301:
547:
recent analysis of mortality from influenza and pneumonia revealed that
African Americans died of these causes at higher rates than European Americans in 1999–2018. Contributing to these racial disparities are lower rates of immunization against influenza and pneumococcal pneumonia. During the COVID-19 pandemic, death rates have been higher in African Americans than European Americans and vaccination rates have lagged in African Americans during the roll-out. Among Hispanics immunization rates are lower than those in non-Hispanic whites.
323:
501:
194:. Thanks to dedicated health care professionals and the parents of children who vaccinated on schedule, polio has been eliminated in the U.S. since 1979. Polio is still found in other parts of the world so certain people could still be at risk of getting it. This includes those people who have never had the vaccine, those who did not receive all doses of the vaccine, or those traveling to areas of the world where polio is still prevalent.
446:
455:
27:
231:(痘疹心法) published in 1549. In China, powdered smallpox scabs were blown up the noses of the healthy. The patients would then develop a mild case of the disease and from then on were immune to it. The technique did have a 0.5–2.0% mortality rate, but that was considerably less than the 20–30% mortality rate of the disease itself. Two reports on the Chinese practice of
529:, the United States as a whole has been moving towards the socially optimal outcome on a larger scale. Despite government subsidies it is difficult to tell when social optimum has been achieved. In addition to hardships determining the true social marginal benefit of immunizations we see cultural movements shifting private marginal benefit curves.
189:
Immunizations are often widely stated as less risky and an easier way to become immune to a particular disease than risking a milder form of the disease itself. They are important for both adults and children in that they can protect us from the many diseases out there. Immunization not only protects
345:
has named it one of the "Ten Great Public Health
Achievements in the 20th Century". Live attenuated vaccines have decreased pathogenicity. Their effectiveness depends on the immune systems ability to replicate and elicits a response similar to natural infection. It is usually effective with a single
546:
In the United States, race and ethnicity are strong determinants of utilization of preventive and therapeutic health services as well as health outcomes. Rates of infant mortality and most of the leading causes of overall mortality have been higher in
African Americans than in European Americans. A
524:
In order to internalize the positive externality imposed by immunizations payments equal to the marginal benefit must be made. In countries like the United States these payment usually come in the form of subsidies from the government. Before 1962 immunization programs in the United States were run
492:
Having private marginal benefits lower than social marginal benefits will always lead to an under-consumption of any good. The size of the disparity is determined by the value that society places on each different immunization. Many times, immunizations do not reach a socially optimum quantity high
330:
Active immunization can occur naturally when a person comes in contact with, for example, a microbe. The immune system will eventually create antibodies and other defenses against the microbe. The next time, the immune response against this microbe can be very efficient; this is the case in many of
126:
is gained by those organisms whose immune systems succeed in fighting off a previous infection, if the relevant pathogen is one for which immunization is even possible. Natural immunity can have degrees of effectiveness (partial rather than absolute) and may fade over time (within months, years, or
537:
Outside of government intervention through subsidies, non profit organizations can also move a society towards the socially optimal outcome by providing free immunizations to developing regions. Without the ability to afford the immunizations to begin with, developing societies will not be able to
533:
have changed the way some private citizens view the marginal benefit of being immunized. If
Individual A believes that there is a large health risk, possibly larger than the antigen itself, associated with immunization they will not be willing to pay for or receive immunization. With fewer willing
483:
For example, if individual A values their own immunity to an antigen at $ 100 but the immunization costs $ 150, individual A will decide against receiving immunization. However, if the added benefit of herd immunity means person B values person A's immunity at $ 70 then the total social marginal
291:
developed immunization methods for chicken cholera and anthrax in animals and for human rabies, and suggested that the terms vaccine/vaccination should be extended to cover the new procedures. This can cause confusion if care is not taken to specify which vaccine is used e.g. measles vaccine or
515:
Despite the severity of certain illnesses, the cost of immunization versus the social marginal benefit means that total eradication is not always the end goal of immunization. Though it is hard to tell exactly where the socially optimal outcome is, we know that it is not the eradication of all
525:
on the local and state level of governments. The inconsistency in subsidies lead to some regions of the United States reaching the socially optimal quantity while other regions were left without subsidies and remained at the private marginal benefit level of immunizations. Since 1962 and the
449:
If individuals make the decision to immunize based on the
Private Marginal Benefit we see a quantity of Q1 at the price P1 while the socially optimal point is at quantity Q* and price P*. The distance between the private and marginal benefit lines is the cost of the marginal benefit to
479:
is caused by individuals making decisions based on their private marginal benefit instead of the social marginal benefit. Society's undervaluing of immunizations means that through normal market transactions we end up at a quantity that is lower than what is socially optimal.
