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more than one and a half hour of hard labour to deliver only one kWh – which a small engine could deliver in less than one hour while burning less than one litre of petroleum fuel. This implies that a gang of 20 to 40 men will require a financial compensation for their work at least equal to the required expended food calories (which is at least 4 to 20 times higher). In most situations, the worker will also want compensation for the lost time, which is easily 96 times greater per day. Even if we assume the real wage cost for the human labour to be at US $ 1.00/day, an energy cost is generated of about $ 4.00/kWh. Despite this being a low wage for hard labour, even in some of the countries with the lowest wages, it represents an energy cost that is significantly more expensive than even exotic power sources such as solar photovoltaic panels (and thus even more expensive when compared to wind energy harvesters or luminescent solar concentrators).
1341:
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turbines and steam engines and turbines. Powered transportation equipment such as locomotives, automobiles and trucks and airplanes, is a classification of machinery which includes sub classes by engine type, such as internal combustion, combustion turbine and steam. Inside factories, warehouses, lumber yards and other manufacturing and distribution operations,
113:
1875:
26:
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When we compare the costs of using an internal combustion engine to a worker to perform work, we notice that an engine can perform more work at a comparative cost. 1 liter of fossil fuel burnt with an IC engine equals about 50 hands of workers operating for 24 hours or 275 arms and legs for 24 hours.
487:
In addition, the combined work capability of a human is also much lower than that of a machine. An average human worker can provide work good for around 0,9 hp (2.3 MJ per hour) while a machine (depending on the type and size) can provide for far greater amounts of work. For example, it takes
338:
In manufacturing, mechanization replaced hand methods of making goods. Prime movers are devices that convert thermal, potential or kinetic energy into mechanical work. Prime movers include internal combustion engines, combustion turbines (jet engines), water wheels and turbines, windmills and wind
267:
In the mid to late 19th century, hydraulic and pneumatic devices were able to power various mechanical actions, such as positioning tools or work pieces. Pile drivers and steam hammers are examples for heavy work. In food processing, pneumatic or hydraulic devices could start and stop filling of
260:. By the late nineteenth century steam power was applied to threshing and steam tractors appeared. Internal combustion began being used for tractors in the early twentieth century. Threshing and harvesting was originally done with attachments for tractors, but in the 1930s independently powered
58:
Every machine is constructed for the purpose of performing certain mechanical operations, each of which supposes the existence of two other things besides the machine in question, namely, a moving power, and an object subject to the operation, which may be termed the work to be done. Machines, in
268:
cans or bottles on a conveyor. Power steering for automobiles uses hydraulic mechanisms, as does practically all earth moving equipment and other construction equipment and many attachments to tractors. Pneumatic (usually compressed air) power is widely used to operate industrial valves.
276:
By the early 20th century machines developed the ability to perform more complex operations that had previously been done by skilled craftsmen. An example is the glass bottle making machine developed 1905. It replaced highly paid glass blowers and child labor helpers and led to the
322:) runs along a tangent common to both base circles. (In this situation, there is no force, and no contact needed, along the opposite common tangent not shown.) The involutes here are traced out in converse fashion: points (of contact) move along the
475:
When we compare the efficiency of a labourer, we see that he has an efficiency of about 1%–5.5% (depending on whether he uses arms, or a combination of arms and legs). Internal combustion engines mostly have an efficiency of about 20%, although
480:, such as those used to power ships, may have efficiencies of nearly 50%. Industrial electric motors have efficiencies up to the low 90% range, before correcting for the conversion efficiency of fuel to electricity of about 35%.
426:. Early production machinery, such as the glass bottle blowing machine (ca. 1890s), required a lot of operator involvement. By the 1920s fully automatic machines, which required much less operator attention, were being used.
67:
more complex than hand tools and would not include simple devices such as an ungeared horse or donkey mill. Devices that cause speed changes or changes to or from reciprocating to rotary motion, using means such as
609:
Jerome (1934) gives the industry classification of machine tools as being "other than hand power". Beginning with the 1900 U.S. census, power use was part of the definition of a FACTORY , distinguishing it from a
1980:
186:, another mathematical derived design, came into use. Involute gears are better for meshing gears of different sizes than epicycloidal. Gear cutting machines came into use in the 18th century.
