Gondwana - Knowledge (XXG)

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Africa and South America but spread to eventually cover most of the supercontinent, save for northernmost Africa-South America and eastern Australia. Giant lycopod and horsetail forests continued to evolve in tropical Laurasia together with a diversified assemblage of true insects. In Gondwana, in contrast, ice and, in Australia, volcanism decimated the Devonian flora to a low-diversity seed fern flora – the pteridophytes were increasingly replaced by the gymnosperms which were to dominate until the Mid-Cretaceous. Australia, however, was still located near the Equator during the Early Carboniferous, and during this period,

593: 5757: 5674: 5719: 5689: 5644: 5772: 1331: 1136: 5802: 5787: 2262: 1349: 1340: 1145: 5629: 2253: 5659: 1550: 1559: 6284: 830:. These terranes are, from Turkey to north-eastern India: the Taurides in southern Turkey; the Lesser Caucasus Terrane in Georgia; the Sanand, Alborz, and Lut terranes in Iran; the Mangysglak or Kopetdag Terrane in the Caspian Sea; the Afghan Terrane; the Karakorum Terrane in northern Pakistan; and the Lhasa and Qiangtang terranes in Tibet. The Permian–Triassic widening of the Neo-Tethys pushed all these terranes across the Equator and over to Eurasia. 2062: 1991: 5704: 721: 750: 741: 730: 378: 2233: 2053: 6306: 2242: 2197: 2188: 898: 1764:. Another change related to mid-Cretaceous plate tectonic rearrangement was the change of subduction direction of the oceanic lithosphere that went from having south-east motion to having a north-east motion about 90 million years ago. While subduction direction changed, it remained oblique (and not perpendicular) to the coast of South America, and the direction change affected several 51: 1891:) resulted in abrupt cooling but the Oligocene became a period of high rainfall with swamps in southeast Australia. During the Miocene, a warm and humid climate developed with pockets of rainforests in central Australia, but before the end of the period, colder and drier climate severely reduced this rainforest. A brief period of increased rainfall in the 2356:, two now extinct orders of gymnospermous plants, evolved in the Late Triassic and became important in the Jurassic and Cretaceous. It is possible that gymnosperm biodiversity surpassed later angiosperm biodiversity and that the evolution of angiosperms began during the Triassic but, if so, in Laurasia rather than in Gondwana. Two Gondwanan classes, 433: 2407:. By the Mid-Cretaceous, angiosperms constituted half of the flora in northeastern Australia. There is, however, no obvious connection between this spectacular angiosperm radiation and any known extinction event nor with vertebrate/insect evolution. Insect orders associated with pollination, such as 1578:

divided West Gondwana (South America and Africa), but there is considerable debate over the exact timing of this break-up. Rifting propagated from south to north along Triassic–Early Jurassic lineaments, but intra-continental rifts also began to develop within both continents in Jurassic–Cretaceous

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have been dated at 320–330 million years old, indicating that the subduction process initiated in the early Carboniferous. This was relatively short-lived (lasting about 20 million years), and initial contact of the two landmasses occurred in the mid-Carboniferous, with broader collision during the

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developed along Gondwana's western, southern, and eastern margins. Proto-Gondwanan Cambrian arc belts from this margin have been found in eastern Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and Antarctica. Though these belts formed a continuous arc chain, the direction of subduction was different between the

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that had dominated during the Palaeozoic were now marginalised, except for ferns. In contrast to Laurentia, very few insect fossils have been found in Gondwana, to a considerable extent because of widespread deserts and volcanism. While plants had a cosmopolitan distribution, dinosaurs evolved and

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The closure of the Rheic Ocean and the formation of Pangaea in the Carboniferous resulted in the rerouting of ocean currents that initiated an Ice House period. As Gondwana began to rotate clockwise, Australia shifted south to more temperate latitudes. An ice cap initially covered most of southern

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Many terranes were accreted to Eurasia during Gondwana's existence, but the Cambrian or Precambrian origin of many of these terranes remains uncertain. For example, some Palaeozoic terranes and microcontinents that now make up Central Asia, often called the "Kazakh" and "Mongolian terranes", were

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was followed by drier climate which favoured grassland. Since then, the fluctuation between wet interglacial periods and dry glacial periods has developed into the present arid regime. Australia has thus experienced various climate changes over a 15-million-year period with a gradual decrease in

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dominated the wetlands of Gondwana in the Early Permian. Insects co-evolved with glossopterids across Gondwana and diversified with more than 200 species in 21 orders by the Late Permian, many known from South Africa and Australia. Beetles and cockroaches remained minor elements in this fauna.

2094:, a slender, ground-covering plant, became the first known vascular plant to establish itself on land. This first colonisation occurred exclusively around the Equator on landmasses then limited to Laurasia and, in Gondwana, to Australia. In the late Silurian, two distinctive lineages, 1949:, a series of events severally restricted the Proto-ACC: change to shallow marine conditions along the North Scotia Ridge; closure of the Fuegan Seaway, the deep sea that existed in Tierra del Fuego; and uplift of the Patagonian Cordillera. This, together with the reactivated 1740:), the Andean orogeny changed significantly in character. Warmer and younger oceanic lithosphere is believed to have started to be subducted beneath South America around this time. Such kind of subduction is held responsible not only for the intense contractional 4547:

Li, Z. X.; Bogdanova, S. V.; Collins, A. S.; Davidson, A.; De Waele, B.; Ernst, R. E.; Fitzsimons, I. C. W.; Fuck, R. A.; Gladkochub, D. P.; Jacobs, J.; Karlstrom, K. E.; Lu, S.; Natapov, L. M.; Pease, V.; Pisarevsky, S. A.; Thrane, K.; Vernikovsky, V. (2008).

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At c. 126 Ma (left) the Falkland Plateau began to slide past southern Africa and the Paraná-Etendeka LIP had opened the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. At c. 83 Ma (right) the South Atlantic was fully opened and the Romanche Fracture Zone was forming near the

1976:. From the Oligocene to the late Miocene, the climate in Australia, dominated by warm and humid rainforests before this collision, began to alternate between open forest and rainforest before the continent became the arid or semiarid landscape it is today. 1880:

35–40° south of its current location and both continents were largely unglaciated. A rift between the two developed but remained an embayment until the Eocene-Oligocene boundary when the Circumpolar Current developed and the glaciation of Antarctica began.

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The later Malagasy orogeny at about 550–515 Mya affected Madagascar, eastern East Africa and southern India. In it, Neoproterozoic India collided with the already combined Azania and Congo–Tanzania–Bangweulu Block, suturing along the Mozambique Belt.

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had a dramatic impact on dinosaurs but left plants largely unaffected. The Jurassic was mostly one of hot-house conditions and, while vertebrates managed to diversify in this environment, plants have left little evidence of such development, apart from

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Gondwana's long, northern margin remained a mostly passive margin throughout the Palaeozoic. The Early Permian opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean along this margin produced a long series of terranes, many of which were and still are being deformed in the

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550 Ma, India had reached its Gondwanan position, which initiated the Kuunga orogeny (also known as the Pinjarra orogeny). Meanwhile, on the other side of the newly forming Africa, Kalahari collided with Congo and Rio de la Plata which closed the

2487: 2348:, an extinct genus of fork-leaved seed ferns, dominated woodlands and forests of Gondwana during most of the Triassic. Conifers evolved and radiated during the period, with six of eight extant families already present before the end of it. 481:

between East (India, Madagascar, Antarctica, and Australia) and West Gondwana (Africa and South America). Three orogenies were recognised during the 1990s as a result of data sets compiled on behalf of oil and mining companies: the

842:, a series of terranes were rafted from the proto-Andean margin when the Iapteus Ocean opened, to be added back to Gondwana during the closure of that ocean. During the Paleozoic, some blocks which helped to form parts of the 633:

As the rest of Gondwana formed, a complex series of orogenic events assembled the eastern parts of Gondwana (eastern Africa, Arabian-Nubian Shield, Seychelles, Madagascar, India, Sri Lanka, East Antarctica, and Australia)

2819:"The Mesozoic West and Central Africa Rift System (WCARS) and the older Kandi Shear Zone (KSZ): Rifting and tectonics of North Africa and South America and fragmentation of Gondwana based on geophysical investigations" 1085:

Antarctica, the centre of the supercontinent, shared boundaries with all other Gondwana continents and the fragmentation of Gondwana propagated clockwise around it. The break-up was the result of the eruption of the

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The first ocean floor formed between India and Antarctica c. 120 Ma (left). The Kerguelen LIP began to form the Ninety East ridge c. 80 Ma (centre). The Indian and Australian plates merged c. 40 Ma

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During the Mid- to Late Triassic, hot-house conditions coincided with a peak in biodiversity – the end-Permian extinction was enormous and so was the radiation that followed. Two families of conifers,

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coincides with the Alleghanian and Ouachita orogenies and are indicative of a large-scale change in the mode of deposition far away from the Pangaean orogenies. Ultimately, these changes contributed to the

700:, which today form large parts of France, was part of either Peri-Gondwana or core Gondwana; the Rheic Ocean closed in front of it and the Palaeo-Tethys Ocean opened behind it. Precambrian rocks from the 2011:

when referring to patterns of distribution of living organisms, typically when the organisms are restricted to two or more of the now-discontinuous regions that were once part of Gondwana, including the

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During the Silurian, Gondwana extended from the Equator (Australia) to the South Pole (North Africa and South America) whilst Laurasia was located on the Equator opposite to Australia. A short-lived

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The formation of Pangaea and its mountains had a tremendous impact on global climate and sea levels, which resulted in glaciations and continent-wide sedimentation. In North America, the base of the

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continental fragments that were assembled during the Mid-Palaeozoic and Cenozoic. This process can be divided into three phases of rifting along Gondwana's northern margin: first, in the Devonian,

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occurred. Laurentia was docked against the western shores of a united Gondwana for a brief period near the Precambrian/Cambrian boundary, forming the short-lived and still disputed supercontinent

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terrane accreted later against Cuyania. The collision of the Patagonian terrane with the southwestern Gondwanan occurred in the late Paleozoic. Subduction-related igneous rocks from beneath the

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provides a good example of a taxon with a Gondwanan distribution, having originated in the supercontinent and existing in present-day Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia, and South America's

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Travouillon, K. J.; Legendre, S.; Archer, M.; Hand, S. J. (2009). "Palaeoecological analyses of Riversleigh's Oligo-Miocene sites: implications for Oligo-Miocene climate change in Australia".

5323:"Age constraints on the tectonic evolution and provenance of the Pie de Palo Complex, Cuyania composite terrane, and the Famatinian Orogeny in the Sierra de Pie de Palo, San Juan, Argentina" 2137:

of Victoria, Australia, occurs in two strata separated by 1,700 m (5,600 ft) or 30 Ma; the upper assemblage is more diverse and includes Baragwanathia, the first primitive

794:(north-western China) rifted, opening the Palaeo-Tethys behind them. These terranes accreted to Asia during Late Devonian and Permian. Second, in the Late Carboniferous to Early Permian, 5322: 4132:"Motion between the Indian, Capricorn and Somalian plates since 20 Ma: implications for the timing and magnitude of distributed lithospheric deformation in the equatorial Indian ocean" 454:

The assembly of Gondwana was a protracted process during the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic, which remains incompletely understood because of the lack of paleo-magnetic data. Several

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at Falkland latitudes, forcing Patagonia to move relative to the still static remainder of South America and Africa, and this westward movement lasted until the Early Cretaceous

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Cawood, Peter A. (2005). "Terra Australis Orogen: Rodinia breakup and development of the Pacific and Iapetus margins of Gondwana during the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic".