493:
enough to eradicate the antigen. Instead, they reach a social quantity that allows for an optimal amount of sick individuals. Most of the commonly immunized diseases in the United States still see a small presence with occasional larger outbreaks.
396:
can be used for passive immunization. This method of immunization begins to work very quickly, but it is short lasting, because the antibodies are naturally broken down, and if there are no B cells to produce more antibodies, they will disappear.
190:
children against deadly diseases but also helps in developing children's immune systems. Through the use of immunizations, some infections and diseases have almost completely been eradicated throughout the World. One example is
809:
Cook, Joseph; Jeuland, Marc; Maskery, Brian; Lauria, Donald; Sur, Dipika; Clemens, John; Whittington, Dale (2009). "Using private demand studies to calculate socially optimal vaccine subsidies in developing countries".
259:. Voltaire does not speculate on where the Circassians derived their technique from, though he reports that the Chinese have practiced it "these hundred years". It was introduced into England from Turkey by
139:, whether by prevention of infection (pathogen fails to mount sufficient reproduction in the host), prevention of severe disease (infection still happens but is not severe), or both. Vaccination against
512:. In these cases, the social marginal benefit is so large that society is willing to pay the cost to reach a level of immunization that makes the spread and survival of the disease impossible.
538:
reach a quantity determined by private marginal benefits. By running immunization programs organizations are able to move privately under-immunized communities towards the social optimum.
392:
Passive immunization is where pre-synthesized elements of the immune system are transferred to a person so that the body does not need to produce these elements itself. Currently,
484:
benefit of their immunization is $ 170. Individual A's private marginal benefit being lower than the social marginal benefit leads to an under-consumption of immunizations.
475:. Because this extra protection is not accounted for in the market transactions for immunizations we see an undervaluing of the marginal benefit of each immunization. This
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1055:
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is a good example of a disease whose social optimum leaves enough room for outbreaks in the United States that often lead to the deaths of a handful of individuals.
471:
on society. In addition to providing the individual with protection against certain antigens it adds greater protection to all other individuals in society through
1901:
1790:
84:. Therefore, by exposing a human, or an animal, to an immunogen in a controlled way, its body can learn to protect itself: this is called active immunization.
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Before the introduction of vaccines, people could only become immune to an infectious disease by contracting the disease and surviving it. Smallpox (
2338:
901:"Geographic Variation in Racial Disparities in Mortality From Influenza and Pneumonia in the United States in the Pre-Coronavirus Disease 2019 Era"
334:
Artificial active immunization is where the microbe, or parts of it, are injected into the person before they are able to take it in naturally. If
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participants and a widening marginal benefit reaching a social optimum becomes more difficult for governments to achieve through subsidies.
223:, which produced a milder effect than the natural disease. The first clear reference to smallpox inoculation was made by the Chinese author
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76:, it will orchestrate an immune response, and it will also develop the ability to quickly respond to a subsequent encounter because of
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and is used if there has been a recent outbreak of a particular disease or as an emergency treatment for toxicity, as in for
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There are also examples of illnesses so dangerous that the social optimum ended with the eradication of the virus, such as
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Immunization B has a social marginal benefit large enough to bring Q1 to Q(e), the quantity at which eradication occurs.
140:
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Active immunization/vaccination has been named one of the "Ten Great Public Health
Achievements in the 20th Century".
35:
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is direct introduction of these elements into the body, instead of production of these elements by the body itself.
