reaction
3990:
3975:
3958:
3943:
3928:
3915:
3898:
3883:
3868:
3853:
3838:
3822:
3811:
3798:
3783:
3768:
3755:
3742:
3729:
3714:
3701:
3688:
3687:
3686:
3679:
3678:
3677:
3676:
3671:
3670:
3667:
3666:
3660:
3658:
3657:
3650:
3643:
3635:
3626:
3625:
3623:
3622:
3617:
3616:
3615:
3592:
3590:
3586:
3585:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3578:
3573:
3567:
3565:
3557:
3556:
3554:
3553:
3547:
3545:
3533:
3532:
3530:
3529:
3523:
3521:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3505:
3500:
3494:
3492:
3481:
3477:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3470:
3469:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3440:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3428:
3427:
3422:
3403:
3400:
3399:
3397:
3396:
3374:
3369:
3342:
3336:
3332:
3331:
3311:
3309:
3308:
3301:
3294:
3286:
3277:
3276:
3273:
3272:
3270:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3258:
3257:
3246:
3244:
3240:
3239:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3206:
3204:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3196:
3191:
3188:Beta oxidation
3180:
3178:
3169:
3153:
3152:
3149:
3148:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3136:
3130:
3127:
3126:
3124:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3106:Chemosynthesis
3103:
3098:
3096:Photosynthesis
3092:
3086:
3082:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3075:
3074:
3073:
3072:
3067:
3056:
3053:
3052:
3050:
3049:
3048:
3047:
3045:Leloir pathway
3037:
3036:
3035:
3033:Polyol pathway
3025:
3019:
3016:
3015:
3013:
3012:
3006:Glycogenolysis
3002:
2999:
2998:
2996:
2995:
2985:
2979:
2972:
2955:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2948:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2926:
2924:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2912:
2907:
2901:
2895:
2893:
2884:
2883:
2877:
2871:
2869:
2860:
2854:
2853:
2850:
2849:
2847:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2819:
2817:
2811:
2810:
2808:
2807:
2803:
2801:
2795:
2794:
2792:
2791:
2762:
2760:
2751:
2743:
2742:
2740:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2723:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2703:
2701:
2700:
2693:
2686:
2678:
2672:
2671:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2646:
2645:External links
2643:
2640:
2639:
2582:
2523:
2473:
2422:
2365:
2267:
2238:(2): R67βR79.
2215:
2166:
2137:(1): 302β310.
2117:
2060:
2011:
1968:
1955:
1948:
1915:
1877:
1858:(7): 1940β51.
1842:
1813:(2): 136β142.
1793:
1742:
1713:(3): 554β565.
1693:
1649:
1642:
1613:
1564:
1529:
1492:Biology Direct
1475:
1454:(2): 399β414.
1434:
1407:Bioinformatics
1390:
1360:(3): E537β42.
1337:
1322:
1307:
1301:978-1501732355
1300:
1282:
1255:(6): 438β458.
