20:
332:
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disciple of
Linnaeus, who is today considered the father of lichenology, starting the taxonomy of lichens with his pioneering study of Swedish lichens in Lichenographiae Suecicae Prodromus of 1798 or in his Synopsis Methodica Lichenum, Sistens omnes hujus Ordinis Naturalis of 1814. These studies and
222:
grouped them into their own genus. He adopted the Latin term lichen, which had already been used by Pliny who had imported it from
Theophrastus but up until then this term had not been widely employed. The original meaning of the Greek word λειχήν (leichen) was moss that in its turn derives from the
612:
where the age of an exposed surface can be found by studying the age of lichens growing on them. Age dating in this way can be absolute or relative because the growth of these organisms can be arrested under various conditions. The technique provides an average age of the older individual lichens
576:
During the 20th century botany and mycology were still attempting to solve the two main problems surrounding lichens. On the one hand the definition of lichens and the relationship between the two symbionts and the taxonomic position of these organisms within the plant and fungal kingdoms. There
644:
considered the definition imperfect because it is impossible to determine which one thallus is of a specific structure since thalli changed depending upon the substrate and conditions in which they developed. This researcher represents one of the main trends among lichenologists who consider it
518:
demonstrated that all lichens were the result of fungal attack on the cells of algal cells and that all these algae also exist free in nature. This researcher was the first to recognise the dual nature of lichens as a result of the capture of the algal component by the fungal component. In 1873
371:
Over the years research shed new light into the nature of these organisms still classified as plants. A controversial issue surrounding lichens since the early 19th century is their reproduction. In these years a group of researchers faithful to the tenets of
Linnaeus considered that lichens
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324:
389:
classifications are the cornerstone of subsequent investigations. In these early years of structuring the new discipline various works of outstanding scientific importance appeared such as
Lichenographia Europaea Reformata published in 1831 by
401:
2117:
Gollapudi, S. R.; Telikepalli, H; Jampani, H. B.; Mirhom, Y. W.; Drake, S. D.; Bhattiprolu, K. R.; Vander Velde, D; Mitscher, L. A. (1994). "Alectosarmentin, a new antimicrobial dibenzofuranoid lactol from the lichen, Alectoria sarmentosa".
197:
Lichens as a group have received less attention in classical treatises on botany than other groups although the relationship between humans and some species has been documented from early times. Several species have appeared in the works of
478:
were identified in the lichen structure, which heightened the contradictions. At first the presence of algae was taken as being due to contamination due to collection of samples in damp conditions and they were not considered as being in a
408:
But these works suffer from being superficial and mere lists of species without further physiological studies. It took until the middle of the 19th century for research to catch up using biochemical and physiological methods. In
Germany
621:
in 1950 and is especially useful in areas exposed for less than 1000 years. Growth is greatest in the first 20 to 100 years with 15–50 mm growth per year and less in the following years with average growth of 2–4 mm per year.
566:
Despite the above studies the dual nature of lichens remained no more than a theory until in 1939 the Swiss researcher Eugen A Thomas was able to reproduce in the laboratory the phenotype of the lichen
372:
reproduced sexually and had sexual reproductive organs, as in other plants, independent of whether asexual reproduction also occurred. Other researchers only considered asexual reproduction by means of
1930:
633:. The definition finally adopted was that lichen could be considered as the association between a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a thallus of specific structure.
555:, A new study on the Origin of Organisms", which aims to explain a new theory of Symbiogenesis by lichens and other organisms as evidenced by his earlier work "Nature and Origin of
648:
Today studies in lichenology are not restricted to the description and taxonomy of lichens but have application in various scientific fields. Especially important are studies on
2563:
850:"Protocols in Lichenology: Culturing, Biochemistry, Ecophysiology and Use in Biomonitoring" (Springer Lab Manuals, Kraner, Ilse, Beckett, Richard and Varma, Ajit (28 Nov 2001)
214:
and their reproductive mechanisms were totally ignored. For centuries naturalists had included lichens in diverse groups until in the early 18th century a French researcher
2155:"Molecular structural studies of lichen substances II: Atranorin, gyrophoric acid, fumarprotocetraric acid, rhizocarpic acid, calycin, pulvinic dilactone and usnic acid"
625:
The difficulty of giving a definition applicable to every known lichen has been debated since lichenologists first recognised the dual nature of lichens. In 1982 the
514:
in 1867 showed no dependence of the algal component upon the lichen thallus and that the algal component could live independently of the thallus. It was in 1869 that
629:
convened a meeting to adopt a single definition of lichen drawing on the proposals of a committee. The chairman of this committee was the renowned researcher
2020:
Mike
Crockett, Stacie Kageyama, Delfina Homen, Carrie Lewis, Jane Osborn, Logan Sander (2003). "Antibacterial Properties of four Pacific North West Lichens".