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1800:
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942:"Variation in racial/ethnic disparities in COVID-19 mortality by age in the United States: A cross-sectional study"
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Immunization A does not have a social marginal benefit large enough to shift Q1 to Q(e), instead it lands at Q*.
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to produce proteins or other molecules that are known to the body forms the theoretical basis for therapeutic
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Immunization can be achieved in an active or passive manner: vaccination is an active form of immunization.
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20:
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2016:
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419:. The antibodies can be produced in animals, called "serum therapy," although there is a high chance of
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to distinguish it from vaccination. Until the 1880s vaccine/vaccination referred only to smallpox, but
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174:. Other molecules can be used for immunization as well, for example in experimental vaccines against
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A simplified diagram showing the process of immunization through the production of anti-bodies
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Passive immunization occurs physiologically, when antibodies are transferred from mother to
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Process by which an individual's immune system becomes fortified against an infectious agent
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The most important elements of the immune system that are improved by immunization are the
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Donaldson, Sahai V.; Thomas, Alicia N.; Gillum, Richard F.; Mehari, Alem (January 2021).
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2006:
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are responsible for a swift response to a second encounter with a foreign molecule.
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the childhood infections that a person only contracts once, but then is immune.
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Science and
Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology
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decades, depending on the pathogen). In health care, the main technique of
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Trends in
Influenza and Pneumonia Among Older Persons in the United States
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can prepare the body's immune system, thus helping to fight or prevent an
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Bassett, Mary T.; Chen, Jarvis T.; Krieger, Nancy (20 October 2020).
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255:(1742), the Turks derived their use of inoculation from neighbouring
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even though it usually cannot eradicate a disease. Vaccines against
854:"Vaccine-Preventable Diseases, Immunizations, and MMWR – 1961–2011"
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Medical student participating in a polio vaccine campaign in Mexico
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888:. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2018.
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The importance of immunization is so great that the
American
760:
Hinman, A. R.; Orenstein, W. A.; Rodewald, L. (2004-05-15).
411:
Artificial passive immunization is normally administered by
886:
Health United States 2017 With special feature on mortality
739:"Ten Great Public Health Achievements in the 20th Century".
1015:
Centers for
Disease Control National Immunization Program
467:
Immunizations impose what is known as a positive consumer
279:), a much safer procedure. This procedure, referred to as
995:. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
423:
because of immunity against animal serum itself. Thus,
408:, to protect the fetus before and shortly after birth.
283:, gradually replaced smallpox inoculation, now called
671:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 134.
1010:
National Network for Immunization Information (NNii)
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dose. Examples of live, attenuated vaccines include
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114:Immunization happens in various ways, both in the
2759:Cedillo v. Secretary of Health and Human Services
991:Gorina, Y; Kelly, T; Lubitz, J; Hines, Z (2008).
762:"Financing Immunizations in the United States"
1719:
1559:(American 'crib' and 'cradle', British 'cot')
1049:
688:(2nd ed.). Academic Press. p. 293.
186:in experiments to create an obesity vaccine.
8:
243:who received a report by an employee of the
1971:
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1712:
1704:
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1042:
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516:disease for which an immunization exists.
343:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
53:, is the process by which an individual's
967:
957:
916:
812:Journal of Policy Analysis and Management
777:
667:Needham, J. (1999). "Part 6, Medicine".
453:
30:Dr. Schreiber of San Augustine giving a
1026:, Chris Dye & Sanjoy Bhattacharya (
608:
880:
878:
275:introduced inoculation with cowpox (
72:that are foreign to the body, called
7:
1174:Infant respiratory distress syndrome
2786:Eradication of infectious diseases
2543:Androvax (androstenedione albumin)
247:stationed in China and another by
14:
2376:Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
2765:Alternative vaccination schedule
1735:Artificial induction of immunity
642:"Top Vaccination For Your Child"
577:Targeted immunization strategies
542:Race, ethnicity and immunization
129:artificial induction of immunity
118:and as done by human efforts in
19:For financial immunization, see
1109:Breastfeeding and mental health
864:from the original on 2018-05-06
721:from the original on 2018-10-16
682:Silverstein, Arthur M. (2009).