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van Hinsbergen, Douwe J.J.; Torsvik, Trond H.; Schmid, Stefan M.; Maţenco, Liviu C.; Maffione, Marco; Vissers, Reinoud L.M.; Gürer, Derya; Spakman, Wim (September 2019).

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and other groups of seed ferns. In terms of biomass, the Jurassic flora was dominated by conifer families and other gymnosperms that had evolved during the Triassic. The

2423:, radiated continuously from the Permian-Triassic, long before the arrival of the angiosperms. Well-preserved insect fossils have been found in the lake deposits of the 1023:

oceans in the Late Carboniferous, and docked with Asia during the Triassic and Jurassic. Western Pangaea began to rift while the eastern end was still being assembled.

1042:(CAMP) between South America, Africa, North America, and Europe. CAMP covered more than seven million square kilometres over a few million years, reached its peak at 630:

540–530 Ma, the closure of the Mozambique Ocean brought India next to Australia–East Antarctica, and both North and South China were in proximity to Australia.

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orogenies, the collision of South America with Africa, and the addition of Australia and Antarctica, respectively. Eventually, Gondwana became the largest piece of

2163:, the earliest land vertebrates, in Greenland and Russia. The only traces of this evolution in Gondwana are amphibian footprints and a single jaw from Australia. 5592: 2312:(57% of marine families and 83% of genera went extinct) and which came to dominate in the Late Permian and from whom true conifers evolved. Tall lycopods and 1231:) was pushed westward. The history of the Africa-Antarctica break-up can be studied in great detail in the fracture zones and magnetic anomalies flanking the 4942:

Powell, C.; Roots, S. R.; Veevers, J. J. (1988). "Pre-Breakup Continental Extension in East Gondwanaland and the Early Opening of the Eastern Indian Ocean".

4635: 2392:, or flowering plants, a group that probably evolved in western Gondwana (South America–Africa). From there the angiosperms diversified in two stages: the 2304:

colonised Gondwana and reached peak diversity in the Late Permian when coal-forming forests covered much of Gondwana. The period also saw the evolution of

1934:-old which indicates that the spreading between the Antarctic and South American plates began near the Eocene/Oligocene boundary. Deep sea environments in 2125:(19% of marine families and 50% of genera went extinct) and glaciation occurred in South America. Before Pangaea had formed, terrestrial plants, such as 992:. Pangaea was finally amalgamated in the Late Carboniferous-Early Permian, but the oblique forces continued until Pangaea began to rift in the Triassic. 4020:; Pinto, Luisa; Rodríguez, María Pía (2006). "3. Tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Andean Orogen in Chile". In Moreno, Teresa; Gibbons, Wes (eds.). 2454: 2041: 1263: 2465:

mammals with a Gondwanan distribution (South America, Africa, Madagascar, India, Zealandia and Antarctica) during the Late Cretaceous and Palaeogene.

3176: 2779:"Wir nennen es Gondwána-Land, nach der gemeinsamen alten Gondwána-Flora, … "(We name it Gondwána-Land, after the common ancient flora of Gondwána …) 1656:. At Brazilian latitudes spreading is more difficult to assess because of the lack of palaeo-magnetic data, but rifting occurred in Nigeria at the 1884:

Australia was warm and wet during the Palaeocene and dominated by rainforest. The opening of the Tasman Gateway at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary (

3146: 2368: 2044:, which resulted in 27% of marine invertebrate families and 57% of genera going extinct, occurred during this shift from Ice House to Hot House. 1053: 822:

terranes opened the Neo-Tethys Ocean; Lhasa collided with Asia during the Early Cretaceous, and West Burma and Woyla during the Late Cretaceous.

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fossils from the Early Permian have only been found in Laurasia but they became common in Gondwana later during the Permian. The arrival of the

952:, on the other hand, remained largely unaffected by the collision along the southern shores of Laurentia. Some Peri-Gondwanan terranes, such as 4378:

Hoffmann-Rothe, Arne; Kukowski, Nina; Dresen, Georg; Echtler, Helmut; Oncken, Onno; Klotz, Jürgen; Scheuber, Ekkehard; Kellner, Antje (2006).

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Abbate, Ernesto; Bruni, Piero; Sagri, Mario (2015). "Geology of Ethiopia: A Review and Geomorphological Perspectives". In Billi, Paolo (ed.).

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reptilians evolved, all closely related to the Laurasian fauna, but spreading ice eventually drove these animals away from Gondwana entirely.

1032: 4407: 4296:"Fossil Nothofagaceous Leaves from the Eocene of Western Antarctica and their Bearing on the Origin, Dispersal and Systematics of Nothofagus" 3428: 424:

Some scientists prefer the term "Gondwanaland" for the supercontinent to make a clear distinction between the region and the supercontinent.

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East Gondwana, comprising Antarctica, Madagascar, India, and Australia, began to separate from Africa. East Gondwana then began to break up

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85 million years ago. The islands still retain plants that originated in Gondwana and spread to the Southern Hemisphere continents later.

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Dinosaurs continued to prosper but, as the angiosperm diversified, conifers, bennettitaleans and pentoxylaleans disappeared from Gondwana

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Anderson, J. M.; Anderson, H. M.; Archangelsky, S.; Bamford, M.; Chandra, S.; Dettmann, M.; Hill, R.; McLoughlin, S.; Rösler, O. (1999).

1953:, contributed to global warming. During the Miocene, the Drake Passage began to widen, and as water flow between South America and the 846:

of South America, include a piece transferred from Laurentia when the west edge of Gondwana scraped against southeast Laurentia in the

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Seton, M.; Müller, R. D.; Zahirovic, S.; Gaina, C.; Torsvik, T.; Shephard, G.; Talsma, A.; Gurnis, M.; Maus, S.; Chandler, M. (2012).

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The Gondwana ice sheet melted, and sea levels dropped during the Permian and Triassic global warming. During this period, the extinct

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Era, covering an area of some 100,000,000 km (39,000,000 sq mi), about one-fifth of the Earth's surface. It fused with

5039:"Syntectonic magnetization of the mid-Palaeozoic Sierra Grande Formation: further constraints on the tectonic evolution of Patagonia" 4901:"Cambrian arc evolution along the SE Gondwana active margin: a synthesis from Tasmania-New Zealand-Australia-Antarctica correlations" 323:(around 180 million years ago). The final stages of break-up, involving the separation of Antarctica from South America (forming the 6391: 6386: 6351: 5585: 4999: 4361: 4029: 3933:"Molecular dating of the 'Gondwanan'plant family Proteaceae is only partially congruent with the timing of the break-up of Gondwana" 2562: 2556: 1056:. The reformed Gondwanan continent was not precisely the same as that which had existed before Pangaea formed; for example, most of 4380:"Oblique Convergence along the Chilean Margin: Partitioning, Margin-Parallel Faulting and Force Interaction at the Plate Interface" 2577:, which proliferated during the Early Cretaceous (145–100 Mya) while Australia was still linked to Antarctica to form East Gondwana 2024:, lineage. The distributions in the Proteaceae is, nevertheless, the result of both Gondwanan rafting and later oceanic dispersal. 1220: 592: 6411: 6356: 5516: 2724: 2145:

replaced the Baragwanathia Flora, introducing the first trees, and by the Late Devonian this first forest was accompanied by the

2020:, known from all continents in the Southern Hemisphere, has a "Gondwanan distribution" and is often described as an archaic, or 6431: 6341: 1228: 4208:"A review of the evolution of the Mozambique Belt and implications for the amalgamation and dispersal of Rodinia and Gondwana" 6366: 6336: 5528:"Orogenic architecture of the Mediterranean region and kinematic reconstruction of its tectonic evolution since the Triassic" 5372:

Woodburne, M. O.; Rich, T. H.; Springer, M. S. (2003). "The evolution of tribospheny and the antiquity of mammalian clades".

2617: 1985: 1195:, it separated a series of smaller continental blocks from Gondwana's southern, Proto-Pacific margin (along what is now the 5410: 4592: 644:. First, the Arabian-Nubian Shield collided with eastern Africa (in the Kenya-Tanzania region) in the East African Orogeny 6401: 6381: 6294: 2037: 1910: 5205: 6421: 6200: 5578: 5046: 5038: 1625: 4039:

Collins, A. S.; Pisarevsky, S. A. (2005). "Amalgamating eastern Gondwana: The evolution of the Circum-Indian Orogens".

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is underlain by rocks that were originally part of Gondwana, but this region stayed attached to North America when the

6160: 5248: 4346: 2114:. Most of Gondwana was located far from the Equator during this period and remained a lifeless and barren landscape. 6361: 5021: 2033: 1834: 1643: 913:

formed the Pangaea supercontinent during the Carboniferous. Pangaea began to break up in the Mid-Jurassic when the

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Proceedings of the XVth International Congress on Carboniferous and Permian Stratigraphy. Utrecht (Vol. 10, p. 16)

3346:"Gondwana Remnants in Alabama And Georgia: Uchee Is An 'Exotic' Peri-Gondwanan Arc Terrane, Not Part of Laurentia" 6396: 6376: 6105: 6095: 5848: 5096:"Evolution of the Southwest Indian Ridge from the Late Cretaceous (anomaly 34) to the Middle Eocene (anomaly 20)" 1741: 35: 4884: 4190: 3979:

Blakey, R. C. (2003). "Carboniferous–Permian paleogeography of the assembly of Pangaea". In Wong, Th. E. (ed.).

