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more than one and a half hour of hard labour to deliver only one kWh – which a small engine could deliver in less than one hour while burning less than one litre of petroleum fuel. This implies that a gang of 20 to 40 men will require a financial compensation for their work at least equal to the required expended food calories (which is at least 4 to 20 times higher). In most situations, the worker will also want compensation for the lost time, which is easily 96 times greater per day. Even if we assume the real wage cost for the human labour to be at US $ 1.00/day, an energy cost is generated of about $ 4.00/kWh. Despite this being a low wage for hard labour, even in some of the countries with the lowest wages, it represents an energy cost that is significantly more expensive than even exotic power sources such as solar photovoltaic panels (and thus even more expensive when compared to wind energy harvesters or luminescent solar concentrators).
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turbines and steam engines and turbines. Powered transportation equipment such as locomotives, automobiles and trucks and airplanes, is a classification of machinery which includes sub classes by engine type, such as internal combustion, combustion turbine and steam. Inside factories, warehouses, lumber yards and other manufacturing and distribution operations,
124:
1886:
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When we compare the costs of using an internal combustion engine to a worker to perform work, we notice that an engine can perform more work at a comparative cost. 1 liter of fossil fuel burnt with an IC engine equals about 50 hands of workers operating for 24 hours or 275 arms and legs for 24 hours.
498:
In addition, the combined work capability of a human is also much lower than that of a machine. An average human worker can provide work good for around 0,9 hp (2.3 MJ per hour) while a machine (depending on the type and size) can provide for far greater amounts of work. For example, it takes
349:
In manufacturing, mechanization replaced hand methods of making goods. Prime movers are devices that convert thermal, potential or kinetic energy into mechanical work. Prime movers include internal combustion engines, combustion turbines (jet engines), water wheels and turbines, windmills and wind
278:
In the mid to late 19th century, hydraulic and pneumatic devices were able to power various mechanical actions, such as positioning tools or work pieces. Pile drivers and steam hammers are examples for heavy work. In food processing, pneumatic or hydraulic devices could start and stop filling of
271:. By the late nineteenth century steam power was applied to threshing and steam tractors appeared. Internal combustion began being used for tractors in the early twentieth century. Threshing and harvesting was originally done with attachments for tractors, but in the 1930s independently powered
69:
Every machine is constructed for the purpose of performing certain mechanical operations, each of which supposes the existence of two other things besides the machine in question, namely, a moving power, and an object subject to the operation, which may be termed the work to be done. Machines, in
279:
cans or bottles on a conveyor. Power steering for automobiles uses hydraulic mechanisms, as does practically all earth moving equipment and other construction equipment and many attachments to tractors. Pneumatic (usually compressed air) power is widely used to operate industrial valves.
287:
By the early 20th century machines developed the ability to perform more complex operations that had previously been done by skilled craftsmen. An example is the glass bottle making machine developed 1905. It replaced highly paid glass blowers and child labor helpers and led to the
333:) runs along a tangent common to both base circles. (In this situation, there is no force, and no contact needed, along the opposite common tangent not shown.) The involutes here are traced out in converse fashion: points (of contact) move along the
486:
When we compare the efficiency of a labourer, we see that he has an efficiency of about 1%–5.5% (depending on whether he uses arms, or a combination of arms and legs). Internal combustion engines mostly have an efficiency of about 20%, although
491:, such as those used to power ships, may have efficiencies of nearly 50%. Industrial electric motors have efficiencies up to the low 90% range, before correcting for the conversion efficiency of fuel to electricity of about 35%.
437:. Early production machinery, such as the glass bottle blowing machine (ca. 1890s), required a lot of operator involvement. By the 1920s fully automatic machines, which required much less operator attention, were being used.