623:from the original on 2020-11-14
437:are used instead if available.
296:Passive and active immunization
219:) was prevented in this way by
68:When this system is exposed to
2597:Ovandrotone albumin (Fecundin)
1022:, BBC Radio 4 discussion with
239:in London in 1700; one by Dr.
40:U.S. Office of War Information
1:
2128:Group B streptococcal disease
1947:Vaccines for Children Program
1104:Breastfeeding and medications
520:Internalizing the externality
57:becomes fortified against an
1666:Neonatal withdrawal syndrome
1287:Infant cognitive development
1184:Neonatal intensive care unit
959:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003402
766:Clinical Infectious Diseases
592:Vaccine-preventable diseases
141:vaccine-preventable diseases
80:. This is a function of the
1590:Supplemental nursing system
918:10.1016/j.chest.2020.12.029
135:, which is a major form of
36:San Augustine County, Texas
2875:
1342:Prenatal development table
1282:Irritant diaper dermatitis
527:Vaccination Assistance Act
441:Economics of immunizations
385:
315:
211:Vaccination § History
204:
18:
2804:
1661:Prenatal cocaine exposure
1449:Infant care and equipment
1366:Socialization and Culture
1277:Infant visual development
1144:Infant and toddler safety
261:Lady Mary Wortley Montagu
2123:Clostridioides difficile
1671:Parental child abduction
1194:Oral rehydration therapy
644:. Vaxins. Archived from
488:Socially optimal outcome
338:, they are pre-treated.
2386:Tick-borne encephalitis
1676:Parental responsibility
1189:Newborn care and safety
685:A History of Immunology
597:World Immunization Week
336:whole microbes are used
271:the same year. In 1798
2796:List of vaccine topics
1791:Mathematical modelling
1420:Grandparent visitation
715:Letters on the English
587:Correlates of immunity
505:
459:
451:
327:
305:
82:adaptive immune system
43:
21:Immunization (finance)
2791:Vaccinate Your Family
2242:Japanese encephalitis
1179:Infant sleep training
557:Immunization registry
531:Vaccine controversies
503:
457:
448:
325:
303:
235:were received by the
143:is a major relief of
137:prevention of disease
29:
2674:John Franklin Enders
1337:Prenatal development
1237:Attachment parenting
1211:Shaken baby syndrome
463:Positive externality
425:humanized antibodies
382:Passive immunization
263:in 1721 and used by
109:Passive immunization
78:immunological memory
1855:Virus-like particle
1779:Vaccine ingredients
1651:Infant ear piercing
312:Active immunization
292:influenza vaccine.
227:(1499–1582) in his
34:at a rural school,
32:typhoid inoculation
2831:Never to phase III
2630:Hexavalent vaccine
2444:Epstein–Barr virus
2339:Oxford–AstraZeneca
2027:NmVac4-A/C/Y/W-135
1159:Infant food safety
744:2016-03-13 at the
506:
460:
452:
421:anaphylactic shock
328:
306:
245:East India Company
44:
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2753:Vaccines and SIDS
2640:
2639:
2414:Hepatitis A and B
2390:Varicella zoster
1847:Subunit/component
1701:
1700:
1561:
1398:Children's rights
1312:Object permanence
1134:Failure to thrive
824:10.1002/pam.20401
772:(10): 1440–1446.
709:Voltaire (1742).
648:on 15 August 2016
562:Influenza vaccine
182:) or the hormone
99:B cells produce.