1236:
1229:
1206:
1158:
1151:
1133:
1126:
1108:
1065:
1003:
997:978-0801442384
996:
975:
948:
941:
916:
915:
913:
910:
909:
908:
901:
898:
880:
877:
835:
832:
704:
701:
698:
697:
687:
686:
684:glycogenolysis
665:
664:
641:
627:
622:to F1,6BP and
596:
577:
574:
563:
534:
531:
448:glycogenolysis
427:
424:
305:Transamination
244:
243:
240:
226:
219:
214:Catabolism of
207:
204:
200:beta oxidation
154:that includes
134:(although not
81:glycogenolysis
35:Glycogenolysis
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5094:
5083:
5080:
5078:
5075:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5049:
5047:
5031:
5028:Green nodes:
5019:
5015:
5012:Brown nodes:
5003:
4999:
4987:
4975:
4963:
4951:
4939:
4926:
4922:
4898:
4891:
4882:
4875:
4870:
4863:
4854:
4847:
4846:Sphingolipids
4840:
4839:sphingolipids
4831:
4822:
4815:
4814:Glycerolipids
4808:
4807:phospholipids
4799:
4792:
4784:
4780:
4775:
4768:
4759:
4752:
4743:
4736:
4729:
4722:
4721:proteoglycans
4717:
4716:Glycoproteins
4710:
4703:
4694:
4687:
4680:
4673:
4668:
4661:
4653:
4649:
4643:
4639:
4631:
4626:
4618:
4613:
4606:
4596:
4589:
4582:
4575:
4566:
4558:
4553:
4546:
4542:
4533:
4526:
4519:
4512:
4505:
4500:
4493:
4486:
4481:
4472:
4467:
4458:
4449:
4440:
4433:
4426:
4417:
4408:
4399:
4390:
4383:
4374:
4367:
4358:
4351:
4344:
4337:
4330:
4323:
4316:
4307:
4300:
4291:
4284:
4277:
4270:
4263:
4256:
4249:
4242:
4237:
4230:
4223:
4214:
4210:
4204:
4197:
4190:
4185:
4184:
4183:
4170:
4169:
4168:
4157:
4156:
4155:
4144:
4143:
4142:
4136:
4125:
4124:
4123:
4110:
4109:
4108:
4097:
4096:
4095:
4084:
4083:
4082:
4071:
4070:
4069:
4058:
4057:
4056:
4045:
4044:
4043:
4030:
4029:
4028:
4015:
4014:
4013:
4000:
3999:
3998:
3987:
3986:
3985:
3983:carbon intake
3972:
3971:
3970:
3955:
3954:
3953:
3940:
3939:
3938:
3925:
3924:
3923:
3912:
3911:
3910:
3895:
3894:
3893:
3880:
3879:
3878:
3865:
3864:
3863:
3850:
3849:
3848:
3837:
3832:
3831:
3819:
3818:
3808:
3807:
3795:
3794:
3780:
3779:
3765:
3764:
3752:
3751:
3739:
3738:
3726:
3725:
3711:
3710:
3698:
3697:
3683:
3675:
3674:
3668:
3663:
3656:
3651:
3649:
3644:
3642:
3637:
3636:
3633:
3621:
3618:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3602:
3599:
3598:
3597:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3587:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3558:
3552:
3549:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3542:Alanine cycle
3539:
3534:
3528:
3525:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3515:
3510:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3485:
3482:
3478:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3432:
3426:
3423:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3405:
3404:
3401:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3344:
3343:
3340:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3307:
3302:
3300:
3295:
3293:
3288:
3287:
3284:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3256:
3253:
3252:
3251:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3241:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3201:
3195:
3192:
3189:
3185:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3173:
3170:
3167:
3163:
3158:
3154:
3140:
3139:Radiotrophism
3137:
3135:
3132:
3131:
3128:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3090:
3087:
3083:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3060:Glycosylation
3058:
3057:
3054:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3041:
3038:
3034:
3031:
3030:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3020:
3017:
3011:
3007:
3004:
3003:
3000:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2983:
2980:
2976:
2973:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2956:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2927:
2925:
2923:
2917:
2911:
2908:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2888:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2872:
2870:
2868:
2864:
2861:
2855:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2828:
2824:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2812:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2800:
2796:
2788:
2784:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2764:
2763:
2761:
2759:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2744:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2699:
2694:
2692:
2687:
2685:
2680:
2679:
2676:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2644:
2635:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2586:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2527:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2484:
2477:
2474:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2426:
2423:
2418:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2369:
2366:
2361:
2353:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2312:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2271:
2268:
2263:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2222:
2220:
2216:
2211:
2207:
2202:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2167:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2121:
2118:
2113:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2064:
2061:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2031:(4): 635β46.
2030:
2026:
2022:
2015:
2012:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1984:(3): 129β54.