78:
more complex than hand tools and would not include simple devices such as an ungeared horse or donkey mill. Devices that cause speed changes or changes to or from reciprocating to rotary motion, using means such as
620:
Jerome (1934) gives the industry classification of machine tools as being "other than hand power". Beginning with the 1900 U.S. census, power use was part of the definition of a FACTORY , distinguishing it from a
1991:
197:, another mathematical derived design, came into use. Involute gears are better for meshing gears of different sizes than epicycloidal. Gear cutting machines came into use in the 18th century.
426:. Unit drive allowed factories to be better arranged and allowed different machines to run at different speeds. Unit drive also allowed much higher speeds, which was especially important for
408:
Powered machinery today usually means either by electric motor or internal combustion engine. Before the first decade of the 20th century powered usually meant by steam engine, water or wind.
175:
including gear and screw cutting machines, and were also involved in the mathematical development of gear designs. Clocks were some of the earliest mass-produced items, beginning around 1830.
65:) is the process of changing from working largely or exclusively by hand or with animals to doing that work with machinery. In an early engineering text, a machine is defined as follows:
107:, when most small machinery was no longer hand powered, mechanization was synonymous with motorized machines. Extension of mechanization of the production process is termed as
232:
in the late 1700s until the mid-1800s. After the early decades of the 19th century, iron increasingly replaced wood in gearing and shafts in textile machinery. In the 1840s
478:) that are transported and go to battle in unarmoured vehicles such as trucks. Thus, a towed artillery unit is considered motorized while a self-propelled one is mechanized.
312:
299:, and electric motors and controls were used to perform more complicated mechanical operations. This resulted in mechanized processes to manufacture almost all goods.
513:
For simplification, one can study mechanization as a series of steps. Many students refer to this series as indicating basic-to-advanced forms of mechanical society.
185:
Improved gear designs decreased wear and increased efficiency. Mathematical gear designs were developed in the mid 17th century. French mathematician and engineer
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around 1700. The seed drill allowed more uniform spacing of seed and planting depth than hand methods, increasing yields and saving valuable seed. In 1817,
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In every fields, mechanization includes the use of hand tools. In modern usage, such as in engineering or economics, mechanization implies
131:
ca. 1386. A clock is a mechanical instrument rather than a true machine. Although this clock had iron gears, many machines of the early
115:
system in which feedback is provided by the sensors. In an automated machine the work of different mechanisms is performed automatically.
893:"The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Designates the Owens "AR" Bottle Machine as an International Historic Engineering Landmark"
411:
Many of the early machines and machine tools were hand powered, but most changed over to water or steam power by the early 19th century.
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In mining and excavation, power shovels replaced picks and shovels. Rock and ore crushing had been done for centuries by water-powered
31:
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989:
Home documentary by Yann Arthus
Bertrand too stating that 1 liter of fuel yields 100 arms for 24 hours; probably from same calculation
927:
Exergy, Power and Work in the U. S. Economy 1900–1998, Insead's Center For the
Management of Environmental Resources, 2002/52/EPS/CMER
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systems and equipment are used for a variety of materials including coal, ores, grains, sand, gravel and wood products.
159:, to pull cloth and pound flax and later cotton rags into pulp for making paper. Trip hammers are shown crushing ore in
2137:
1961:
1574:
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date to the Roman period and were used to grind grain and lift irrigation water. Water-powered bellows were in use on
178:
Water-powered bellows for blast furnaces, used in China in ancient times, were in use in Europe by the 15th century.
607:
Principles of
Mechanism: Designed For The Use Of Students In The Universities And For Engineering Students Generally
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of paper was patented in 1801, displacing the centuries-old hand method of making individual sheets of paper.
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54:, ca. 1555) an early mining textbook that contains numerous drawings and descriptions of mining equipment.
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Bartelt, Terry. Industrial
Automated Systems: Instrumentation and Motion Control. Cengage Learning, 2010.
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422:. Electrification allowed individual machines to each be powered by a separate motor in what is called
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fact, are interposed between the power and the work, for the purpose of adapting the one to the other.