6416: 6371: 6314: 6080: 4619: 2528: 2122: 1196: 410: 1011:. North China docked with Mongolia and Siberia during the Carboniferous–Permian, followed by South China. The 6406: 6137: 6132: 4971: 4387: 3450: 3065: 2720: 2522: 1330: 1286: 1251: 1135: 871: 827: 783: 779: 1348: 1339: 1144: 6426: 6075: 4445: 4056: 2778: 2680: 2160: 1777: 1430: 1232: 1091: 839: 672: 4512: 6346: 5960: 5868: 5678: 5673: 5186: 3225: 2574: 2134: 1707: 969: 604: 338:(Ma)). Gondwana was not considered a supercontinent by the earliest definition, since the landmasses of 229: 159: 141: 133: 99: 4861:"Revised plate motions relative to the hotspots from combined Atlantic and Indian Ocean hotspot tracks" 5018:

The Assembly of Southern South America in the Late Proterozoic and Paleozoic: Some Paleomagnetic Clues

3115: 2364:, saw a gradual decline during the Triassic while ferns, though never dominant, managed to diversify. 2261: 6299: 6054: 5945: 5539: 5489: 5425: 5381: 5337: 5301: 5263: 5249:"Refining Gondwana and Pangea Palaeogeography: Estimates of Phanerozoic non-dipole (octupole) fields" 5220: 5155: 5107: 5055: 5025: 4951: 4912: 4872: 4839: 4803: 4770: 4690: 4650: 4607: 4564: 4527: 4482: 4437: 4310: 4219: 4178: 4143: 4091: 4048: 3997: 3944: 3904: 3459: 3185: 3130: 3085: 3069: 2830: 2672: 1973: 1965: 1841: 1761: 1279: 1061: 1012: 795: 596: 483: 269: 163: 4679:"Extensive 200-million-year-old continental flood basalts of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province" 4549: 4450: 4061: 2685: 2252: 1927:

and the deepening of the Tasman Gateway. The oldest oceanic crust in the Drake Passage, however, is

1549: 949: 791: 6309: 6256: 6046: 6005: 5465: 5091: 3767:, DEVONIAN: colonising Gondwana; The Second Extinction; Global colonisation of plants, pp. 151, 153 2428: 1954: 1799: 1558: 1200: 977: 937: 459: 347: 248: 241: 103: 2106:

that were to dominate the Gondwanan vegetation over a long period, whilst the latter evolved into

6164: 6010: 5990: 5123: 5071: 4930: 4326: 4275: 4235: 4107: 4080:"Laurentia-Gondwana collision: the origin of the Famatinian-Appalachian orogenic belt (a review)" 3960: 3345: 2698: 2551: 2432: 1939: 1016: 1008: 1000: 996: 925: 859: 535: 509: 284: 6283: 3221: 1271: 4976:"Anatomy and global context of the Andes: Main geologic features and the Andean orogenic cycle" 928:

oceans. The obliquity of this closure resulted in the docking of some northern terranes in the

6231: 6085: 6050: 5508: 5397: 4995: 4706: 4403: 4357: 4194: 4127: 4025: 4017: 3424: 2848: 2581: 2545: 2533: 2508:

of Australia, New Caledonia, and New Zealand have a number of species related to those of the

2424: 2373: 1861: 1826: 1745: 1461: 1408: 1391: 1387: 1294: 1239: 1027: 803: 701: 697: 292: 1485:

global ocean temperature dropped significantly. A dramatic shift from arc- to rift magmatism

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The first ocean floor formed between Madagascar and Africa c. 150 Ma (left) and between

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Miashita, Y.; Yamamoto, T. (1996). "Gondwanaland: Its Formation, Evolution and Dispersion".

4811: 4778: 4738: 4698: 4677:

Marzoli, A.; Renne, P. R.; Piccirillo, E. M.; Ernesto, M.; Bellieni, G.; De Min, A. (1999).

4658: 4615: 4572: 4535: 4531: 4490: 4455: 4395: 4318: 4295: 4267: 4227: 4186: 4151: 4099: 4066: 4005: 3952: 3912: 3467: 3416: 3253: 3243: 3201: 3193: 3138: 3093: 2838: 2755: 2690: 2663:

Bradley, D.C. (2011). "Secular Trends in the Geologic Record and the Supercontinent Cycle".

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killed off all dinosaurs except birds, but plant evolution in Gondwana was hardly affected.

2301: 2021: 1935: 1819: 1815: 1703: 1504: 1379: 1216: 1105: 961: 941: 933: 815: 709: 546: 498: 478: 398: 216:. The remnants of Gondwana make up around two-thirds of today's continental area, including 177: 115: 31: 1990: 819: 6236: 6206: 6147: 5970: 5520: 4383: 2568: 2513: 2447: 2156: 2061: 2013: 1811: 1753: 1730: 1621: 1524: 1437: 1395: 1383: 1266:. The India–Madagascar–Seychelles separations appear to coincide with the eruption of the 1212: 1204: 1004: 985: 929: 759: 623: 570: 558: 554: 467: 155: 4167:"Synchronous emplacement of Ferrar and Karoo dolerites and the early breakup of Gondwana" 1942:

during the Eocene and Oligocene indicate a "Proto-ACC" opened during this period. Later,

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were separated from it. To differentiate it from the Indian region of the same name (see

5543: 5429: 5385: 5341: 5305: 5267: 5224: 5159: 5111: 5059: 5029: 4955: 4916: 4876: 4843: 4807: 4774: 4727:"The breakup history of Gondwana and its impact on pre-Cenozoic floristic provincialism" 4694: 4654: 4611: 4568: 4486: 4441: 4347:"Mesozoic-Cenozoic evolution of Australia's New Guinea margin in a west Pacific context" 4314: 4223: 4182: 4147: 4095: 4052: 4001: 3948: 3908: 3463: 3189: 3134: 3089: 2834: 2676: 2473:, two placental clades, are of Gondwanan origin and probably began to evolve separately 1223:(in Antarctica) were rotated 90° in opposite directions; and South America south of the 968:, were directly involved in the collision. The final collision resulted in the Variscan- 6168: 5888: 5842: 4460: 4425: 3234: 2458: 2401: 2357: 2103: 2000: 1969: 1715: 1695: 1575: 1512: 1290: 1069: 965: 763: 720: 582: 494: 377: 288: 213: 77: 5513: 5393: 5349: 4851: 4815: 4782: 3916: 3230:"The country rocks of Devonian magmatism in the North Patagonian Massif and Chaitenia" 1802:, since which more than 1,400 km (870 mi) of crust has been absorbed by the 1616:

most likely forcing dextral movements between sub-plates on either side. South of the

920:

In the western end of Pangaea, the collision between Gondwana and Laurasia closed the

749: 740: 729: 6330: 6185: 5723: 5718: 5708: 5703: 5461: 5276: 5143: 5127: 5119: 5095: 5075: 4963: 4934: 4860: 4791: 4758: 4726: 4470: 4379: 4330: 4255: 4239: 4207: 4166: 4156: 4131: 4111: 4079: 3956: 3932: 3892: 3073: 2843: 2818: 2716: 2702: 2612: 2505: 2497: 2393: 2361: 2349: 2339: 2335: 2313: 2168: 2151: 2146: 2142: 2130: 2078: 1961: 1950: 1924: 1845: 1788: 1773: 1769: 1723: 1520: 1516: 1469: 1255: 945: 843: 811: 527: 389:

fossil groups used as biogeographic evidence for continental drift, and land bridging

324: 304: 217: 151: 125: 95: 91: 5167: 4678: 4576: 4279: 4070: 4009: 3964: 3142: 2694: 2232: 2052: 1960:

Since the Eocene, the northward movement of the Australian Plate has resulted in an

1579:

sedimentary basins, subdividing each continent into three sub-plates. Rifting began

1108:

between South America, Africa, and Antarctica are found in what is now the southern

6288: 6241: 5975: 5950: 5761: 5756: 5485: 5437: 5182: 4662: 3471: 3445: 2443: 2381: 2353: 2241: 2196: 2172: 2126: 2121:, bringing Gondwana and Laurasia close together. Global cooling contributed to the 2095: 2008: 1853: 1849: 1657: 1617: 1508: 1426: 1412: 1375: 1267: 1224: 1175: 1172: 1087: 1020: 981: 863: 686: 550: 406: 394: 4975: 4636:"Cenozoic climatic change and the development of the arid vegetation in Australia" 4513:"The tectonic history of Drake Passage and its possible impacts on global climate" 4511:

Lagabrielle, Y.; Goddéris, Y.; Donnadieu, Y.; Malavieille, J.; Suarez, M. (2009).

4231: 4103: 2607: 2187: 5313: 4702: 3197: 6142: 6110: 6100: 5481: 4399: 3420: 3174:

Ramos, Victor A. (1 November 2008). "Patagonia: A paleozoic continent adrift?".

2509: 2420: 2416: 2404: 2377: 2099: 2003:

Proteaceae, is an example of a plant from a family with a Gondwanan distribution

1726: 1500: 1109: 921: 897: 787: 55:

Gondwana 420 million years ago (late Silurian). View centered on the South Pole.

5562: 4539: 4394:. Frontiers in Earth Sciences. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. pp. 125–146. 2486: 960:, were buffered from collisions by major promontories. Other terranes, such as 704:

suggest that it, too, formed part of core Gondwana before its detachment as an

6180: 6090: 6070: 5920: 5648: 5643: 4991: 4322: 4271: 2492: 2470: 2450: 2397: 2389: 2344: 2305: 2290: 2218: 2138: 2111: 2017: 1765: 1247: 1243: 1192: 1158: 953: 876: 847: 578: 566: 366: 300: 296: 225: 137: 111: 50: 5552: 5527: 5232: 5067: 4593:"Experimental Approach to the Paleocirculation of the Oceanic Surface Waters" 4256:"The phylogenetic affinities of the enigmatic mammalian clade Gondwanatheria" 4198: 4078:

Dalla Salda, L. H.; de Luchi, M. G. L.; Cingolani, C. A.; Varela, R. (1998).

3248: 3229: 2852: 1722:. This development is presumed to have been linked to the subduction of cold 654:. Then Australia and East Antarctica were merged with the remaining Gondwana 508:), the collision between East Gondwana and East Africa in two steps, and the 272:, the collision of India and Madagascar with East Africa, and culminating in 6251: 6220: 6115: 6065: 5985: 5980: 5925: 5858: 5601: 4426:"The Somalia plate and the East African Rift System: present-day kinematics" 3114:

Pankhurst, R. J.; Rapela, C. W.; Fanning, C. M.; Márquez, M. (1 June 2006).

3097: 2466: 2322: 2284: 2213: 2129:, began to diversify rapidly resulting in the colonisation of Gondwana. The 2107: 2090: 2072: 1810:

orogen. During the Cenozoic, the orogen resulted in the construction of the

1803: 1719: 1496: 1314: 1302: 1298: 1208: 880: 807: 775: 531: 343: 328: 233: 17: 5401: 4710: 3983:. Utrecht, the Netherlands: Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. 2760: 2747: 1756:

reorganisation since the mid-Cretaceous might also have been linked to the

1840:

The break-up of Gondwana can be said to continue in eastern Africa at the

1369: 693:. Whether these blocks originated on the shores of Gondwana is not known. 6175: 6060: 5965: 5940: 5930: 5893: 5878: 5863: 5776: 5771: 4925: 4900: 4495: 2571:, a theory which describes the large-scale motions of Earth's lithosphere 2385:

diversified in a pattern that reflects the Jurassic break-up of Pangaea.

2318: 2278: 2118: 1892: 1873: 1699: 1633: 1465: 1275: 1259: 1168: 1117: 1099: 989: 910: 867: 799: 705: 690: 659: 649: 639: 562: 539: 526:

The last stages of Gondwanan assembly overlapped with the opening of the

514: 488: 472: 445: 438: 418: 402: 386: 320: 316: 312: 278: 261: 1681: 1402: 1386:

and its diffuse boundaries. During the opening of the Indian Ocean, the

6195: 6190: 5955: 5935: 5915: 5883: 5873: 5806: 5801: 5791: 5786: 5357: 4550:"Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: a synthesis" 3680: 3668: 3258: 3206: 2272: 2207: 2176: 1995: 1944: 1929: 1904: 1857: 1749: 1671: 1638:

and the development of rifts systems on both continents, including the

1591: 1065: 1057: 1007:

blocks rifted from Gondwana during the middle Paleozoic and opened the

973: 957: 892: 855: 851: 463: 455: 414: 409:". The name had been previously used in a geological context, first by 382: 339: 333: 308: 30:

This article is about the supercontinent. For the region in India, see

5570: 1480: 1429:, the southern end of the Ninety East Ridge, are now separated by the 1035:

and left large deposits of hydrocarbons, coal, evaporite, and metals.

6226: 5995: 5693: 5688: 5633: 5628: 4165:

Encarnación, J.; Fleming, T. H.; Elliot, D. H.; Eales, H. V. (1996).