1983:
1979:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1959:
1956:
1951:
1945:
1941:
1936:
1935:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1896:(2): 546β51.
1895:
1891:
1884:
1882:
1878:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1846:
1843:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1794:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1656:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1639:
1635:
1630:
1629:
1620:
1618:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1600:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1584:(4): 619β26.
1583:
1579:
1575:
1568:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1545:(2): 252β72.
1544:
1540:
1533:
1530:
1525:
1521:
1516:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1482:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1445:
1438:
1435:
1430:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1380:on 2017-12-02
1379:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1333:
1326:
1323:
1318:
1311:
1308:
1303:
1297:
1293:
1286:
1283:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1243:
1241:
1237:
1232:
1226:
1222:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1207:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1188:
1185:(2): 382β91.
1184:
1180:
1179:Diabetes Care
1176:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1148:
1144:
1137:
1134:
1129:
1123:
1119:
1112:
1109:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1069:
1066:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1047:
1042:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1010:
1008:
1004:
999:
993:
989:
982:
980:
976:
963:
959:
952:
949:
944:
938:
934:
930:
929:
921:
918:
911:
907:
906:Bioenergetics
904:
903:
899:
897:
895:
890:
886:
878:
876:
874:
871:
867:
863:
858:
856:
855:hyperglycemia
852:
848:
844:
841:
833:
831:
829:
825:
819:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
792:
790:
786:
782:
778:
777:mitochondrion
774:
770:
766:
762:
757:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
702:
693:
689:
688:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
668:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
639:
635:
631:
628:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
575:
572:
568:
564:
561:
558:(produced in
557:
553:
549:
545:
544:
543:
541:
532:
527:
522:
518:
516:
512:
511:mitochondrion
508:
504:
500:
496:
492:
488:
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
459:
455:
453:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
425:
423:
421:
417:
416:methylglyoxal
413:
409:
408:ketone bodies
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
384:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
333:propionyl-CoA
330:
326:
322:
317:
315:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
289:
287:
282:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
241:
238:
234:
230:
227:
224:
221:
220:
217:
212:
205:
203:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
168:
165:
164:ketone bodies
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
144:triglycerides
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
116:
114:
111:, or intense
110:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
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78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
40:
36:
32:
28:
24:
19:
5067:Glycobiology
4996:Grey nodes:
4984:Blue nodes:
4972:Pink nodes:
4890:cannabinoids
4728:Chlorophylls
4679:Antioxidants
4432:Serine group
4343:Photosystems
4329:P-glycerates
4276:P-glycerates
4241:sialic acids
4236:Amino sugars
4188:
4176:
4175:
4163:
4162:
4150:
4149:
4131:
4130:
4116:
4115:
4103:
4102:
4090:
4089:
4077:
4076:
4064:
4063:
4051:
4050:
4036:
4035:
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4020:
4006:
4005:
3993:
3992:
3978:
3977:
3962:
3961:
3960:
3946:
3945:
3931:
3930:
3921:Fermentation
3918:
3917:
3901:
3900:
3887:
3886:
3885:
3871:
3870:
3856:
3855:
3841:
3840:
3835:
3824:
3813:
3800:
3785:
3770:
3757:
3744:
3731:
3716:
3703:
3690:
3489:oxaloacetate
3324:
3040:Galactolysis
3010:Glycogenesis
2992:
2815:Fermentation
2787:ATP synthase
2666:
2599:
2595:
2585:
2540:
2536:
2526:
2493:
2489:
2476:
2435:
2431:
2425:
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2368:
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2120:
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2077:
2073:
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1981:
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1971:
1958:
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1382:. Retrieved
1378:the original
1357:
1353:
1331:
1325:
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1310:
1291:
1285:
1252:
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1220:
1182:
1178:
1143:Biochemistry
1142:
1136:
1117:
1111:
1078:
1074:
1068:
1023:
1019:
987:
968:September 8,
966:. Retrieved
962:the original
951:
927:
920:
894:formaldehyde
882:
859:
837:
820:
799:
793:
758:
753:futile cycle
706:
680:glycogenesis
674:, including
602:. However,
536:
515:oxaloacetate
499:oxaloacetate
495:oxaloacetate
483:mitochondria
475:oxaloacetate
463:oxaloacetate
460:
456:
429:
410:, including
385:
337:succinyl-CoA
318:
290:
283:
279:oxaloacetate
259:triglyceride
248:
169:
117:
89:hypoglycemia
61:carbohydrate
48:
44:
43:
27:Glycogenesis
18:
5020:metabolism.