1937:
837:
has shown some antiviral activity with some lichen substances. In 1989 K Hirabayashi presented his investigations on inhibitory lichen polysaccharides in
2588:
2504:
1961:
999:"Monitoring with Lichens-Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop", Nimis, Pier Luigi, Scheidegger, Christoph and Wolseley, Patricia (Dec 2001)
2188:
626:
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Francisco Javier Toledo
Marante, Ana Garcia Costellano, Francisco Leon Oyola and Jaime Bermejo Barrera "Ecologia Quimica en Hongos y Liquenes" (Spa)
2432:
652:
that are made through the interaction of lichens with their environment. Lichen is extremely sensitive to various air pollutants, especially to
613:
providing a minimum age of the medium being studied. Lichenometry relies upon the fact that the maximum diameter of the largest thallus of an
1322:
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lichen growing on a substrate is directly proportional to the time from first exposure of the area to the environment as seen in studies by
535:
2697:
1317:
1528:
1307:
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definition soon brought criticism from various lichenologists and there soon emerged reviews and suggestions for amendments. For example,
223:
Greek verb λείχω (liekho) to suck because of the great ability of these organisms to absorb water. In its original use the term signified
1913:
Miguel Mateo Garcia, The Growth Curve of
Rhizocarpon geographicum in the Valley of Madriu Andorra, Biophysical Processes in Cold Media
743:. With these investigations the number of antibacterial substances and possible drug targets known to be produced by lichens increased
2876:
2841:
1986:
1457:
1918:
1906:
1083:
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although the studies are not very deep. During the first centuries of the modern age they were usually put forward as examples of
2744:
2216:"Inhibitory effect of a lichen polysaccharide sulfate, GE-3-S, on the replication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in vitro"
1363:
680:
it was not until the early 20th century that modern science became interested in them. The discovery of various substances with
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relation with the fungal part of the thallus. That the algae continued to multiply showed that they were not mere contaminants.
1372:
1352:
1108:
448:
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1078:
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1118:
1093:
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A Textbook of
General Lichenology with Descriptions and Figures of the Genera Occurring in the North Eastern United States
586:
165:
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153:
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3046:
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859:"Lichenology: Progress and Problems" (Special Volumes/Systematics Association) Denis Hunter Brown et al. (10 May 1976)
684:
action in lichen thalli was essential for scientists to become aware of the possible importance of these organisms to
421:
215:
1892:
2200:
2044:
Marshak, A.; Barry, G. T.; Craig, L. C. (1947). "Antibiotic
Compound Isolated from the Lichen Ramalina reticulata".
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1357:
1058:
578:
294:. Some of his more important works on the subject, which marked the beginning of lichenology as a discipline, are:
3083:
3003:
2324:
1976:
1505:
1347:
1312:
1021:
Index of Collectors in Knowles the Lichens of Ireland (1929) and Porter's Supplement: with a Conspectus of Lichen
938:
Lichenology and Bryology in the Galapagos Islands with Checklists of the Lichens and Bryophytes thus far Reported
637:
1811:
2635:
1204:
1199:
1189:
996:"Lichenographia Thompsoniana: North American Lichenology in Honour of John W. Thompson", M. G. Gleen (May 1998)
548:
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concluded form studying many different lichen species that the relationship between fungi and algae was purely
437:
181:
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2371:
1877:
769:
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2017:
1851:
1834:
1337:
1224:
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1133:
1027:
Biodeterioration of Stone Surfaces: Lichens and Biofilms as Weathering Agents of Rocks and Cultural Heritage
361:
1593:
692:
1500:
1302:
1289:
1138:
1088:
1011:: Festschrift Christian Leuckert, Johannes Gunther Knoph, Kunigunda Schrufer and Harry J. M. Sipman (1995)
820:
728:
358:
211:
119:
723:
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in an article of 1852 "Memorie pour servir a l'Histoire des Lichens Organographique et Physiologique" by
2993:
2396:
1424:
1328:
1163:
787:
Antibacterial action of substances produced by lichens is related to their ability to disrupt bacterial
649:
527:. It was also established that algae could associate with many different fungi to form different lichen
157:
2436:
410:
19:
1045:
Fortschritte der Chemie organischer Naturstoffe/ Progress in the Chemistry of Organic Natural Products
498:
who first suggested in 1865 that lichens were merely the result of parasitism of various fungi of the
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2162:
2053:
1687:
1279:
1264:
1174:
1128:
866:
777:
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290:(1757–1819), who is therefore sometimes named the "father of lichenology". Acharius was a student of
2648:
2601:
1659:
968:
Irish Lichenology 1858–1880: Selected Letters of Isaac Carroll, Theobald Jones, Charles Larbalestier
773:
2998:
1763:
Fink, Bruce (1913). "The Nature and Classification of Lichens: II. The Lichen and its Algal Host".
1367:
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709:
641:
594:
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1865:
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1153:
1103:
913:
764:
433:
279:
259:
126:
1420:
511:
3034:
1798:
Honegger, Rosmarie (2000). "Simon Schwendener (1829–1919) and The Dual Hypothesis of Lichens".
3088:
2937:
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2259:
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1982:
1955:
1914:
1902:
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703:
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161:
142:
95:
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in the Plant Kingdom". These new ideas can be studied today under the title of the Theory of
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2227:
2170:
2127:
2061:
1846:
1807:
1772:
1710:
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1209:
1148:
1098:
1073:
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733:
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impossible to give a single definition to lichens since they are a unique type of organism.