2478: 2462: 2408: 1830: 1664: 1611: 1601: 1584: 1490: 1473: 1445: 1420: 1188: 1182: 1047: 612: 574: 520: 503: 362: 252: 237: 221: 129: 107: 87: 4742: 1918: 1886: 1793: 1651: 1531: 1455: 972:, stretching from present-day Mexico to southern Europe. Meanwhile, 5503: 3839: 3824: 3812: 3800: 3788: 3776: 3764: 3752: 3740: 3728: 3597: 2532:. New Caledonia and New Zealand became separated from Australia by 1596:. From there rifting propagated northward during the Late Jurassic 462:, caused the continental fragments of a much older supercontinent, 443:

post-collisional extension of the East African Orogeny in blue and

432: 6000: 5605: 4759:"A synopsis of events related to the assembly of eastern Gondwana" 3931:

Barker, N. P.; Weston, P. H.; Rutschmann, F.; Sauquet, H. (2007).

3048: 2485: 1989: 1899:

The Tasman Gateway between Australia and Antarctica began to open

1807: 1306: 1154: 896: 810:

and Early Jurassic. Third, in the Late Triassic to Late Jurassic,

586: 431: 3827:, JURASSIC: volcanism, conifers and bennettitaleans, pp. 156, 158 3299:, Assembly of Western Pangaea: Carboniferous–Permian, pp. 453–454 1829:, cutting off a circulation of warm water and thereby making the 617:, when most of western Gondwana had already been amalgamated. By 5663: 5658: 5144:"Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200Ma" 1757: 1711: 1310: 862:

in northwest Argentina which may have continued the line of the

607:

was still separated from India, eastern Africa, and Kalahari by

5574: 2548:, the movement of the Earth's continents relative to each other 2141:

lycopod to evolve from the zosterophylls. During the Devonian,

519:), the successive collision between South American and African 3116:"Gondwanide continental collision and the origin of Patagonia" 2412: 1957:

increased, the renewed ACC resulted in cooler global climate.

676:

Australian-Tasmanian and New Zealand-Antarctica arc segments.

393:

The continent of Gondwana was named by the Austrian scientist

3893:"Patterns of Gondwana plant colonisation and diversification" 3716: 3704: 3386: 3332: 887:

Gondwana as part of Pangaea: Late Paleozoic to Early Mesozoic

198: 3671:, Timing of opening of the Drake Passage region, pp. 198–199 3311:, Assembly of Eastern Pangaea: Late Permian–Jurassic, p. 454 3023:, Peri-Gondwanan continental basement assemblages, pp. 15–16 1825:

Later, South America was connected to North America via the

995:

In the eastern end, collisions occurred slightly later. The

4885:

10.1130/0091-7613(1993)021<0275:RPMRTT>2.3.CO;2

4191:

10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0535:seofak>2.3.co;2

3731:, SILURIAN: terrestrial life appears in the tropics, p. 148 3074:"Paleozoic terranes of the central Argentina-Chilean Andes" 2585:, a scholarly journal including Gondwana among its emphases 204: 5504:

Graphical subjects dealing with Tectonics and Paleontology

4620:

10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83[2649:eattpo]2.0.co;2

3272: 2913: 2446:, whilst generalist browsers, such as several families of 2076:, the first known land plant, and (right) a Late Devonian 1374:

when India moved northwest from Australia-Antarctica. The

883:

accreted to Patagonia in what is now south-central Chile.

183: 3544: 2516:. These include gymnosperms and the deciduous species of 2325:

resulted in the first plant-vertebrate-insect ecosystem.

2155:. The Late Devonian extinction probably also resulted in 2102:, had colonised the tropics. The former evolved into the 1744:

that different lithologies were subject to, but also the

680:

Peri-Gondwana development: Paleozoic rifts and accretions

180: 3398: 1752:

known to have occurred from the Late Cretaceous onward.

561:

of central Africa from Neoproterozoic India (India, the

413:

in 1872, from which the Gondwana sedimentary sequences (

3620: 3323:, Summary: significance of Pangaean events, pp. 454–455 2937: 758:

Journey of the Asian blocks from Gondwana to Laurasia,

5191:(in German). Vol. 1. Leipzig, Germany: G. Freytag 4591:

Luyendyk, B. P.; Forsyth, D.; Phillips, J. D. (1972).

4206:

Grantham, G. H.; Maboko, M.; Eglington, B. M. (2003).

3582: 3052: 2904:: "Azania" was a Greek name for the East African coast 2442:

115 Ma together with the specialised herbivorous

450:

collisional metamorphism of the Kuunga orogeny in red.

255:(large stable blocks of the Earth's crust), beginning 5321:

Vujovich, G. I.; van Staal, C. R.; Davis, W. (2004).

3863: 3842:, Cretaceous: of flowers and pollination, pp. 158–159 3415:. World Geomorphological Landscapes. pp. 33–64. 3374: 3072:; Kay, S.M.; Cortés, J.M.; Palma, M. (October 1986). 1262:: elements of this break-up nearly coincide with the 838:

During the Neoproterozoic to Palaeozoic phase of the

599:

showing final stages of assembly of Gondwana, 550 Mya

201: 195: 186: 5411:"Geologic evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen" 4469:

Jokat, W.; Boebel, T.; König, M.; Meyer, U. (2003).

4386:; Franz, Gerhard; Giese, Peter; Götze, Hans-Jürgen; 3578: 3576: 3574: 3572: 3570: 1285:

During the initial break-up in the Early Jurassic a

1171:

following the extensive and fast emplacement of the

1112:

where initial break-up occurred during the Jurassic

944:

orogenies, respectively. Southern terranes, such as

189: 4859:Müller, R. D.; Royer, J. Y.; Lawver, L. A. (1993). 4356:. Geological Society of America. pp. 265–290. 3632: 3593: 3591: 3448:(2007). "Planation surfaces in Northern Ethiopia". 2367:The brief period of icehouse conditions during the 1814:between the Tethyan Himalayas in the south and the 1187:. Before the Karoo plume initiated rifting between 589:and Arabia) was an island in the Mozambique Ocean. 212:) was a large landmass, sometimes referred to as a 192: 147: 121: 83: 73: 65: 60: 5482:"Interactive animation of the breakup of Gondwana" 3557: 3555: 3553: 3484: 3284: 466:, to amalgamate. One of those orogenic belts, the 5294:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 4024:. Geological Society of London. pp. 21–114. 3835: 3833: 3508: 3496: 3389:, Early rifting and Gondwana breakup, pp. 537–538 3109: 3107: 2901: 2400:evolved in the Early Cretaceous, followed by the 4212:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 4084:Geological Society, London, Special Publications 3791:, CARBONIFEROUS: competing with ice, pp. 153–154 3287:, Data selection and reconstruction fits, p. 772 2975:, Marginal microcontinents and terranes, p. 1008 2916:, The birth of Gondwanaland (600–530 Ma), p. 201 2888: 2877: 2865: 2638: 2342:, dominated Gondwana in the Early Triassic, but 534:and western Gondwana. During this interval, the 4471:"Timing and geometry of early Gondwana breakup" 4424:Jestin, F.; Huchon, P.; Gaulier, J. M. (1994). 3803:, PERMIAN: the glossopterid empire, pp. 153–154 2788: 2786: 1669:. North of the Equator the rifting began after 4390:; Strecker, Manfred R.; Wigger, Peter (eds.). 4354:Evolution and Dynamics of the Australian Plate 3815:, TRIASSIC: the gymnosperm heyday, pp. 155–156 2960: 2007:The adjective "Gondwanan" is in common use in 1876:, Australia was still connected to Antarctica 1472:started to separate the continents during the 5586: 5480:Barend Köbben; Colin Reeves; Maarten de Wit. 5418:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 5206:"Gondwana from top to base in space and time" 4294:HaoMin, Li; ZheKun, Zhou (1 September 2007). 3866:, Gondwana and early mammal evolution, p. 375 3169: 3167: 2500:. Fossils have also been found in Antarctica. 2308:, one of the few plant orders to survive the 1015:blocks then rifted from Gondwana to form the 712:close to the Carboniferous–Permian boundary. 685:progressively amalgamated into the continent 311:. It began to separate from northern Pangea ( 8: 5462:"Animation of the dispersal of Gondwanaland" 5188:Das Antlitz der Erde (The Face of the Earth) 4475:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 3875: 3851: 3228:; Rapela, Carlos W.; Quezada, Paulo (2018). 3008: 2984: 2972: 2951:, Definition and Tectonic Framework, pp. 4–6 2650: 1913:(ACC) was established in the Late Oligocene 43: 3608: 2512:of Valdivia, through the connection of the 319:, and started to fragment during the Early 6034: 6029: 5829: 5824: 5746: 5741: 5618: 5613: 5593: 5579: 5571: 4352:. In Hillis, R. R.; Müller, R. D. (eds.). 3532: 3520: 2996: 2792: 2070:Reconstructions of (left) a late Silurian 1909:. Palaeontological evidence indicates the 1628:resulted in further ocean-floor spreading 774:South-east Asia was made of Gondwanan and 369:elements that persist to the present day. 361:Regions that were part of Gondwana shared 49: 5561: 5551: 5275: 5090:Royer, J. Y.; Patriat, P.; Bergh, H. W.; 4924: 4494: 4459: 4449: 4303:Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences 4155: 4060: 3257: 3247: 3205: 2842: 2759: 2684: 2483:when Africa and South America separated. 1270:, whose eruption site may survive as the 671:The 18,000 km-long (11,000 mi) 569:, and the Napier and Rayner Complexes in 264: 5247:Torsvik, T. H.; Van der Voo, R. (2002). 5204:Torsvik, T. H.; Cocks, L. R. M. (2013). 3692: 3177:Journal of South American Earth Sciences 3036: 3032: 2795:, Gondwana or Gondwanaland?, pp. 272–273 2748:"Gondwana and the Politics of Deep Past" 2221:pines from which modern conifers evolved 1167:Gondwana began to break up in the early 591: 399:region in central India of the same name 376: 2599: 2117:West Gondwana drifted north during the 5509:Gondwana Reconstruction and Dispersion 4790:Meert, J. G.; Van der Voo, R. (1997). 4600:Geological Society of America Bulletin 3656: 3644: 3320: 3308: 3296: 3020: 2948: 2388:The Cretaceous saw the arrival of the 1460:. A shallow seaway developed over the 1038:The breakup of Pangaea began with the 477:and was originally interpreted as the 42: 5374:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 4980:Geological Society of America Memoirs 4792:"The assembly of Gondwana 800-550 Ma" 3621:Luyendyk, Forsyth & Phillips 1972 3561: 3224:; Calderón, Mauricio; Fanning, Mark; 2938:Grantham, Maboko & Eglington 2003 2925: 2804: 2774: 2520:, as well as the New Zealand laurel, 2455:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 2161:evolving into the amphibian tetrapods 1264:Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 806:were added to south-east Asia during 565:Block in far eastern Madagascar, the 327:) and Australia, occurred during the 27:Neoproterozoic to Cretaceous landmass 7: 4899:Münker, C.; Crawford, A. J. (2000). 4392:The Andes: Active Subduction Orogeny 3583:Charrier, Pinto & Rodríguez 2006 3413:Landscapes and Landforms of Ethiopia 3068:; Jordan, T.E.; Allmendinger, R.W.; 3053:Vujovich, van Staal & Davis 2004 2727:from the original on 29 October 2020 1856:plates, resulting in rifting in the 1090:, one of the Earth's most extensive 901:Gondwana formed part of Pangaea for 4520:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 3864:Woodburne, Rich & Springer 2003 3523:, East Antarctica–Australia, p. 280 1576:opening of the South Atlantic Ocean 875:early Permian. In the Devonian, an 4461:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1994.tb03286.x 3535:, West Antarctica–Tasmania, p. 280 2369:Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 2149:, including the first large trees 1450:with seafloor spreading occurring 1054:Triassic–Jurassic extinction event 1040:Central Atlantic magmatic province 25: 5409:Yin, A.; Harrison, T. M. (2000). 5256:Geophysical Journal International 5047:Journal of the Geological Society 4832:Journal of African Earth Sciences 4430:Geophysical Journal International 4136:Geophysical Journal International 3897:Journal of African Earth Sciences 3755:, The Silurian revolution, p. 151 3633:Jestin, Huchon & Gaulier 1994 3152:from the original on 19 July 2018 2823:Journal of African Earth Sciences 2721:Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary 2620:from the original on 3 March 2016 2557:Gondwana Rainforests of Australia 1791:began to collide with Asia circa 1436:Separation between Australia and 1250:, were broken off India, causing 1033:Permian–Triassic extinction event 6305: 6304: 6282: 5800: 5785: 5770: 5755: 5717: 5702: 5687: 5672: 5657: 5642: 5627: 5277:10.1046/j.1365-246X.2002.01799.x 4157:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2005.02598.x 3957:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01749.x 3485:Powell, Roots & Veevers 1988 3356:from the original on 15 May 2019 3011:, South-central and eastern Asia 2987:, Southern Europe, pp. 1008–1009 2844:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2022.104817 2270:Still extant Triassic conifers ( 2260: 2251: 2240: 2231: 2195: 2186: 2060: 2051: 2016:. For example, the plant family 1833:colder, as well as allowing the 1557: 1548: 1425:. The Kerguelen Plateau and the 1347: 1338: 1329: 1143: 1134: 748: 739: 728: 719: 176: 6128:Possible future supercontinents 5168:10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.03.002 4577:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.021 4254:Gurovich, Y.; Beck, R. (2009). 4071:10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.02.004 4010:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.09.001 3509:Müller, Royer & Lawver 1993 3497:DeMets, Gordon & Royer 2005 3143:10.1016/j.earscirev.2006.02.001 2817:Fairhead, J.D. (1 March 2023). 2695:10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.05.003 1868:Australia–Antarctica separation 1540:Opening of South Atlantic Ocean 1321:Opening of eastern Indian Ocean 1126:Opening of western Indian Ocean 5438:10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.211 4663:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2006.01.009 4345:Hill, K. C.; Hall, R. (2003). 4260:Journal of Mammalian Evolution 3743:, The First Extinction, p. 151 3647:, Palaeogeography, pp. 538–539 3499:, Introduction; Fig. 1, p. 446 3472:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.12.007 3285:Torsvik & Van der Voo 2002 2294:) that once dominated Gondwana 2088:By the end of the Ordovician, 1986:Evolutionary history of plants 354:), it is also commonly called 1: 5394:10.1016/S1055-7903(03)00113-1 5350:10.1016/S1342-937X(05)71083-2 4852:10.1016/s0899-5362(97)86882-0 4816:10.1016/S0264-3707(96)00046-4 4783:10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00629-7 4232:10.1144/GSL.SP.2003.206.01.19 4104:10.1144/GSL.SP.1998.142.01.11 3917:10.1016/S0899-5362(98)00083-9 3547:, South Atlantic, pp. 217–218 2902:Collins & Pisarevsky 2005 2474: 2439: 2028:Post-Cambrian diversification 1972:plates and the uplift of the 1923:with the full opening of the 1914: 1911:Antarctic Circumpolar Current 1900: 1877: 1734: 1718:and the emplacement of large 1677: 1660: 1647: 1629: 1626:Paraná and Etendeka magmatics 1607: 1597: 1580: 1527: 1486: 1476: 1451: 1441: 1416: 1398: 1365: 1238:The Madagascar block and the 1178: 1113: 1095: 1088:Karoo-Ferrar igneous province 1043: 902: 766:(450, 350, 300, and 200 Mya). 696:In the Early Palaeozoic, the 655: 645: 635: 627: 618: 608: 273: 256: 5906:Other prehistoric continents 5314:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.02.025 5120:10.1016/0040-1951(88)90268-5 4964:10.1016/0040-1951(88)90269-7 4731:Australian Journal of Botany 4703:10.1126/science.284.5414.616 4643:Journal of Arid Environments 3511:, Model results, pp. 277–278 3198:10.1016/j.jsames.2008.06.002 2999:, Cimmerian terranes, p. 278 2889:Meert & Van der Voo 1997 2878:Miashita & Yamamoto 1996 2866:Meert & Van der Voo 1997 2746:Chakrabarti, Pratik (2019). 2639:Meert & Van der Voo 1997 1221:Ellsworth–Whitmore Mountains 458:, collectively known as the 4400:10.1007/978-3-540-48684-8_6 3779:, Amphibian prelude, p. 153 3421:10.1007/978-94-017-8026-1_2 2868:, Introduction, pp. 223–226 2616:. Lexico Publishing Group. 