5004:metabolism.
4960:Red nodes:
4897:Eicosanoids
4862:fatty acids
4791:Cholesterol
4779:carotenoids
4758:Polyketides
4693:Nucleotides
4648:tocopherols
4612:Calciferols
4525:Amino acids
4518:amino acids
4448:amino acids
4423:Respiratory
4166:Proteolysis
4153:Translation
4140:replication
4106:MEP pathway
4093:MVA pathway
4054:Lipogenesis
4026:deamination
3816:Peroxisomal
3708:respiration
3362:Glucokinase
3166:lipogenesis
3028:Fructolysis
2842:Lactic acid
2385:(1): 5176.
840:FOX protein
717:glucokinase
560:Ξ²-oxidation
379:), but not
361:vertebrates
357:echinoderms
321:fatty acids
309:deamination
261:molecule),
233:ketogenesis
5077:Hepatology
5046:Categories
5014:nucleotide
4798:Bile acids
4774:Terpenoids
4605:vitamin Bs
4588:Cobalamins
4516:glucogenic
4504:polyamines
4464:Homoserine
4336:Glyoxylate
4229:Inositol-P
4024:Amino acid
3964:feeders to
3792:elongation
3747:Glyoxylate
3736:acid cycle
3662:Metabolism
3589:Regulatory
3518:Cori cycle
3409:(Aldolase
3346:Hexokinase
3335:Glycolysis
3321:glycolysis
3313:Metabolism
2989:Glycolysis
2922:metabolism
2920:Nucleotide
2910:Urea cycle
2891:Amino acid
2880:Catabolism
2823:Glycolysis
2766:Glycolysis
2749:metabolism
2709:catabolism
2705:Metabolism
1384:2017-07-28
912:References
741:acetyl CoA
713:Hexokinase
709:glycolysis
703:Regulation
676:glycolysis
657:hexokinase
600:glycolysis
556:acetyl-CoA
540:glycolysis
526:glycolysis
444:Cori cycle
432:astrocytes
396:acetyl-CoA
373:marsupials
365:monotremes
353:arthropods
351:including
329:acetyl-CoA
297:Cori cycle
206:Precursors
172:endergonic
160:Cori cycle
152:metabolism
124:glycolysis
105:starvation
39:Glycolysis
4783:vitamin A
4767:backbones
4765:Terpenoid
4660:Cofactors
4652:vitamin E
4642:vitamin K
4630:vitamin A
4625:Retinoids
4617:vitamin D
4592:vitamin B
4557:vitamin C
4552:Ascorbate
4545:histidine
4532:Shikimate
4511:Ketogenic
4478:Glutamate
4455:Aspartate
4407:glutarate
4322:Pentose-P
4306:Succinate
4297:Propionyl
4290:Tetrose-P
4283:Pentose-P
4179:Glycosyl-
4119:Shikimate
4067:Lipolysis
4009:Oxidative
3966:gluconeo-
3908:oxylation
3889:Gluconeo-
3846:genolysis
3829:oxidation
3805:oxidation
3777:synthesis
3721:phosphate
3162:lipolysis
2969:anabolism
2713:anabolism
2616:1470-8728
2518:220671580
2358:(82
956:Silva P.