630:
507:
447:
Scientific publications settled many unknown facts about lichens. In the French publication
441:
429:
351:
347:
169:
111:
2086:
Bustinza, Francisco (1948) "Contribution to the Study of Antibiotics Produced by Lichens".
415:
2730:
2652:
2605:
2004:
David L. Hawksworth (1989) "Interactions Fungus and Alga in Lichen Symbiosis liquenoides"
1274:
1214:
1123:
653:
394:
365:
203:
130:
107:
1448:
Brodo, Irwin M; Laurie-Bourque, Susan; Sharnoff, Sylvia Duran; Sharnoff, Stephen (2016).
754:
Interest in the potential of substances synthesised by lichens increased with the end of
2472:
2414:
2306:
2166:
2057:
3022:
2896:
2814:
1399:
1254:
1234:
1158:
1113:
796:
689:
618:
590:
556:
495:
467:
452:
425:
243:
made the first division of the group created by Tournefort separating the sub-families
176:. As with any other field of study, lichenology has its own set of rules for taxonomic
173:
103:
80:
50:
2174:
768:
and the compounds identified as responsible for bacterial inhibition were shown to be
331:
3062:
2891:
2784:
2030:
1381:
1063:
681:
560:
552:
487:
385:
291:
287:
263:
2214:
Hirabayashi, K; Iwata, S; Ito, M; Shigeta, S; Narui, T; Mori, T; Shibata, S (1989).
1819:
1722:
956:
The Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory: Devoted to Bryology and Lichenology
2860:
2794:
2753:
2692:
2099:
Bustinza, Francisco (1951) "Contribution to the Study of Antibacterial Activity in
1229:
1194:
1009:
Studies in Lichenology with Emphasis on Chemotaxonomy, Geography and Phytochemistry
834:
755:
609:
534:
458:
These new discoveries were becoming increasingly contradictory for scientists. The
207:
177:
149:
84:
72:
2677:
2615:
2490:
854:
Lichenology in the British Isles, 1568–1975: An Historical and Biographical Survey
2065:
2901:
2451:"Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew: Science and Horticulture: Sending specimens to Kew"
1269:
739:
499:
390:
199:
2702:
663:
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appeared numerous renowned researchers within the field of lichenology such as
323:
2922:
2881:
2868:
2620:
1594:"Edit History: Schaerer, Ludwig Emanuel (Louis-Emmanuel) (1785-1853) on JSTOR"
1332:
811:
807:
800:
759:
748:
744:
714:
528:
491:
471:
459:
373:
228:
2187:
Neli Kika Honda & Wagner Vilegas (1998) "The Chemistry of Lichens" (Port)
944:
Flechten Follmann: Contributions to Lichenology in Honour of Gerhard Follmann
2932:
2851:
2846:
2657:
2640:
2454:
2350:
792:
781:
657:
614:
524:
480:
236:
138:
68:
39:
2073:
1576:
Synopsis Methodica Lichenum: Systens omnes hujus ordinis naturalis detectas
946:, Gerhard Follmann, F. J. A. Daniels, Margot Schultz and Jorge Peine (1995)
400:
2553:
2241:
2139:
713:. Studies showed that the substance that inhibited growth of bacteria was
2972:
2927:
2886:
2864:
2804:
2018:
http://lichens.science.oregonstate.edu/antibiotics/lichen_antibiotics.htm
815:
788:
776:. Further investigations have identified novel antibacterial substances,
685:
274:
with eight divisions within the group according to the morphology of the
64:
42:
31:
2717:
2630:
2375:
2232:
2215:
2131:
1701:
Williams, Thomas A. (1856). "The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis".
2809:
2722:
2707:
2153:
Edwards, Howell G.M.; Newton, Emma M.; Wynn-Williams, David D. (2003).
1784:
1645:
762:
substances. In 1947 antibacterial action was identified in extracts of
605:
601:
506:
type algae and others. Successive studies such as those carried out by
335:
275:
252:
248:
232:
134:
88:
2568:
2332:
404:
Erik Acharius (1757–1819), Swedish botanist, the father of lichenology
2757:
2662:
908:"Progress and Problems in Lichenology in the Eighties: Proceedings" (
551:
presented a research paper "The Theory of two Plasms as the basis of
503:
355:
283:
271:
224:
148:
Lichenologists may also study the growth and growth rate of lichens,
76:
57:
35:
2687:
1776:
1637:
950:
Environmental Lichenology: Biomonitoring Trace Element Air Pollution
1714:
818:
antitumour activity by substances identified in two common lichens
2967:
2917:
2855:
2832:
2712:
2584:
Guide to using a Lichen-Based Index to Assess Nitrogen Air Quality
1899:
Current biophysical processes in cold environments: recent studies
1580:
Synopsis of lichen Methods, systems of this natural order detected
697:
662:
533:
475:
463:
455:, the reproductive organs or apothecia of lichens was identified.
399:
330:
322:
267:
244:
54:
18:
2573:
926:
The Present Status and Potentialities of the Lichenology in China
266:
and his new system of classification lichens are retained in the
2962:
2289:"The Lichen Collection at the Botanische Staatssammlung München"
2154:
1894:
Procesos biofísicos actuales en medios fríos: estudios recientes
46:
2726:
251:
in response to the morphological characteristics of the lichen
2625:
2610:
2593:
1624:
Schneider, Albert (1895). "The Biological Status of Lichens".