2461:is an extinct group of non- 2036:was followed by a Silurian 1768:-parallel faults including 1738: 90 million years ago 1640:Central African Rift System 577:continent (much of central 247:Gondwana was formed by the 6448: 5022:American Geophysical Union 4540:10.1016/j.epsl.2008.12.037 3659:, Conclusions, pp. 557–558 3598:Hoffmann-Rothe et al. 2006 3444:Coltorti, M.; Dramis, F.; 3401:, Figg. 7 a–j, pp. 248–257 2961:Münker & Crawford 2000 2034:Late Ordovician glaciation 1983: 1835:Great American Interchange 1644:Central African Shear Zone 890: 798:opened Meso-Tethys Ocean; 768:View centred on 0°S,105°E. 29: 6274: 6032: 6028: 5827: 5823: 5744: 5740: 5616: 5612: 5519:20 September 2019 at the 4323:10.1007/s11430-007-0102-0 4272:10.1007/s10914-008-9097-3 3854:, Introduction, pp. 25–26 2900:Defined but not named in 2175:amphibians and the first 2133:Flora, found only in the 2042:End-Ordovician extinction 1382:are now separated by the 1278:are now separated by the 1274:. The Seychelles and the 1052:, and coincided with the 501:in southern Madagascar) ( 351: 48: 36:Gondwana (disambiguation) 6392:Prehistory of Antarctica 6387:Geology of South America 6352:Paleozoic paleogeography 6315:Chronology of continents 5553:10.1016/j.gr.2019.07.009 5514:The Gondwana Map Project 5233:10.1016/j.gr.2013.06.012 5068:10.1144/gsjgs.155.1.0105 5037:Rapalini, A. E. (1998). 5016:Rapalini, A. E. (2001). 3876:HaoMin & ZheKun 2007 3852:Gurovich & Beck 2009 3249:10.5027/andgeoV45n3-3117 3009:Torsvik & Cocks 2013 2985:Torsvik & Cocks 2013 2973:Torsvik & Cocks 2013 2651:Torsvik & Cocks 2013 2529:Laurelia novae-zelandiae 2123:Late Devonian extinction 1822:mountains in the north. 1197:Transantarctic Mountains 603:The continent Australia/ 401:, which is derived from 6412:Paleozoic South America 6357:Mesozoic paleogeography 5020:. Spring Meeting 2001. 4725:McLoughlin, S. (2001). 4532:2009E&PSL.279..197L 4130:; Royer, J. Y. (2005). 3937:Journal of Biogeography 3705:Travouillon et al. 2009 3681:Lagabrielle et al. 2009 3669:Lagabrielle et al. 2009 3609:Yin & Harrison 2000 3387:Encarnación et al. 1996 3377:, Introduction, pp. 1–2 3098:10.1029/TC005i006p00855 3049:Dalla Salda et al. 1998 2523:Corynocarpus laevigatus 1092:large igneous provinces 1070:Central Atlantic opened 915:Central Atlantic opened 872:North Patagonian Massif 834:Southwestern accretions 664:in the Kuunga Orogeny. 6432:Mesozoic South America 6342:Former supercontinents 6076:Great Australian Bight 4796:Journal of Geodynamics 4634:Martin, H. A. (2006). 3055:, Conclusions, p. 1053 2501: 2431:in Australia, and the 2329:Modern diversification 2310:end-Permian extinction 2082:, the first large tree 2004: 1844:, which separates the 1706:were characterised by 1431:Southeast Indian Ridge 1242:, stretching from the 1233:Southwest Indian Ridge 1227:(often referred to as 1161:c. 70 Ma (right). 984:which resulted in the 906: 840:Terra Australis Orogen 673:Terra Australis Orogen 600: 451: 421:) are also described. 390: 34:. For other uses, see 6367:Geology of Antarctica 6337:Historical continents 5148:Earth-Science Reviews 4992:10.1130/2009.1204(02) 4757:Meert, J. G. (2003). 4041:Earth-Science Reviews 3990:Earth-Science Reviews 3683:, Conclusions, p. 210 3123:Earth-Science Reviews 2665:Earth-Science Reviews 2575:South Polar dinosaurs 2489: 2421:wasps, bees, and ants 2417:butterflies and moths 1993: 1714:, the development of 1708:extensional tectonics 1370:132.5 to 96 970:Appalachian Mountains 900: 595: 435: 381:Distribution of four 380: 283:with the overlapping 160:Indo-Australian Plate 6402:Paleozoic Antarctica 6382:Geology of Australia 6300:Continental fragment 6295:Regions of the world 5490:University of Twente 4926:10.1029/2000TC900002 4557:Precambrian Research 4496:10.1029/2002JB001802 3840:Anderson et al. 1999 3825:Anderson et al. 1999 3813:Anderson et al. 1999 3801:Anderson et al. 1999 3789:Anderson et al. 1999 3777:Anderson et al. 1999 3765:Anderson et al. 1999 3753:Anderson et al. 1999 3741:Anderson et al. 1999 3729:Anderson et al. 1999 3693:Hill & Hall 2003 2761:10.1093/pastj/gty016 2429:Koonwarra Lake fauna 1974:New Guinea Highlands 1842:Afar Triple Junction 1762:South Atlantic Ocean 1729:. During the mid to 1694:The first phases of 1690:Early Andean orogeny 1676:and continued until 1634:130 to 135 1606:or Early Cretaceous 1287:marine transgression 1280:Central Indian Ridge 1118:180 to 160 1100:200 to 170 660:570 to 530 650:750 to 620 640:750 to 530 515:660 to 530 489:650 to 800 484:East African Orogeny 473:800 to 650 446:570 to 530 439:620 to 550 279:600 to 530 270:East African Orogeny 262:800 to 650 164:South American Plate 61:Historical continent 6422:Mesozoic Antarctica 6257:Indian Subcontinent 6047:Submerged continent 5563:20.500.11850/390104 5544:2020GondR..81...79V 5466:University of Leeds 5430:2000AREPS..28..211Y 5386:2003MolPE..28..360W 5342:2004GondR...7.1041V 5306:2009PPP...276...24T 5268:2002GeoJI.151..771T 5225:2013GondR..24..999T 5160:2012ESRv..113..212S 5112:1988Tectp.155..235R 5060:1998JGSoc.155..105R 5030:2001AGUSM..GP32D03R 4956:1988Tectp.155..261P 4917:2000Tecto..19..415M 4877:1993Geo....21..275D 4844:1996JAfES..23D..19M 4808:1997JGeo...23..223M 4775:2003Tectp.362....1M 4695:1999Sci...284..616M 4655:2006JArEn..66..533M 4612:1972GSAB...83.2649L 4569:2008PreR..160..179L 4487:2003JGRB..108.2428J 4442:1994GeoJI.116..637J 4382:. In Oncken, Onno; 4315:2007ScChD..50.1525H 4224:2003GSLSP.206..401G 4183:1996Geo....24..535E 4148:2005GeoJI.161..445D 4096:1998GSLSP.142..219D 4053:2005ESRv...71..229C 4002:2005ESRv...69..249C 3949:2007JBiog..34.2012B 3909:1999JAfES..28..145A 3464:2007Geomo..89..287C 3352:. 4 February 2008. 3333:Marzoli et al. 1999 3190:2008JSAES..26..235R 3135:2006ESRv...76..235P 3090:1986Tecto...5..855R 2835:2023JAfES.19904817F 2677:2011ESRv..108...16B 1964:collision with the 1955:Antarctic Peninsula 1800:Indian subcontinent 1682:100 to 96 1646:which lasted until 1403:118 to 95 1201:Antarctic Peninsula 460:Pan-African orogeny 405:for "forest of the 242:Indian Subcontinent 45: 6038: 5833: 5750: 5622: 4018:Charrier, Reynaldo 3717:Barker et al. 2007 3039:, pp. 105–106 2752:Past & Present 2565:of Southern Africa 2552:Australasian realm 2502: 2433:Orapa diamond mine 2005: 1945:26 to 14 1940:North Scotia Ridge 1930:34 to 29 1905:40 to 30 1295:planation surfaces 1293:covering Triassic 1106:magnetic anomalies 1009:Proto-Tethys Ocean 907: 860:Famatinian orogeny 796:Cimmerian terranes 601: 536:Cambrian explosion 510:Brasiliano orogeny 452: 436:Eastern Gondwana. 391: 334:66 to 23 122:Smaller continents 6362:Geology of Africa 6324: 6323: 6270: 6269: 6265: 6264: 6086:Kerguelen Plateau 6024: 6023: 6019: 6018: 5819: 5818: 5814: 5813: 5736: 5735: 5731: 5730: 5532:Gondwana Research 5330:Gondwana Research 5213:Gondwana Research 4689:(5414): 616–618. 4409:978-3-540-24329-8 4309:(10): 1525–1535. 3943:(12): 2012–2027. 3545:Seton et al. 2012 3430:978-94-017-8026-1 3399:Royer et al. 1988 3375:Jokat et al. 2003 3226:Pankhurst, Robert 2582:Gondwana Research 2546:Continental drift 2534:continental drift 2453:, prevailed. The 2425:Santana Formation 2143:giant club mosses 1862:East African Rift 1827:Isthmus of Panama 1464:during the Early 1462:South Tasman Rise 1409:Ninety East Ridge 1392:Kerguelen Plateau 1390:first formed the 1388:Kerguelen hotspot 1240:Mascarene Plateau 1104:, but the oldest 1028:Absaroka sequence 854:or Precordillera 702:Iberian Peninsula 698:Armorican terrane 336:million years ago 293:continental crust 169: 168: 16:(Redirected from 6439: 6397:Paleozoic Africa 6377:Geology of India 6308: 6307: 6289:World portal 6287: 6286: 6224: 6173: 6130: 6058: 6035: 6030: 5908: 5846: 5830: 5825: 5804: 5789: 5774: 5759: 5747: 5742: 5721: 5706: 5691: 5676: 5661: 5646: 5631: 5619: 5614: 5595: 5588: 5581: 5572: 5567: 5565: 5555: 5500: 5498: 5496: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5460:Houseman, Greg. 5448: 5446: 5444: 5415: 5405: 5368: 5366: 5364: 5336:(4): 1041–1056. 5327: 5317: 5288: 5286: 5284: 5279: 5253: 5243: 5241: 5239: 5210: 5200: 5198: 5196: 5178: 5176: 5174: 5138: 5136: 5134: 5106:(1–4): 235–260. 5086: 5084: 5082: 5043: 5033: 5012: 5010: 5008: 4967: 4950:(1–4): 261–283. 4938: 4928: 4895: 4893: 4891: 4855: 4826: 4824: 4822: 4802:(3–4): 223–235. 4786: 4753: 4751: 4749: 4721: 4719: 4717: 4673: 4671: 4669: 4640: 4630: 4628: 4626: 4597: 4587: 4585: 4583: 4554: 4543: 4517: 4507: 4505: 4503: 4498: 4465: 4463: 4453: 4420: 4418: 4416: 4388:Ramos, Víctor A. 4384:Chong, Guillermo 4374: 4372: 4370: 4351: 4341: 4339: 4337: 4300: 4290: 4288: 4286: 4250: 4248: 4246: 4202: 4161: 4159: 4122: 4120: 4118: 4074: 4064: 4047:(3–4): 229–270. 4035: 4022:Geology of Chile 4013: 3984: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3927: 3925: 3923: 3878: 3873: 3867: 3861: 3855: 3849: 3843: 3837: 3828: 3822: 3816: 3810: 3804: 3798: 3792: 3786: 3780: 3774: 3768: 3762: 3756: 3750: 3744: 3738: 3732: 3726: 3720: 3714: 3708: 3702: 3696: 3690: 3684: 3678: 3672: 3666: 3660: 3654: 3648: 3642: 3636: 3630: 3624: 3618: 3612: 3606: 3600: 3595: 3586: 3585:, pp. 45–46 3580: 3565: 3559: 3548: 3542: 3536: 3530: 3524: 3518: 3512: 3506: 3500: 3494: 3488: 3482: 3476: 3475: 3458:(3–4): 287–296. 3441: 3435: 3434: 3408: 3402: 3396: 3390: 3384: 3378: 3372: 3366: 3365: 3363: 3361: 3342: 3336: 3330: 3324: 3318: 3312: 3306: 3300: 3294: 3288: 3282: 3276: 3270: 3264: 3263: 3261: 3251: 3222:Hervé, Francisco 3218: 3212: 3211: 3209: 3171: 3162: 3161: 3159: 3157: 3151: 3129:(3–4): 235–257. 3120: 3111: 3102: 3101: 3062: 3056: 3046: 3040: 3030: 3024: 3018: 3012: 3006: 3000: 2994: 2988: 2982: 2976: 2970: 2964: 2958: 2952: 2946: 2940: 2935: 2929: 2923: 2917: 2911: 2905: 2898: 2892: 2886: 2880: 2875: 2869: 2863: 2857: 2856: 2846: 2814: 2808: 2807:, Fig. 10, p. 19 2802: 2796: 2790: 2781: 2772: 2766: 2765: 2763: 2754:(242): 119–153. 2743: 2737: 2736: 2734: 2732: 2713: 2707: 2706: 2688: 2660: 2654: 2648: 2642: 2636: 2630: 2629: 2627: 2625: 2604: 2563:Great Escarpment 2490:The plant genus 2482: 2476: 2441: 2374:Cheiroleidiacean 2264: 2255: 2244: 2235: 2199: 2190: 2064: 2055: 1948: 1936:Tierra del Fuego 1933: 1922: 1916: 1908: 1902: 1890: 1879: 1797: 1739: 1736: 1704:Early Cretaceous 1685: 1679: 1675: 1668: 1662: 1655: 1649: 1637: 1631: 1615: 1609: 1605: 1599: 1595: 1588: 1582: 1561: 1552: 1535: 1529: 1505:Campbell Plateau 1494: 1488: 1484: 1478: 1459: 1453: 1449: 1443: 1424: 1418: 1406: 1400: 1380:Australian Plate 1373: 1367: 1351: 1342: 1333: 1217:Falkland Islands 1186: 1180: 1147: 1138: 1121: 1115: 1103: 1097: 1051: 1045: 904: 828:Himalaya Orogeny 786:, together with 752: 743: 732: 723: 710:Variscan orogeny 663: 657: 653: 647: 643: 637: 629: 620: 616: 610: 547:Mozambique Ocean 518: 507: 499:Malagasy Orogeny 492: 476: 449: 442: 337: 282: 275: 267: 266: 258: 211: 210: 207: 206: 203: 200: 197: 194: 191: 188: 185: 182: 53: 46: 32:Gondwana (India) 21: 6447: 6446: 6442: 6441: 6440: 6438: 6437: 6436: 6417:Mesozoic Africa 6372:Geology of Asia 6327: 6326: 6325: 6320: 6319: 6281: 6266: 6261: 6247:Eastern Siberia 6237:Central America 6225: 6218: 6212: 6207:Terra Australis 6174: 6158: 6152: 6148:Pangaea Proxima 6131: 6126: 6120: 6059: 6055:microcontinents 6044: 6020: 6015: 5961:East Antarctica 5909: 5904: 5898: 5847: 5843:supercontinents 5839: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5795: 5790: 5780: 5775: 5765: 5760: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5712: 5707: 5697: 5692: 5682: 5677: 5667: 5662: 5652: 5647: 5637: 5632: 5608: 5599: 5525: 5521:Wayback Machine 5494: 5492: 5479: 5470: 5468: 5459: 5456: 5451: 5442: 5440: 5413: 5408: 5371: 5362: 5360: 5325: 5320: 5291: 5282: 5280: 5251: 5246: 5237: 5235: 5219:(3): 999–1030. 