2866:
2732:MMR autism fraud
2679:Maurice Hilleman
2664:Hilary Koprowski
1972:
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1242:Baby-led weaning
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1030:, Apr. 20, 2006)
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388:Passive immunity
277:smallpox vaccine
265:Zabdiel Boylston
159:. The fact that
124:Natural immunity
59:infectious agent
38:. Transfer from
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2684:Stanley Plotkin
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2548:Cancer vaccines
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2525:Schistosomiasis
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2497:Trypanosomiasis
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2434:Cytomegalovirus
2344:Pfizer–BioNTech
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1963:
1912:Vaccine wastage
1882:
1810:
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1691:Paternity fraud
1641:Closed adoption
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1570:Infant clothing
1545:Haberman Feeder
1515:Car seat safety
1444:
1425:Infant swimming
1403:UN Child rights
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251:. According to
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172:cancer vaccines
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1161:
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1154:Infant feeding
1151:
1149:Infant bathing
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1114:Bottle feeding
1111:
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1067:and their care
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1004:External links
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477:market failure
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386:Main article:
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316:Main article:
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249:Clopton Havers
202:
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149:microorganisms
145:disease burden
105:memory T cells
101:Memory B cells
61:(known as the
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2659:Louis Pasteur
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2654:Edward Jenner
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2625:DTwP-HepB-Hib
2623:
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2108:DPT/DTwP/DTaP
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2104:combination:
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1024:Nadja Durbach
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473:herd immunity
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289:Louis Pasteur
286:
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273:Edward Jenner
270:
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250:
246:
242:
241:Martin Lister
238:
237:Royal Society
234:
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229:Douzhen xinfa
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56:
55:immune system
52:
48:
41:
37:
33:
28:
22:
2781:Epidemiology
2757:
2729:
2615:DTaP-IPV/Hib
2406:Yellow fever
2319:EpiVacCorona
2071:Tuberculosis
2044:Pneumococcal
2012:Lyme disease
1840:Heterologous
1739:Immunization
1738:
1619:Other topics
1558:
1525:Cradle board
1520:Cloth diaper
1480:Baby shampoo
1466:Baby monitor
1456:Baby bouncer
1410:Circumcision
1257:Birth defect
1139:Immunization
1138:
1089:Birth weight
1027:
1020:Immunisation
992:
986:
949:
945:
935:
908:
904:
894:
885:
866:. Retrieved
857:
848:
815:
811:
804:
769:
765:
755:
734:
723:. Retrieved
714:
704:
684:
677:
668:
662:
650:. Retrieved
646:the original
636:
625:. Retrieved
611:
545:
536:
523:
514:
507:
491:
482:
466:
435:cell culture
428:
410:
399:
391:
364:yellow fever
340:
333:
329:
307:
228:
214:
196:
188:
113:
86:
73:
67:
51:immunisation
50:
47:Immunization
46:
45:
2859:Vaccination
2817:from market
2713:Controversy
2647:researchers
2563:Hepatitis B
2449:Hepatitis C
2394:Chicken pox
2220:Hepatitis E
2215:Hepatitis B
2210:Hepatitis A
2156:Chikungunya
2133:Shigellosis
1987:Brucellosis
1873:Therapeutic
1827:Inactivated
1767:Development
1755:Inoculation
1747:Vaccination
1631:Babywearing
1626:Baby shower
1600:Swim diaper
1490:Baby walker
1475:Baby powder
1415:Foster care
1383:Child abuse
1378:Babysitting
1230:Development
1216:Soy formula
1094:Breast pump
1028:In Our Time
858:www.cdc.gov
818:(1): 6–28.