838:
695:
who demonstrated antibacterial action of lichens of the genus
45:
made up of an intimate symbiotic association of a microscopic
2559:
Central European Bryological and Lichenological Society (Ger)
1023:, M. E. Mitchell, Matilda C. Knowles and Lilian Porter (1998)
934:, Shukla, D. K. Vertika, Upreti and Bajpai, Rajesh (Aug 2013)
2589:
Identifying North American Lichens a Guide to the Literature
727:, nevertheless, these substances proved ineffective against
1812:
10.1639/0007-2745(2000)103[0307:ssatdh]2.0.co;2
1017:, Jan Erik Mattsson, Mats Wedin and Inga Hedberg (Sep 1999)
688:. From the 1940s there appeared various works by the noted
63:
Study of lichens draws knowledge from several disciplines:
1501:"A Grammatical Dictionary of Botanical Latin: coralloides"
989:"Eric Acharius and his Influence on English Lichenology" (
538:
French botanist (Jean-Baptiste) Édouard Bornet (1828–1911)
2682:
2645:
2598:
2558:
145:, providing another form of lichen identification test.
2522:
94:
Methods for species identification include reference to
60:. Lichens are chiefly characterized by this symbiosis.
2668:
Netherlands Bryological and Lichenological Society (nl)
2543:
1852:
10.1641/0006-3568(2003)053[1008:mm]2.0.co;2
795:
capacity. This is possible due to the action of lichen
444:
began to publish works of great scientific importance.
2667:
1450:
Keys to Lichens of North America: Revised and Expanded
962:
Contemporary Lichenology and Lichens of Western Oregon
384:
Against this background appeared the Swedish botanist
116:
Keys to Lichens of North America: Revised and Expanded
1003:
Contributions to Lichenology: In Honour of A. Henssen
903:
Diccionario de Liquenologia/Dictionary of Lichenology
676:
Although several species of lichen have been used in
346:
Later lichenologists include the American scientists
282:
of lichens was first intensively investigated by the
2658:
LichenPortal.org - The Consortium of Lichen Herbaria
2415:"Lichens - The William & Lynda Steere Herbarium"
1901:] (in Spanish). Edicions Universitat Barcelona.
2981:
2950:
2910:
2830:
2823:
2777:
2549:
Belgium, Luxembourg and Northern France, Lichens of
393:or Enumeratio Critico Lichenum Europaeorum 1850 by
2708:Swiss Bryological and Lichenological Society (Ger)
2574:Czech Bryological and Lichenological Society (Cze)
2397:"Botany collections | Natural History Museum"
2372:"Fungi & Lichens | National Museum Wales"
2000:
1998:
856:, D. L. Hawksworth and M. R. D. Seaward (Dec 1977)
667:K S Merezhkovsky Russian Lichenologist (1855–1921)
984:Les Lichens - Morphologie, Biologie, Systematique
2469:"University of Michigan Herbarium - Collections"
717:. Something similar occurred with the substance
2544:American Bryological and Lichenological Society
1015:Swedish Lichenology: Dedicated to Roland Moberg
881:, Volume II: v.2, Margalith Galun (30 Sep 1988)
2307:"Collections | Canadian Museum of Nature"
137:. Some components of certain lichens may also
133:which can be characteristic of a given lichen
129:can be used to detect the presence of certain
2738:
1975:Schaetzl Randall, J; Sharon Anderson (2005).
1750:"Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries"
1688:"Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries"
1674:"Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries"
1660:"Harvard University Herbaria & Libraries"
1029:, Larry St. Clair and Mark Seaward (Oct 2011)
8:
2271:"Herbaria | The British Lichen Society"
873:Lichenology in Indian Subcontinent 1966–1977
573:by combining its two identified components.
2564:Checklists of Lichens and Lichenolous Fungi
1981:. Cambridge University Press. p. 562.
2827:
2745:
2731:
2723:
2703:Swedish Lichens Lief & Anita Stridvall
600:Lichenology has found applications beyond
2594:International Association for Lichenology
2231:
1850:
627:International Association for Lichenology
98:on lichens. An example reference work is
2105:Annals of the Botanical Garden of Madrid
2088:Annals of the Botanical Garden of Madrid
2006:Annals of the Botanical Garden of Madrid
83:. Study of lichens is conducted by both
1440:
1412:
758:along with the growing interest in all
79:. Scholars of lichenology are known as
16:Branch of mycology that studies lichens
2220:Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin
1960:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1953:
1452:. Yale University Press. p. 424.
814:research. These studies revealed some
2621:Japanese Lichenological Society (Eng)
2616:Japanese Lichenological Society (Eng)
1626:Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club
1323:National Botanical Research Institute
932:Lichens to Biomonitor the Environment
7:
3029:
2611:Italian Lichenological Society (Ita)
1737:A Popular History of British Lichens
1612:A Popular History of British Lichens
1562:A Popular History of British Lichens
1549:A Popular History of British Lichens
1527:Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (1700).