5208: 5203: 5194: 5192: 5181: 5172: 5170: 5141: 5132: 5130: 5089: 5080: 5078: 5041: 5036: 5015: 5006: 5004: 5002: 4970: 4941: 4898: 4889: 4887: 4858: 4829: 4820: 4818: 4789: 4756: 4747: 4745: 4743:10.1071/BT00023 4724: 4715: 4713: 4676: 4667: 4665: 4638: 4633: 4624: 4622: 4595: 4590: 4581: 4579: 4552: 4546: 4515: 4510: 4501: 4499: 4468: 4451:10.1.1.876.4499 4423: 4414: 4412: 4410: 4377: 4368: 4366: 4364: 4349: 4344: 4335: 4333: 4298: 4293: 4284: 4282: 4253: 4244: 4242: 4205: 4164: 4125: 4116: 4114: 4077: 4062:10.1.1.558.5911 4038: 4032: 4016: 3987: 3978: 3969: 3967: 3930: 3921: 3919: 3890: 3886: 3881: 3874: 3870: 3862: 3858: 3850: 3846: 3838: 3831: 3823: 3819: 3811: 3807: 3799: 3795: 3787: 3783: 3775: 3771: 3763: 3759: 3751: 3747: 3739: 3735: 3727: 3723: 3715: 3711: 3703: 3699: 3691: 3687: 3679: 3675: 3667: 3663: 3655: 3651: 3643: 3639: 3631: 3627: 3619: 3615: 3607: 3603: 3596: 3589: 3581: 3568: 3560: 3551: 3543: 3539: 3533:McLoughlin 2001 3531: 3527: 3521:McLoughlin 2001 3519: 3515: 3507: 3503: 3495: 3491: 3483: 3479: 3443: 3442: 3438: 3431: 3410: 3409: 3405: 3397: 3393: 3385: 3381: 3373: 3369: 3359: 3357: 3344: 3343: 3339: 3331: 3327: 3319: 3315: 3307: 3303: 3295: 3291: 3283: 3279: 3271: 3267: 3220: 3219: 3215: 3173: 3172: 3165: 3155: 3153: 3149: 3118: 3113: 3112: 3105: 3064: 3063: 3059: 3047: 3043: 3031: 3027: 3019: 3015: 3007: 3003: 2997:McLoughlin 2001 2995: 2991: 2983: 2979: 2971: 2967: 2959: 2955: 2947: 2943: 2936: 2932: 2924: 2920: 2912: 2908: 2899: 2895: 2887: 2883: 2876: 2872: 2864: 2860: 2816: 2815: 2811: 2803: 2799: 2793:McLoughlin 2001 2791: 2784: 2777:, p. 768: 2773: 2769: 2745: 2744: 2740: 2730: 2728: 2715: 2714: 2710: 2686:10.1.1.715.6618 2662: 2661: 2657: 2649: 2645: 2637: 2633: 2623: 2621: 2606: 2605: 2601: 2597: 2592: 2569:Plate tectonics 2542: 2514:Antarctic flora 2477: 2427:in Brazil, the 2331: 2298: 2297: 2296: 2295: 2267: 2266: 2265: 2257: 2256: 2247: 2246: 2245: 2237: 2236: 2225: 2224: 2223: 2222: 2202: 2201: 2200: 2192: 2191: 2086: 2085: 2084: 2083: 2067: 2066: 2065: 2057: 2056: 2030: 2014:Antarctic flora 1988: 1982: 1943: 1928: 1917: 1903: 1896:precipitation. 1885: 1870: 1812:Tibetan Plateau 1792: 1786: 1766:subduction zone 1737: 1731:Late Cretaceous 1716:back-arc basins 1692: 1680: 1670: 1663: 1650: 1632: 1622:Rio Grande Rise 1610: 1600: 1590: 1583: 1572: 1571: 1570: 1569: 1564: 1563: 1562: 1554: 1553: 1542: 1530: 1525:West Antarctica 1489: 1479: 1454: 1444: 1438:East Antarctica 1419: 1401: 1396:Antarctic Plate 1384:Capricorn Plate 1368: 1362: 1361: 1360: 1359: 1354: 1353: 1352: 1344: 1343: 1335: 1334: 1323: 1289:swept over the 1272:Réunion hotspot 1258:to be separate 1213:Thurston Island 1205:Marie Byrd Land 1181: 1165: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1150: 1149: 1148: 1140: 1139: 1128: 1116: 1098: 1083: 1078: 1046: 986:Uralian orogeny 895: 889: 836: 772: 771: 770: 769: 767: 760:Late Ordovician 755: 754: 753: 745: 744: 735: 734: 733: 725: 724: 682: 658: 648: 638: 624:Adamastor Ocean 611: 571:East Antarctica 559:Bangweulu Block 513: 502: 497:(including the 487: 471: 468:Mozambique Belt 444: 437: 430: 411:H. B. Medlicott 375: 332: 277: 260: 179: 175: 162: 158: 156:Antarctic Plate 154: 148:Tectonic plates 140: 136: 132: 128: 114: 110: 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 56: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6445: 6443: 6435: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6407:Paleozoic Asia 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6329: 6328: 6322: 6321: 6318: 6317: 6312: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6276: 6275: 6272: 6271: 6268: 6267: 6263: 6262: 6260: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6242:Eastern Africa 6239: 6234: 6229: 6215: 6213: 6211: 6210: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6155: 6153: 6151: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6123: 6121: 6119: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6088: 6083: 6078: 6073: 6068: 6063: 6041: 6039: 6033: 6026: 6025: 6022: 6021: 6017: 6016: 6014: 6013: 6008: 6003: 5998: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5938: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5901: 5899: 5897: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5836: 5834: 5828: 5821: 5820: 5817: 5816: 5812: 5811: 5798: 5796: 5783: 5781: 5768: 5766: 5753: 5751: 5745: 5738: 5737: 5734: 5733: 5729: 5728: 5715: 5713: 5700: 5698: 5685: 5683: 5670: 5668: 5655: 5653: 5640: 5638: 5625: 5623: 5617: 5610: 5609: 5600: 5598: 5597: 5590: 5583: 5575: 5569: 5568: 5523: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5477: 5455: 5454:External links 5452: 5450: 5449: 5424:(1): 211–280. 5406: 5380:(2): 360–385. 5369: 5318: 5300:(1–4): 24–37. 5289: 5262:(3): 771–794. 5244: 5201: 5179: 5154:(3): 212–270. 5139: 5100:Tectonophysics 5092:Scotese, C. R. 5087: 5054:(1): 105–114. 5034: 5013: 5000: 4968: 4944:Tectonophysics 4939: 4911:(3): 415–432. 4896: 4871:(3): 275–278. 4856: 4827: 4787: 4763:Tectonophysics 4754: 4737:(3): 271–300. 4722: 4674: 4649:(3): 533–563. 4631: 4588: 4563:(1): 179–210. 4544: 4526:(3): 197–211. 4508: 4466: 4436:(3): 637–654. 4421: 4408: 4375: 4362: 4342: 4291: 4251: 4218:(1): 401–425. 4203: 4177:(6): 535–538. 4162: 4142:(2): 445–468. 4123: 4090:(1): 219–234. 4075: 4036: 4030: 4014: 3996:(3): 249–279. 3985: 3976: 3928: 3903:(1): 145–167. 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3879: 3868: 3856: 3844: 3829: 3817: 3805: 3793: 3781: 3769: 3757: 3745: 3733: 3721: 3709: 3697: 3685: 3673: 3661: 3649: 3637: 3625: 3613: 3601: 3587: 3566: 3549: 3537: 3525: 3513: 3501: 3489: 3477: 3436: 3429: 3403: 3391: 3379: 3367: 3337: 3325: 3313: 3301: 3289: 3277: 3273:Li et al. 2008 3265: 3242:(3): 301–317. 3235:Andean Geology 3213: 3184:(3): 235–251. 3163: 3103: 3084:(6): 855–880. 3057: 3041: 3025: 3013: 3001: 2989: 2977: 2965: 2953: 2941: 2930: 2918: 2914:Li et al. 2008 2906: 2893: 2881: 2870: 2858: 2809: 2797: 2782: 2767: 2738: 2717:"Gondwanaland" 2708: 2671:(1–2): 16–33. 2655: 2643: 2631: 2613:Dictionary.com 2598: 2596: 2593: 2591: 2588: 2587: 2586: 2578: 2572: 2566: 2559: 2554: 2549: 2541: 2538: 2506:laurel forests 2459:Gondwanatheria 2448:sauropodomorph 2444:ornithischians 2330: 2327: 2269: 2268: 2259: 2258: 2250: 2249: 2248: 2239: 2238: 2230: 2229: 2228: 2227: 2226: 2204: 2203: 2194: 2193: 2185: 2184: 2183: 2182: 2181: 2147:progymnosperms 2069: 2068: 2059: 2058: 2050: 2049: 2048: 2047: 2046: 2029: 2026: 1981: 1978: 1869: 1866: 1798:, forming the 1785: 1782: 1754:Plate tectonic 1696:Andean orogeny 1691: 1688: 1566: 1565: 1556: 1555: 1547: 1546: 1545: 1544: 1543: 1541: 1538: 1513:Lord Howe Rise 1356: 1355: 1346: 1345: 1337: 1336: 1328: 1327: 1326: 1325: 1324: 1322: 1319: 1291:Horn of Africa 1268:Deccan basalts 1152: 1151: 1142: 1141: 1133: 1132: 1131: 1130: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1017:Palaeo-Thethys 976:collided with 891:Main article: 888: 885: 850:. This is the 835: 832: 764:Early Jurassic 757: 756: 747: 746: 738: 737: 736: 727: 726: 718: 717: 716: 715: 714: 681: 678: 597:Reconstruction 583:Horn of Africa 549:separated the 495:Kuunga orogeny 429: 426: 374: 371: 214:supercontinent 167: 166: 149: 145: 144: 123: 119: 118: 85: 81: 80: 78:Supercontinent 75: 71: 70: 67: 63: 62: 58: 57: 54: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6444: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6427:Mesozoic Asia 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6334: 6332: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6290: 6285: 6278: 6277: 6273: 6258: 6255: 6253: 6250: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6233: 6230: 6228: 6223: 6222: 6221:Subcontinents 6217: 6216: 6214: 6209: 6208: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6186:Kumari Kandam 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6172: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6157: 6156: 6154: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6129: 6125: 6124: 6122: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6084: 6082: 6079: 6077: 6074: 6072: 6069: 6067: 6064: 6062: 6057: 6056: 6052: 6048: 6043: 6042: 6040: 6037: 6036: 6031: 6027: 6012: 6009: 6007: 6004: 6002: 5999: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5907: 5903: 5902: 5900: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5845: 5844: 5838: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5831: 5826: 5822: 5809: 5808: 5803: 5797: 5794: 5793: 5788: 5782: 5779: 5778: 5773: 5767: 5764: 5763: 5758: 5752: 5749: 5748: 5743: 5739: 5726: 5725: 5724:South America 5720: 5714: 5711: 5710: 5709:North America 5705: 5699: 5696: 5695: 5690: 5684: 5681: 5680: 5675: 5669: 5666: 5665: 5660: 5654: 5651: 5650: 5645: 5639: 5636: 5635: 5630: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5615: 5611: 5607: 5603: 5596: 5591: 5589: 5584: 5582: 5577: 5576: 5573: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5549: 5545: 5541: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5524: 5522: 5518: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5491: 5487: 5483: 5478: 5467: 5463: 5458: 5457: 5453: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5427: 5423: 5419: 5412: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5370: 5359: 5355: 5351: 5347: 5343: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5324: 5319: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5290: 5278: 5273: 5269: 5265: 5261: 5257: 5250: 5245: 5234: 5230: 5226: 5222: 5218: 5214: 5207: 5202: 5190: 5189: 5184: 5180: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5157: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5140: 5129: 5125: 5121: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5105: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5088: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5048: 5040: 5035: 5031: 5027: 5023: 5019: 5014: 5003: 5001:9780813712048 4997: 4993: 4989: 4985: 4981: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4945: 4940: 4936: 4932: 4927: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4897: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4870: 4866: 4862: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4845: 4841: 4837: 4833: 4828: 4817: 4813: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4760: 4755: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4728: 4723: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4675: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4648: 4644: 4637: 4632: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4594: 4589: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4551: 4545: 4541: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4514: 4509: 4497: 4492: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4457: 