711:"Letter XI"
582:Vaccination
469:externality
285:variolation
281:vaccination
233:inoculation
221:inoculation
207:Inoculation
151:that cause
133:vaccination
120:health care
2848:Categories
2748:Thiomersal
2694:Paul Offit
2669:Jonas Salk
2645:Inventors/
2516:research:
2493:research:
2430:research:
2359:Skycovione
2349:Sanofi–GSK
2294:SARS-CoV-2
2205:Hantavirus
2166:rVSV-ZEBOV
2151:Adenovirus
2119:research:
1997:Diphtheria
1835:Attenuated
1610:Travel cot
1555:Infant bed
1550:High chair
1540:Baby wipes
1535:Diaper bag
1500:Baby swing
1388:Child care
1373:Attachment
1262:Childbirth
1124:Cradle cap
1075:Pediatrics
868:2018-03-07
725:2019-01-21
627:2020-04-02
617:"Vaccines"
603:References
394:antibodies
205:See also:
163:can cause
97:antibodies
95:, and the
2827:Phase III
2815:Withdrawn
2743:Pox party
2553:ALVAC-CEA
2475:Protozoan
2364:Sputnik V
2314:CoronaVac
2284:Rotavirus
2182:Pandemrix
2034:Pertussis
1975:Bacterial
1859:Synthetic
1822:Conjugate
1774:Adjuvants
1751:Infection
1686:Paternity
1595:Swaddling
1461:Baby gate
1440:Wet nurse
1430:Milk bank
1322:Parenting
1247:Baby talk
1199:Pedialyte
1129:Esotropia
1084:Baby food
832:0276-8739
788:1058-4838
427:produced
413:injection
406:pregnancy
376:influenza
372:rotavirus
368:varicella
257:Circassia
161:mutations
157:infection
70:molecules
63:immunogen
2585:Prostvac
2578:Gardasil
2573:Cervarix
2520:Hookworm
2399:Shingles
2381:Smallpox
2299:Corbevax
2235:Gardasil
2230:Cervarix
1968:Vaccines
1922:Schedule
1893:Global:
1801:Timeline
1743:Vaccines
1646:Cry room
1585:Stroller
1575:Pacifier
1510:Bassinet
1485:Baby toy
1347:Teething
1327:Peekaboo
1267:Crawling
1252:Babbling
1073:Health (
978:33079941
927:33400931
862:Archived
840:19090047
796:15156483
742:Archived
719:Archived
621:Archived
572:Pandemic
551:See also
510:smallpox
450:society.
430:in vitro
378:(LAIV).
253:Voltaire
225:Wan Quan
176:nicotine
153:diseases
74:non-self
2774:Related
2720:General
2482:Malaria
2369:Valneva
2334:Novavax
2329:Moderna
2324:Janssen
2309:CanSino
2289:Rubella
2247:Measles
2113:Td/Tdap
2083:Typhoid
2066:Tetanus
2061:Q fever
1992:Cholera
1982:Anthrax
1851:Peptide
1815:Classes
1796:Storage
1605:Teether
1580:Playpen
1357:Weaning
1352:Walking
1065:Infants
969:7575091
652:29 July
495:Measles
417:tetanus
404:during
356:rubella
348:measles
217:variola
201:History
184:ghrelin
93:B cells
89:T cells
42:, 1944.
2810:WHO-EM
2730:Lancet
2607:TA-NIC
2592:NicVAX
2439:Dengue
2279:Rabies
2100:Typhus
2039:Plague
1917:Policy
1878:Toxoid
1806:Trials
1530:Diaper
1317:Parent
1302:Mother
976:
966:
925:
838:
830:
794:
786:
692:
374:, and
269:Boston
180:NicVAX
165:cancer
2738:NCVIA
2602:TA-CD
2536:Other
2487:RTS,S
2267:Sabin
2262:Polio
2257:Mumps
2161:Ebola
2144:Viral
2093:ViCPS
2088:Ty21a
2022:MeNZB
1952:VAERS
1902:NITAG
1831:Live
1435:Nanny
1119:Colic
905:Chest
402:fetus
352:mumps
192:polio
168:cells
49:, or
2464:Zika
2424:MMRV
2272:Salk
2252:Mpox
2198:LAIV
2193:H5N8
2188:H5N1
2178:H1N1
2054:PPSV
1937:ACIP
1933:US:
1907:SAGE
1868:mRNA
1784:list
1332:Play
1221:SIDS
974:PMID
923:PMID
836:PMID
828:ISSN
792:PMID
784:ISSN
690:ISBN
654:2016
209:and
116:wild
103:and
2725:MMR
2568:HPV
2558:BCG
2459:HIV
2419:MMR
2225:HPV
2173:Flu
2076:BCG
2049:PCV
2002:Hib
1957:VSD
1864:DNA
1759:J07
1495:Bib
964:PMC
954:doi
913:doi
909:159
820:doi
774:doi
749:CDC
433:by
360:MMR
267:in
131:is
65:).
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1749:,
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