1487:A Popular History of British Lichens
1474:A Popular History of British Lichens
1318:Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures
833:Recent work in the field of applied
791:with a subsequent loss of bacterial
156:, the ecological role of lichens in
118:by the same three authors joined by
3041:
2641:Links to Lichens and Lichenologists
2631:Lichen Herbarium University of Oslo
2579:French Lichenological Society (Fre)
2507:. December 19, 2023. Archived from
2489:. December 19, 2023. Archived from
1005:, H. M. Jahns and A. Henssen (1990)
462:reproductive organ being unique to
154:role of lichens in nutrient cycling
2636:Lichenland Oregon State University
2471:. February 2, 2014. Archived from
2435:. February 1, 2014. Archived from
2347:"Herbarium: Iowa State University"
863:Lichenology in Indian Subcontinent
806:From the 1950s the lichen product
547:In 1909 the Russian lichenologist
14:
2190:Química Nova 22(1) ISSN 0100-4042
1978:Soils Genesis & Geomorphology
1891:Antonio Gómez Ortiz, ed. (1998).
1308:Botanische Staatssammlung München
1084:Ferdinand Christian Gustav Arnold
974:Lichens from West of Hudson's Bay
897:Bibliography of Irish Lichenology
885:A Textbook of General Lichenology
3040:
3028:
3017:
3016:
1878:"Pixie Cups (Cladonia pyxidata)"
1735:Lauder Lindsay, William (1856).
1610:Lauder Lindsay, William (1856).
1547:Lauder Lindsay, William (1856).
1485:Lauder Lindsay, William (1856).
1472:Lauder Lindsay, William (1856).
1364:University of Michigan Herbarium
980:Vol. 1), John W. Thompson (1953)
887:, Albert Schneider (24 May 2013)
470:organisms. With improvements in
299:Lichenographiae Suecia prodromus
114:and that book's 2016 expansion,
2453:. April 6, 2013. Archived from
2293:www.botanischestaatssammlung.de
2275:www.britishlichensociety.org.uk
1373:University of Wisconsin-Madison
1353:Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh
993:), David J. Galloway (Jul 1988)
660:and prevents water absorption.
449:Annales des Sciences Naturelles
270:Kingdom forming a single group
2626:Lichenological Resources (Rus)
2258:28 ISSN 0370-3908 pp. 509–528
2159:Journal of Molecular Structure
1537:] (in Latin). Vol. 1.
1343:Natural History Museum, London
364:, as well as amateurs such as
172:topics including the study of
1:
2673:National Biodiversity Gateway
2175:10.1016/S0022-2860(02)00626-9
1094:Friedrich August Georg Bitter
1035:, Vernon Ahmadjian (Aug 1993)
922:, Albert Schneider (Mar 2010)
905:, Kenneth Allen Hornak (1998)
587:Antonina Georgievna Borissova
2325:":: Welcome to NBRI ::"
2256:Columbian Academy of Science
2066:10.1126/science.106.2756.394
1109:Jean-Baptiste Édouard Bornet
521:Jean-Baptiste Edouard Bornet
2678:Nordic Lichen Society (Eng)
2663:Microscopy of Lichens (Ger)
2120:Journal of Natural Products
1582:] (in Latin). Svanborg.
1530:Institutiones rei herbariae
1245:Joseph Pitton de Tournefort
1079:Johannes Müller Argoviensis
1041:, Thomas H. Nash (Jan 2008)
958:, Zennosuke Iwatsuki (1983)
899:, M. E. Mitchell (Nov 1972)
879:CRC Handbook of Lichenology
317:Synopsis methodica lichenum
220:Institutiones Rei Herbariae
216:Joseph Pitton de Tournefort
3105:
2646:Lichens of Ireland Project
1833:Cavalier-Smith, T (2003).
1499:Eckel, P. M. (2010–2021).
1358:Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
1119:François Fulgis Chevallier
1059:Henry Nicollon des Abbayes
964:, W. Clayton Fraser (1968)
928:, Liu Hua Jie (1 Jan 2000)
721:synthesised by the lichen
579:Henry Nicollon des Abbayes
311:Lichenographia universalis
3012:
3004:List of mycology journals
2764:
1560:Lauder Lindsay, William.
1506:Missouri Botanical Garden
1402:, an award in lichenology
1348:New York Botanical Garden
1313:Canadian Museum of Nature
978:Lichens of Arctic America
940:, William A. Weber (1966)
910:Bibliotheca Lichenologica
440:and in the United States
235:. Some forty years later
1331:, Ada Hayden Herbarium,
1205:Konstantin Mereschkowski
1200:William Allport Leighton
1190:Georgij Karlovich Kreyer
608:in a technique known as
549:Konstantin Mereschkowski
438:William Allport Leighton
258:After the revolution in
100:Lichens of North America
2688:Paleo-Lichenology (Ger)
1866:Species:Eugen A. Thomas
1703:The American Naturalist
1574:Acharius, Erik (1814).