4452: 4447: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4422: 4411: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4376: 4365: 4363:9780813723723 4359: 4355: 4348: 4343: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4297: 4292: 4281: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4257: 4252: 4241: 4237: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4149: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4128:Gordon, R. G. 4124: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4076: 4072: 4068: 4063: 4058: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4042: 4037: 4033: 4031:9781862392199 4027: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3986: 3982: 3977: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3929: 3918: 3914: 3910: 3906: 3902: 3898: 3894: 3889: 3888: 3883: 3877: 3872: 3869: 3865: 3860: 3857: 3853: 3848: 3845: 3841: 3836: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3821: 3818: 3814: 3809: 3806: 3802: 3797: 3794: 3790: 3785: 3782: 3778: 3773: 3770: 3766: 3761: 3758: 3754: 3749: 3746: 3742: 3737: 3734: 3730: 3725: 3722: 3718: 3713: 3710: 3706: 3701: 3698: 3694: 3689: 3686: 3682: 3677: 3674: 3670: 3665: 3662: 3658: 3653: 3650: 3646: 3641: 3638: 3634: 3629: 3626: 3622: 3617: 3614: 3610: 3605: 3602: 3599: 3594: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3579: 3577: 3575: 3573: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3558: 3556: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3541: 3538: 3534: 3529: 3526: 3522: 3517: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3502: 3498: 3493: 3490: 3486: 3481: 3478: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3452: 3451:Geomorphology 3447: 3440: 3437: 3432: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3407: 3404: 3400: 3395: 3392: 3388: 3383: 3380: 3376: 3371: 3368: 3355: 3351: 3347: 3341: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3326: 3322: 3317: 3314: 3310: 3305: 3302: 3298: 3293: 3290: 3286: 3281: 3278: 3274: 3269: 3266: 3260: 3255: 3250: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3236: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3217: 3214: 3208: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3178: 3170: 3168: 3164: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3117: 3110: 3108: 3104: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3061: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3045: 3042: 3038: 3037:Rapalini 1998 3034: 3033:Rapalini 2001 3029: 3026: 3022: 3017: 3014: 3010: 3005: 3002: 2998: 2993: 2990: 2986: 2981: 2978: 2974: 2969: 2966: 2962: 2957: 2954: 2950: 2945: 2942: 2939: 2934: 2931: 2927: 2922: 2919: 2915: 2910: 2907: 2903: 2897: 2894: 2891:, p. 229 2890: 2885: 2882: 2879: 2874: 2871: 2867: 2862: 2859: 2854: 2850: 2845: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2813: 2810: 2806: 2801: 2798: 2794: 2789: 2787: 2783: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2768: 2762: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2742: 2739: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2712: 2709: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2687: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2666: 2659: 2656: 2652: 2647: 2644: 2640: 2635: 2632: 2619: 2615: 2614: 2609: 2603: 2600: 2594: 2589: 2584: 2583: 2579: 2576: 2573: 2570: 2567: 2564: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2550: 2547: 2544: 2543: 2539: 2537: 2535: 2531: 2530: 2525: 2524: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2507: 2499: 2498:Southern Cone 2495: 2494: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2456: 2452: 2449: 2445: 2436: 2435:in Botswana. 2434: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2383: 2382:Pteridophytes 2379: 2376:conifers and 2375: 2370: 2365: 2363: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2350:Bennettitales 2347: 2346: 2341: 2340:Araucariaceae 2337: 2336:Podocarpaceae 2328: 2326: 2324: 2320: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2302:glossopterids 2293: 2292: 2287: 2286: 2281: 2280: 2275: 2274: 2263: 2254: 2243: 2234: 2220: 2216: 2215: 2210: 2209: 2198: 2189: 2180: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2164: 2162: 2158: 2157:osteolepiform 2154: 2153: 2152:Archaeopteris 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2131:Baragwanathia 2128: 2127:pteridophytes 2124: 2120: 2115: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2096:zosterophylls 2093: 2092: 2081: 2080: 2079:Archaeopteris 2075: 2074: 2063: 2054: 2045: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2027: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2010: 2002: 1998: 1997: 1992: 1987: 1979: 1977: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1963: 1962:arc-continent 1958: 1956: 1952: 1951:Iceland plume 1946: 1941: 1937: 1931: 1926: 1925:Drake Passage 1920: 1912: 1906: 1897: 1894: 1888: 1882: 1875: 1872:In the Early 1867: 1865: 1863: 1859: 1855: 1851: 1847: 1843: 1838: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1823: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1795: 1790: 1789:Insular India 1783: 1781: 1779: 1778:Liquiñe-Ofqui 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1732: 1728: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1689: 1687: 1683: 1673: 1666: 1659: 1653: 1645: 1641: 1635: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1613: 1603: 1593: 1586: 1577: 1560: 1551: 1539: 1537: 1533: 1526: 1522: 1521:New Caledonia 1518: 1517:Norfolk Ridge 1514: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1492: 1482: 1475: 1471: 1470:oceanic crust 1467: 1463: 1457: 1447: 1439: 1434: 1432: 1428: 1422: 1414: 1410: 1407:and then the 1404: 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1371: 1350: 1341: 1332: 1320: 1318: 1316: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1283: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1265: 1261: 1257: 1256:Insular India 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1236: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1184: 1177: 1176:flood basalts 1174: 1170: 1160: 1156: 1146: 1137: 1125: 1123: 1119: 1111: 1107: 1101: 1093: 1089: 1080: 1075: 1073: 1071: 1067: 1063: 1060:and southern 1059: 1055: 1049: 1041: 1036: 1034: 1029: 1024: 1022: 1018: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1002: 998: 993: 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 935: 931: 927: 926:Palaeo-Tethys 923: 918: 916: 912: 909:Gondwana and 899: 894: 886: 884: 882: 878: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 844:Southern Cone 841: 833: 831: 829: 823: 821: 817: 813: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 765: 761: 751: 742: 731: 722: 713: 711: 707: 703: 699: 694: 692: 688: 679: 677: 674: 669: 665: 661: 651: 641: 631: 625: 614: 606: 598: 594: 590: 588: 585:and parts of 584: 580: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 548: 543: 541: 537: 533: 529: 528:Iapetus Ocean 524: 522: 516: 511: 505: 500: 496: 490: 485: 480: 474: 469: 465: 461: 457: 447: 440: 434: 427: 425: 422: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 396: 388: 384: 379: 372: 370: 368: 364: 359: 357: 353: 349: 345: 341: 335: 331:(from around 330: 326: 325:Drake Passage 322: 318: 315:) during the 314: 310: 306: 305:Carboniferous 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 280: 271: 263: 254: 250: 245: 243: 239: 235: 231: 227: 223: 219: 218:South America 215: 209: 173: 165: 161: 157: 153: 152:African Plate 150: 146: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 126:South America 124: 120: 117: 113: 109: 105: 101: 97: 96:South America 93: 92:North America 89: 86: 84:Today part of 82: 79: 76: 72: 68: 64: 59: 52: 47: 41: 37: 33: 19: 6347:Biogeography 6280: 6219: 6205: 6169:hypothesised 6159: 6127: 6045: 5976:Kazakhstania 5951:Congo Craton 5905: 5853: 5841:Prehistoric 5840: 5799: 5784: 5769: 5762:Afro-Eurasia 5754: 5716: 5701: 5686: 5671: 5656: 5641: 5626: 5535: 5531: 5493:. Retrieved 5469:. Retrieved 5441:. Retrieved 5421: 5417: 5377: 5373: 5363:10 September 5361:. Retrieved 5333: 5329: 5297: 5293: 5283:16 September 5281:. Retrieved 5259: 5255: 5238:18 September 5236:. Retrieved 5216: 5212: 5193:. Retrieved 5187: 5171:. Retrieved 5151: 5147: 5131:. Retrieved 5103: 5099: 5081:10 September 5079:. Retrieved 5051: 5045: 5017: 5005:. Retrieved 4983: 4979: 4972:Ramos, V. A. 4947: 4943: 4908: 4904: 4888:. Retrieved 4868: 4864: 4835: 4831: 4819:. Retrieved 4799: 4795: 4766: 4762: 4746:. Retrieved 4734: 4730: 4714:. Retrieved 4686: 4682: 4666:. Retrieved 4646: 4642: 4623:. Retrieved 4603: 4599: 4582:30 September 4580:. Retrieved 4560: 4556: 4523: 4519: 4500:. Retrieved 4481:(B9): 2428. 4478: 4474: 4433: 4429: 4413:. Retrieved 4391: 4367:. Retrieved 4353: 4336:10 September 4334:. Retrieved 4306: 4302: 4283:. Retrieved 4266:(1): 25–49. 4263: 4259: 4243:. Retrieved 4215: 4211: 4174: 4170: 4139: 4135: 4126:DeMets, C.; 4117:10 September 4115:. Retrieved 4087: 4083: 4044: 4040: 4021: 3993: 3989: 3980: 3968:. Retrieved 3940: 3936: 3920:. Retrieved 3900: 3896: 3871: 3859: 3847: 3820: 3808: 3796: 3784: 3772: 3760: 3748: 3736: 3724: 3712: 3700: 3688: 3676: 3664: 3652: 3640: 3628: 3616: 3604: 3540: 3528: 3516: 3504: 3492: 3480: 3455: 3449: 3446:Ollier, C.D. 3439: 3412: 3406: 3394: 3382: 3370: 3358:. Retrieved 3350:ScienceDaily 3349: 3340: 3328: 3316: 3304: 3292: 3280: 3268: 3239: 3233: 3216: 3181: 3175: 3154:. Retrieved 3126: 3122: 3081: 3077: 3070:Mpodozis, C. 3060: 3051:, Abstract; 3044: 3028: 3016: 3004: 2992: 2980: 2968: 2956: 2944: 2933: 2921: 2909: 2896: 2884: 2873: 2861: 2826: 2822: 2812: 2800: 2770: 2751: 2741: 2729:. Retrieved 2711: 2668: 2664: 2658: 2646: 2634: 2622:. Retrieved 2611: 2602: 2580: 2527: 2521: 2517: 2503: 2491: 2437: 2387: 2366: 2362:sphenophytes 2354:Pentoxylales 2343: 2332: 2299: 2289: 2283: 2277: 2271: 2212: 2206: 2169:temnospondyl 2165: 2150: 2116: 2100:rhyniophytes 2089: 2087: 2077: 2071: 2040:period. The 2031: 2009:biogeography 2006: 1994: 1980:Biogeography 1959: 1898: 1883: 1871: 1839: 1824: 1787: 1693: 1658:Benue Trough 1618:Walvis Ridge 1573: 1509:Chatham Rise 1499:, including 1435: 1427:Broken Ridge 1413:Indian Plate 1376:Indian Plate 1363: 1284: 1237: 1225:Gastre Fault 1173:Karoo-Ferrar 1166: 1084: 1037: 1025: 994: 982:Kazakhstania 919: 908: 866:southwards. 864:Appalachians 837: 824: 808:Late Permian 773: 695: 689:in the late 687:Kazakhstania 683: 670: 666: 632: 602: 544: 525: 453: 423: 397:, after the 395:Eduard Suess 392: 360: 356:Gondwanaland 355: 246: 171: 170: 40: 18:Gondwanaland 6143:Novopangaea 6011:South China 5991:North China 5443:26 November 5358:11336/93714 5195:3 September 5007:15 December 4890:1 September 4821:3 September 4769:(1): 1–40. 4748:3 September 4668:26 November 4625:1 September 4606:(9): 2649. 4285:11 February 4245:3 September 3970:3 September 3922:25 November 3657:Martin 2006 3645:Martin 2006 3321:Blakey 2003 3309:Blakey 2003 3297:Blakey 2003 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