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329:, the left driving the right: Blue arrows show the contact forces between them. The force line (or
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were some of the most complex early mechanical devices. Clock makers were important developers of
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introduced metal gears and axles to water wheels in the mid to last half of the 18th century. The
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A History of
Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power
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A History of
Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power
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machine tools were developed. Machinery was developed to make nails ca. 1810. The
Fourdrinier
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466:) that would otherwise have marched or ridden trucks into combat. In military terminology,
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greatly increased in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries with horse drawn
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contains drawings related to bellows for blast furnaces including a fabrication drawing.
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1 liter of fuel yielding 100 arms for 24 hours, when efficiency is 40% which is never
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Process of changing from working by hand or with animals to work with machinery
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Demand for metal parts used in textile machinery led to the invention of many
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955:"Electrical engines with combined power converter / motor at 86% efficiency"
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Timeline of clothing and textiles technology
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Productivity improving technologies (historical) § Mechanization
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The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention
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Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater
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One of the first mechanical devices used in agriculture was the
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Mechanization in
Industry, National Bureau of Economic Research
875:
Mechanization in
Industry, National Bureau of Economic Research
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force-vector "string" as if it was being unwound from the left
451:
The term is also used in the military to refer to the use of
354:
equipment replaced manual carrying or hand trucks and carts.
151:
in China in 31 AD. By the 13th century, water wheels powered
1830:
History of the British canal system
470:
refers to ground units that can fight from vehicles, while
748:); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (
1840:
List of United Kingdom-related topics
640:, Mechanical Engineering Community, retrieved 2018-04-17.
535:
powered tools, activated by work-piece (e.g.: coin phone)
418:, mill and factory power was usually transmitted using a
1764:
History of the cooperative Movement
740:. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (
1001:"Energy input–output analysis in Turkish agriculture"
764:
762:
547:
automated machine action altered through measurement
541:
selected signaling control, e.g. hydro power control
361:, but trip hammers have been replaced by modern ore
209:
was first used, to pump water from a mine, in 1712.
1817:
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773:
Science and
Technology in the Industrial Revolution
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powered tools, multi-functioned, program controlled
217:started mainly with textile machinery, such as the
1123:
835:
770:
694:
731:, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press,
1855:Timeline of materials technology
1130:. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: MIT Press.
842:. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: MIT Press.
67:
44:used for raising ore. This woodblock is from
1640:Stockton and Darlington Railway
867:
865:
863:
861:
859:
550:segregation/rejection according to measurement
1918:
1160:
1055:Combined work capability of human vs machines
925:Ayres, R. U.; Ayres, L. W.; Warr, B. (2002).
526:powered tools, single functioned, fixed cycle
189:designed and constructed the first mill with
8:
697:An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology
668:<Based on the works of Joseph Needham>
658:. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 55.
523:powered hand-tools, e.g. electric-controlled
1925:
1911:
1903:
1167:
1153:
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1122:Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991).
834:Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991).
103:, usually are considered machines. After
720:
718:
1474:John Kay (spinning frame)
1469:John Kay (flying shuttle)
1404:Thomas and George Cranege
320:
809:The World's Work: A History of Our Time
777:. University of Toronto Press. p.
650:Temple, Robert; Joseph Needham (1986).
596:
559:correcting performance during operation
257:the first bicycle was invented and used
1860:Timeline of steam power
671:
556:correcting performance after operation
341:base circle, and wound onto the right
1575:Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet
804:"The Passing Of The Man With The Hoe"
553:selection of appropriate action cycle
504:Energy and energy efficiency theories
7:
1885:
135:used wooden parts until around 1800.
32:Productivity-improving technologies
802:Rumeley, Edward A. (August 1910).
728:English and American Tool Builders
394:and an assortment of power tools.