1338:National Museum Cardiff
1225:Charles Christian Plitt
1185:August von Krempelhuber
1170:David Leslie Hawksworth
1134:William Louis Culberson
986:, Fernand Moreau (1927)
952:, Joyce E. Sloof (1993)
891:Horizons in Lichenology
810:was the object of most
770:d-protolichosteric acid
672:Lichens in pharmacology
604:itself in the field of
362:Konstantin Merezhkovsky
2683:North American Lichens
2554:British Lichen Society
2433:"RBGE Lichen Taxonomy"
2107:(10) ISSN pp. 144–149.
1535:Institutions of botany
1303:British Lichen Society
1290:Alexander Zahlbruckner
1139:Johann Jacob Dillenius
1089:Heinrich Anton de Bary
1052:Notable lichenologists
821:Peltigera leucophlebia
729:Gram negative bacteria
668:
539:
405:
359:evolutionary biologist
343:
328:
212:spontaneous generation
166:anatomy and physiology
158:biological soil crusts
24:
2994:List of fungal orders
2693:Russian Lichens (Rus)
2569:Chilean Lichens (Spa)
2523:"National Museums NI"
2090:(7) ISSN pp. 511–548.
1329:Iowa State University
1164:Carolyn Wilson Harris
1047:, S. Hunek (Oct 2013)
693:Rufus Paul Burkholder
666:
650:environmental quality
537:
403:
334:
326:
162:morphology of lichens
22:
3079:Branches of mycology
2989:Glossary of mycology
1280:William Alfred Weber
1265:Edvard August Vainio
1175:Georg Franz Hoffmann
1129:Chicita F. Culberson
1033:The Lichen Symbiosis
867:Dharani Dhar Awasthi
678:traditional medicine
583:William Alfred Weber
466:but absent in other
120:Susan Laurie-Bourque
3074:Branches of biology
2999:List of mycologists
2233:10.1248/cpb.37.2410
2167:2003JMoSt.651...27E
2132:10.1021/np50109a009
2058:1947Sci...106..394M
1835:"Microbial Muddles"
1368:Ann Arbor, Michigan
1180:Peter Wilfred James
875:, Ajay Singh (1980)
724:Ramalina reticulata
642:David L. Hawksworth
595:George Albert Llano
494:who specialised in
180:and its own set of
2771:Outline of lichens
2651:2014-12-20 at the
2604:2014-12-20 at the
2161:. 651–653: 27–37.
2101:Cetraria islandica
1395:Outline of lichens
1377:Madison, Wisconsin
1297:Lichen collections
1260:Dalip Kumar Upreti
1154:Elias Magnus Fries
1104:Antonina Borissova
914:Elisabeth Peveling
893:D. H. Dalby (1988)
765:Cetraria islandica
669:
540:
406:
344:
329:
247:, Coralloides and
96:single-access keys
25:
3056:
3055:
2946:
2945:
2842:teleomorph/sexual
2419:sweetgum.nybg.org
2052:(2756): 394–395.
1240:Simon Schwendener
1144:Alexander Elenkin
827:Collema flaccidum
704:Bacillus subtilis
570:Cladonia pyxidata
516:Simon Schwendener
422:Johann Bayrhoffer
411:Hermann Itzigsohn
340:Evernia prunastri
305:Methodus lichenum
241:Historia Muscorum
182:other terminology
143:ultraviolet light
34:that studies the
30:is the branch of
3096:
3084:Fungi and humans
3044:
3043:
3032:
3031:
3020:
3019:
2877:anamorph/asexual
2828:
2767:Outline of fungi
2747:
2740:
2733:
2724:
2713:Tropical Lichens
2698:Scottish Lichens
2531:
2530:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2429:
2423:
2422:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2393:
2387:
2386:
2384:
2383:
2374:. Archived from
2368:
2362:
2361:
2359:
2358:
2349:. Archived from
2343:
2337:
2336:
2331:. Archived from
2321:
2315:
2314:
2303:
2297:
2296:
2285:
2279:
2278:
2267:
2261:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2235:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2197:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2114:
2108:
2097:
2091:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2027:
2021:
2015:
2009:
2002:
1993:
1992:
1972:
1966:
1965:
1959:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1942:
1936:. Archived from
1935:
1927:
1921:
1912:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1874:
1868:
1863:
1857:
1856:
1854:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1746:
1740:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1656:
1650:
1649:
1621:
1615:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1598:plants.jstor.org
1590:
1584:
1583:
1571:
1565:
1558:
1552:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1524:
1518:
1517:
1515:
1513:
1496:
1490:
1483:
1477:
1470:
1464:
1463:
1445:
1428:
1423:", according to
1417:
1250:Edward Tuckerman
1220:William Nylander
1210:Camille Montagne
1149:Andrei Famintsyn
1099:Alphonse Boistel
1069:Vernon Ahmadjian
991:Botany Bulletins
734:Escherichia coli
631:Vernon Ahmadjian
508:Andrei Famintsyn
442:Edward Tuckerman
430:Camille Montagne
419:
352:Edward Tuckerman
348:Vernon Ahmadjian
170:ethnolichenology
112:Stephen Sharnoff
91:lichenologists.