873:metformin
816:metformin
606:converts
507:aspartate
477:to PEP β
440:glutamine
388:Carbon-14
345:nematodes
286:ruminants
267:glutamine
184:exergonic
158:from the
142:(such as
93:ruminants
5062:Diabetes
5002:cofactor
4881:Steroids
4821:Acyl-CoA
4805:Glycero-
4709:Proteins
4672:minerals
4667:Vitamins
4638:Quinones
4574:pigments
4499:Creatine
4492:Arginine
4396:Succinyl
4350:Pyruvate
4269:Glycerol
4262:Triose-P
4255:Hexose-P
4207:multiple
3904:Pyruvate
3695:fixation
3562:glycerol
3389:Platelet
3085:Nonhuman
3070:O-linked
3065:N-linked
2857:Specific
2634:30166494
2577:28652321
2510:32687326
2460:20348906
2417:30538225
2352:11118008
2322:Diabetes
2311:11118008
2281:Diabetes
2262:28213398
2210:22013018
2180:Diabetes
2161:29115403
2112:28868790
2055:19450513
1998:15917397
1872:10438042
1837:20546255
1788:28101056
1737:25511375
1688:15302872
1559:13441426
1524:17059607
1429:19117076
1277:24330397
1269:18561209
1201:11213896
1103:53097552
1095:30370538
1060:21814506
900:See also
824:glucagon
796:glucagon
779:and the
467:pyruvate
426:Location
369:platypus
293:pyruvate
273:and all
255:glycerol
188:pyruvate
148:glycerol
128:proteins
120:pyruvate
113:exercise
77:glycogen
5018:protein
4998:vitamin
4700:Nucleic
4603:Various
4485:proline
4439:Alanine
4405:Ξ±-Keto-
4382:acetate
4373:Citrate
4357:Lactate
4213:glycans
4121:pathway
4041:shuttle
4039:Citrate
3968:genesis
3951:genesis
3906:decarb-
3891:genesis
3861:genesis
3723:pathway
3719:Pentose
3538:alanine
3514:lactate
3453:Enolase
3328:enzymes
3225:Ketosis
2837:Ethanol
2720:General
2667:metpath
2625:6117946
2568:5514728
2545:Bibcode
2468:4343445
2440:Bibcode
2408:6289992
2387:Bibcode
2343:2995498
2302:2995498
2253:5480241
2201:3219939
2152:5746302
2103:5927596
2082:Bibcode
2046:2775562
1910:7601789
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1028:Bibcode
879:Origins
847:insulin
808:Insulin
781:cytosol
765:cytosol
761:enzymes
745:citrate
647:of the
533:Pathway
487:cytosol
436:alanine
412:acetone
404:ketosis
377:opossum
349:animals
314:fasting
295:by the
263:alanine
251:lactate
156:lactate
101:fasting
73:kidneys
71:of the
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4222:sugars
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4209:sugars
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3874:Glyco-
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3844:Glyco-
3734:Citric
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3693:Carbon
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3609:PFKFB3
3605:PFKFB2
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4853:Waxes
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4702:acids
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4565:Ξ΄-ALA
4541:acids
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4480:group
4466:group
4457:group
4425:chain
4196:acids
4194:Sugar
4181:ation
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3936:lysis
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3876:lysis
3788:Fatty
3773:Fatty
3762:cycle
3749:cycle
3560:from
3536:from
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3381:Liver
3243:Other
3203:Other
2978:Human
2859:paths
2514:S2CID
2486:(PDF)
2464:S2CID
2002:S2CID
1273:S2CID
1099:S2CID
843:FOXO6
645:lumen
585:PEPCK
465:from
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3790:acid
3775:acid
3760:Urea
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2630:PMID
2612:ISSN
2573:PMID
2506:PMID
2456:PMID
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2108:PMID
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1944:ISBN
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1197:PMID
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1091:PMID
1056:PMID
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970:2009
937:ISBN
864:and
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743:and
682:and
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331:and
265:and
198:via
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3358:HK3
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