25:
2072:History of electrical engineering
1389:Isambard Kingdom Brunel
1884:
1873:
1872:
1625:Portsmouth Block Mills
1350:
532:powered tools, remote-controlled
378:Construction equipment includes
2118:Secondary sector of the economy
1850:Timeline of invention
1825:History of technology
1688:Newcomen steam engine
1464:Joseph Marie Jacquard
433:A step beyond mechanization is
193:ca. 1650. In the 18th century
1945:History of technology cultures
1610:Derwent Valley Mills
1479:Francis Cabot Lowell
631:Mechanization & Automation
317:list of agricultural machinery
1:
2092:History of nuclear technology
2067:History of computing hardware
2045:History of technology domains
1067:"Mechanization and its level"
1028:10.1016/s0960-1481(03)00135-6
2077:History of materials science
725:Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916),
585:Newly industrialized country
1835:Industrial archaeology
1738:Watt steam engine
1424:Abraham Darby III
460:armoured personnel carriers
2154:
1703:Reverberatory furnace
1630:Quarry Bank Mill
1419:Abraham Darby II
1332:Economies of agglomeration
678:: CS1 maint: postscript (
501:
482:Mechanical vs human labour
444:
401:
306:
295:After 1900 factories were
111:and it is controlled by a
50:by George Bauer (pen name
29:
2040:
1940:
1868:
1414:Abraham Darby I
1348:
1187:
769:Musson; Robinson (1969).
610:. London: John W. Parker.
129:Salisbury Cathedral clock
2057:History of communication
2052:History of biotechnology
1728:Stephenson's Rocket
1544:Richard Trevithick
943:IC Engine 20% efficient
604:Willis, Robert (1861).
575:Bulk materials handling
509:Levels of mechanization
2123:Agricultural machinery
2082:History of measurement
1952:Prehistoric technology
1799:Rochdale Pioneers
1784:Industrial unrest
1590:Bridgewater Canal
1534:Robert Stephenson
1529:George Stephenson
1504:William Radcliffe
1459:Benjamin Huntsman
1434:William Fairbairn
1394:Edmund Cartwright
1369:Richard Arkwright
1272:Industry/Manufacturing
1113:Jerome, Harry (1934).
999:Ozkan, Burhan (2004).
898:. 1983. Archived from
872:Jerome, Harry (1934).
373:Bulk material handling
346:
309:Mechanized agriculture
261:Mechanized agriculture
136:
72:
55:
2027:Industrial Revolution
1934:History of technology
1769:Cottage industry
1454:Eaton Hodgkinson
1439:James Hargreaves
1374:Thomas Boulsover
701:. London: Routledge.
544:performance recording
324:
242:continuous production
215:Industrial Revolution
207:Newcomen steam engine
201:Industrial revolution
133:Industrial Revolution
126:
39:
2097:History of transport
2062:History of computing
1708:Sheffield plate
1509:Richard Roberts
1489:Thomas Newcomen
1409:Samuel Crompton
1379:Matthew Boulton
1337:Economies of density
693:McNeil, Ian (1990).
489:large diesel engines
2087:History of medicine
1718:Spinning jenny
1713:Spinning frame
1683:Flying shuttle
1673:Crucible steel
1554:John Wilkinson
1539:Thomas Telford
1384:James Brindley
1020:2004REne...29...39O
464:mechanized infantry
462:, to move troops (
2138:Industrial history
1809:Industrial warfare
1658:Blast furnace
1519:Samuel Slater
1514:Thomas Savery
1484:Lunar Society
1342:Economies of scale
1096:2011-08-15 at the
636:2019-04-17 at the
476:motorized infantry
347:
292:of glass bottles.