3104:
3103:
3099:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3094:
3093:
3059:
3058:
3057:
3052:
3008:
2977:
2958:Dimorphic fungi
2951:Growth patterns
2942:
2906:
2819:
2800:Medicinal fungi
2773:
2760:
2751:
2653:Wayback Machine
2606:Wayback Machine
2540:
2535:
2534:
2521:
2520:
2516:
2505:"- Collections"
2503:
2502:
2498:
2487:"- Collections"
2485:
2484:
2480:
2467:
2466:
2462:
2449:
2448:
2444:
2431:
2430:
2426:
2413:
2412:
2408:
2395:
2394:
2390:
2381:
2379:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2356:
2354:
2345:
2344:
2340:
2329:www.nbri.res.in
2323:
2322:
2318:
2305:
2304:
2300:
2287:
2286:
2282:
2269:
2268:
2264:
2253:
2249:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2199:
2198:
2194:
2186:
2182:
2152:
2151:
2147:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2098:
2094:
2085:
2081:
2043:
2042:
2038:
2029:
2028:
2024:
2016:
2012:
2003:
1996:
1989:
1974:
1973:
1969:
1952:
1946:
1944:
1940:
1933:
1931:"Archived copy"
1929:
1928:
1924:
1909:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1876:
1875:
1871:
1864:
1860:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1797:
1796:
1792:
1777:10.2307/3753090
1762:
1761:
1757:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1734:
1730:
1700:
1699:
1695:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1658:
1657:
1653:
1638:10.2307/2478161
1623:
1622:
1618:
1609:
1605:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1573:
1572:
1568:
1559:
1555:
1546:
1542:
1526:
1525:
1521:
1511:
1509:
1498:
1497:
1493:
1484:
1480:
1471:
1467:
1460:
1447:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1432:
1431:
1418:
1414:
1409:
1391:
1299:
1294:
1275:Heinrich Walter
1215:Sanjeeva Nayaka
1124:Louisa Collings
1054:
847:
778:Alectosarmentin
674:
656:, which causes
654:sulphur dioxide
545:
413:
395:Ludwig Schaerer
382:
366:Louisa Collings
327:Lichen on rocks
204:Pliny the Elder
195:
190:
131:lichen products
108:Sylvia Sharnoff
17:
12:
11:
5:
3102:
3100:
3092:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3061:
3060:
3054:
3053:
3051:
3050:
3038:
3026:
3013:
3010:
3009:
3007:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2985:
2983:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2954:
2952:
2948:
2947:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2914:
2912:
2908:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2899:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2872:
2871:
2858:
2849:
2837:
2835:
2825:
2821:
2820:
2818:
2817:
2815:Mycotoxicology
2812:
2807:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2781:
2779:
2775:
2774:
2765:
2762:
2761:
2752:
2750:
2749:
2742:
2735:
2727:
2721:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2655:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2608:
2596:
2591:
2586:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2539:
2538:External links
2536:
2533:
2532:
2514:
2511:on 2017-07-06.
2496:
2493:on 2023-09-21.
2478:
2475:on 2014-02-02.
2460:
2457:on 2013-04-06.
2442:
2439:on 2014-02-01.
2424:
2406:
2388:
2363:
2338:
2335:on 2015-01-14.
2316:
2298:
2280:
2262:
2247:
2206:
2192:
2180:
2145:
2109:
2092:
2079:
2036:
2022:
2010:
1994:
1988:978-0521812016
1987:
1967:
1922:
1907:
1883:
1869:
1858:
1825:
1806:(2): 307–313.
1800:The Bryologist
1790:
1755:
1741:
1728:
1715:10.1086/274846
1693:
1679:
1665:
1651:
1632:(5): 189–198.
1616:
1603:
1585:
1566:
1553:
1540:
1519:
1491:
1478:
1465:
1459:978-0300195736
1458:
1439:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1430:
1429:
1411:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1403:
1400:Acharius Medal
1397:
1390:
1387:
1386:
1385:
1379:
1370:
1361:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1326:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1292:
1287:
1285:Francis Wilson
1282:
1277:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1257:
1255:Edmond Tulasne
1252:
1247:
1242:
1237:
1235:Rolf Santesson
1232:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1167:
1161:
1159:Nina Golubkova
1156:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1116:
1114:Irwin M. Brodo
1111:
1106:
1101:
1096:
1091:
1086:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1061:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1042:
1039:Lichen Biology
1036:
1030:
1024:
1018:
1012:
1006:
1000:
997:
994:
987:
981:
971:
965:
959:
953:
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941:
935:
929:
923:
917:
906:
900:
894:
888:
882:
876:
870:
860:
857:
851:
846:
843:
774:d-1-usnic acid
690:microbiologist
673:
670:
636:Such a simple
619:Roland Beschel
591:Irwin M. Brodo
557:Chromatophores
544:
541:
496:phytopathology
468:photosynthetic
453:Edmond Tulasne
426:Edmond Tulasne
381:
378:
321:
320:
314:
308:
302:
262:brought in by
194:
193:The beginnings
191:
189:
186:
174:edible lichens
104:Irwin M. Brodo
81:lichenologists
51:cyanobacterium
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3101:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3049:
3048:
3039:
3037:
3036:
3027:
3025:
3024:
3015:
3014:
3011:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2995:
2992:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2980:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2955:
2953:
2949:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2909:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2892:Chlamydospore
2890:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2874:
2873:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2839:
2838:
2836:
2834:
2831:Reproduction/
2829:
2826:
2822:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2785:Ethnomycology
2783:
2782:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2748:
2743:
2741:
2736:
2734:
2729:
2728:
2725:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2603:
2600:
2599:Irish Lichens
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2537:
2528:
2524:
2518:
2515:
2510:
2506:
2500:
2497:
2492:
2488:
2482:
2479:
2474:
2470:
2464:
2461:
2456:
2452:
2446:
2443:
2438:
2434:
2428:
2425:
2420:
2416:
2410:
2407:
2402:
2401:www.nhm.ac.uk
2398:
2392:
2389:
2378:on 2014-01-24
2377:
2373:
2367:
2364:
2353:on 2013-10-04
2352:
2348:
2342:
2339:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2320:
2317:
2312:
2308:
2302:
2299:
2294:
2290:
2284:
2281:
2276:
2272:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2251:
2248:
2243:
2239:
2234:
2229:
2226:(9): 2410–2.
2225:
2221:
2217:
2210:
2207:
2202:
2196:
2193:
2189:
2184:
2181:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2149:
2146:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2113:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2096:
2093:
2089:
2083:
2080:
2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2040:
2037:
2032:
2026:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2011:
2007:
2001:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1984:
1980:
1979:
1971:
1968:
1963:
1957:
1943:on 2014-02-03
1939:
1932:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1919:84-475-1923-6
1916:
1910:
1908:9788447519231
1904:
1900:
1896:
1895:
1887:
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1879:
1873:
1870:
1867:
1862:
1859:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1829:
1826:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1794:
1791:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1771:(3): 97–166.
1770:
1766:
1759:
1756:
1751:
1745:
1742:
1738:
1732:
1729:
1724:
1720:
1716:
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1532:
1531:
1523:
1520:
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1479:
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1469:
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1455:
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1434:
1426:
1422:
1416:
1413:
1406:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1382:Ulster Museum
1380:
1378:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1365:
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1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
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1334:
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610:lichenometry
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543:20th century
485:
457:
446:
432:, in Russia
424:, in France
407:
397:in Germany.
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208:Theophrastus
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178:nomenclature
150:lichenometry
147:
124:
115:
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93:
85:professional
73:microbiology
62:
27:
26:
3069:Lichenology
3047:WikiProject
2902:Pycniospore
2790:Lichenology
1375:Herbarium,
1270:Erna Walter
1166:(1849–1910)
841:infection.
740:Pseudomonas
500:ascomycetes
434:Fedor Buhse
414: [
391:Elias Fries
231:as well as
200:Dioscorides
125:A chemical
55:filamentous
28:Lichenology
3063:Categories
2923:Haustorium
2882:Sporangium
2869:Teliospore
2718:UK Lichens
2382:2014-01-24
2357:2014-01-24
1947:2014-01-21
1839:BioScience
1435:References
1421:Clavarieae
1333:Ames, Iowa
812:antitumour
808:usnic acid
801:usnic acid
760:antibiotic
749:usnic acid
745:ergosterol
715:usnic acid
529:phenotypes
512:Baranetzky
492:mycologist
472:microscopy
460:apothecium
374:Propagules
229:liverworts
102:(2001) by
2938:Sporocarp
2933:Cell wall
2852:Ascospore
2847:Zygospore
2824:Structure
2311:nature.ca
1765:Mycologia
1512:19 August
1407:Footnotes
1384:, Belfast
797:phenolics
793:metabolic
782:Atranorin
658:acid rain
615:epilithic
525:symbiotic
502:group by
490:a German
481:symbiotic
286:botanist
237:Dillenius
139:fluoresce
127:spot test
69:phycology
53:) with a
43:organisms
40:symbiotic
3089:Mycology
3023:Category
2973:Mushroom
2928:Mycelium
2887:Conidium
2865:Basidium
2805:Mycology
2649:Archived
2602:Archived
2074:17750561
1956:cite web
1820:84580224
1739:. p. 23.
1723:84605645
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1564:. p. 25.
1551:. p. 24.
1419:"mostly
1389:See also
1360:, London
816:in vitro
799:such as
789:proteins
731:such as
719:Ramelina
701:against
686:medicine
638:a priori
354:and the
280:taxonomy
264:Linnaeus
260:taxonomy
164:, their
65:mycology
32:mycology
3035:Commons
2810:Mycosis
2242:2575016
2163:Bibcode
2140:7964789
2054:Bibcode
2046:Science
1785:3753090
1646:2478161
606:geology
602:biology
486:It was
356:Russian
336:Oakmoss
284:Swedish
276:thallus
253:thallus
249:Lichens
239:in his
233:lichens
218:in his
188:History
135:species
89:amateur
36:lichens
2897:Oidium
2778:Branch
2758:Fungus
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593:, and
504:nostoc
319:(1814)
313:(1810)
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301:(1798)
278:. The
272:Lichen
225:mosses
168:, and
160:, the
152:, the
141:under
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2911:Other
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2833:spore
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476:algae
464:fungi
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2982:List
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