273:combine harvesters
269:threshing machines
267:and horse powered
191:epicycloidal teeth
137:
56:
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1899:
1774:Factory Acts
1759:Child labour
1723:Steam engine
1635:Soho Foundry
1524:John Smeaton
1449:Thomas Highs
1444:Hawks family
1091:basic-to-advanced
754:978-0-917914-73-7
580:Industrialisation
517:hand/muscle power
474:refers to units (
456:armoured vehicles
398:Powered machinery
352:material handling
283:Twentieth century
52:Georgius Agricola
16:(Redirected from
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2022:Great Divergence
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1733:Water frame
1668:Cotton mill
1494:Robert Owen
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1302:Steam power
1257:Coal mining
1235:Potential future
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1008:Renewable Energy
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445:Main article:
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441:Military usage
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392:cherry pickers
388:concrete pumps
331:Line of Action
327:involute gears
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219:spinning jenny
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195:involute gears
149:blast furnaces
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1037:on 2022-05-25
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816:: 13246–13258
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238:paper machine
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140:Ancient times
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63:mechanisation
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59:Mechanization
53:
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19:
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1877:
1804:Urbanization
1233:
1226:
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1205:
1198:
1191:
1125:
1114:
1086:
1075:. Retrieved
1071:the original
1061:
1050:
1039:. Retrieved
1032:the original
1011:
1007:
994:
985:
974:
963:. Retrieved
959:the original
949:
938:
920:
911:
900:the original
887:
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837:
829:
818:. Retrieved
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359:trip hammers
356:
348:
345:base circle.
342:
338:
334:
294:
286:
277:
259:in Germany.
251:invented by
246:
233:
227:
211:John Smeaton
204:
184:
179:
177:
167:
160:
157:trip hammers
145:Water wheels
143:
73:
68:
62:
58:
57:
45:
2012:Renaissance
1794:Proletariat
1754:Bourgeoisie
538:measurement
297:electrified
253:Jethro Tull
234:self acting
223:water frame
221:(1764) and
113:closed loop
91:and belts,
2112:Categories
1651:technology
1649:Invention/
1615:Ironbridge
1312:Technology
1292:Metallurgy
1182:revolution
1176:Industrial
1077:2010-05-13
1041:2018-04-20
965:2011-03-22
820:2009-07-10
591:References
520:hand-tools
502:See also:
468:mechanized
435:automation
424:unit drive
420:line shaft
402:See also:
367:ball mills
335:stationary
307:See also:
303:Categories
249:seed drill
109:automation
42:mine hoist
18:Mechanised
2133:Machinery
1997:Byzantine
1957:Neolithic
1818:Reference
1585:Bethlehem
1580:Allentown
1327:Workforce
1297:Sociology
1287:Machinery
1277:Invention
1014:(1): 39.
932:(Report).
674:cite book
621:workshop.
472:motorized
187:Desargues
76:machinery
1879:Category
1605:Cromford
1595:Broseley
1317:Textiles
1094:Archived
746:27-24075
737:16011753
634:Archived
564:See also
363:crushers
343:rotating
339:rotating
225:(1768).
165:(1555).
153:sawmills
2017:Ottoman
1987:Chinese
1891:Commons
1789:Luddite
1698:Railway
1678:Factory
1360:People/
1016:Bibcode
453:tracked
414:Before
265:reapers
119:History
89:sheaves
85:pulleys
2032:Modern
1992:Indian
1568:Places
1362:groups
1267:Cotton
1245:Themes
1221:Fourth
1207:Second
1134:
846:
785:
752:
744:
735:
705:
662:
380:cranes
315:, and
169:Clocks
101:cranks
93:shafts
1982:Roman
1967:Mayan
1663:Canal
1307:Steel
1228:Fifth
1214:Third
1200:First
1193:Proto
1035:(PDF)
1004:(PDF)
930:(PDF)
903:(PDF)
896:(PDF)
879:(PDF)
81:gears
1972:Inca
1282:Iron
1262:Coke
1252:Coal
1178:and
1132:ISBN
844:ISBN
783:ISBN
750:ISBN
742:LCCN
733:LCCN
703:ISBN
680:link
660:ISBN
365:and
325:Two
240:for
205:The
155:and
127:The
99:and
97:cams
61:(or
1024:doi
87:or
2114::
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1044:.
1026::
1018::
968:.
881:.
852:.
823:.
791:.
711:.
682:)
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