415:. Unit drive allowed factories to be better arranged and allowed different machines to run at different speeds. Unit drive also allowed much higher speeds, which was especially important for
397:
Powered machinery today usually means either by electric motor or internal combustion engine. Before the first decade of the 20th century powered usually meant by steam engine, water or wind.
164:
including gear and screw cutting machines, and were also involved in the mathematical development of gear designs. Clocks were some of the earliest mass-produced items, beginning around 1830.
54:) is the process of changing from working largely or exclusively by hand or with animals to doing that work with machinery. In an early engineering text, a machine is defined as follows:
96:, when most small machinery was no longer hand powered, mechanization was synonymous with motorized machines. Extension of mechanization of the production process is termed as
221:
in the late 1700s until the mid-1800s. After the early decades of the 19th century, iron increasingly replaced wood in gearing and shafts in textile machinery. In the 1840s
467:) that are transported and go to battle in unarmoured vehicles such as trucks. Thus, a towed artillery unit is considered motorized while a self-propelled one is mechanized.
301:
288:, and electric motors and controls were used to perform more complicated mechanical operations. This resulted in mechanized processes to manufacture almost all goods.
502:
For simplification, one can study mechanization as a series of steps. Many students refer to this series as indicating basic-to-advanced forms of mechanical society.
174:
Improved gear designs decreased wear and increased efficiency. Mathematical gear designs were developed in the mid 17th century. French mathematician and engineer
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around 1700. The seed drill allowed more uniform spacing of seed and planting depth than hand methods, increasing yields and saving valuable seed. In 1817,
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In every fields, mechanization includes the use of hand tools. In modern usage, such as in engineering or economics, mechanization implies
120:
ca. 1386. A clock is a mechanical instrument rather than a true machine. Although this clock had iron gears, many machines of the early
104:
system in which feedback is provided by the sensors. In an automated machine the work of different mechanisms is performed automatically.
882:"The American Society of Mechanical Engineers Designates the Owens "AR" Bottle Machine as an International Historic Engineering Landmark"
400:
Many of the early machines and machine tools were hand powered, but most changed over to water or steam power by the early 19th century.
1906:
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In mining and excavation, power shovels replaced picks and shovels. Rock and ore crushing had been done for centuries by water-powered
20:
311:
1467:
978:
Home documentary by Yann Arthus
Bertrand too stating that 1 liter of fuel yields 100 arms for 24 hours; probably from same calculation
916:
Exergy, Power and Work in the U. S. Economy 1900–1998, Insead's Center For the
Management of Environmental Resources, 2002/52/EPS/CMER
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systems and equipment are used for a variety of materials including coal, ores, grains, sand, gravel and wood products.
148:, to pull cloth and pound flax and later cotton rags into pulp for making paper. Trip hammers are shown crushing ore in
2126:
1950:
1563:
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date to the Roman period and were used to grind grain and lift irrigation water. Water-powered bellows were in use on
167:
Water-powered bellows for blast furnaces, used in China in ancient times, were in use in Europe by the 15th century.
596:
Principles of
Mechanism: Designed For The Use Of Students In The Universities And For Engineering Students Generally
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of paper was patented in 1801, displacing the centuries-old hand method of making individual sheets of paper.
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43:, ca. 1555) an early mining textbook that contains numerous drawings and descriptions of mining equipment.
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Bartelt, Terry. Industrial
Automated Systems: Instrumentation and Motion Control. Cengage Learning, 2010.
2015:
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411:. Electrification allowed individual machines to each be powered by a separate motor in what is called
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fact, are interposed between the power and the work, for the purpose of adapting the one to the other.
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318:, the left driving the right: Blue arrows show the contact forces between them. The force line (or
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were some of the most complex early mechanical devices. Clock makers were important developers of
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introduced metal gears and axles to water wheels in the mid to last half of the 18th century. The
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A History of
Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power
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A History of
Industrial Power in the United States, 1730–1930, Vol. 3: The Transmission of Power
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machine tools were developed. Machinery was developed to make nails ca. 1810. The
Fourdrinier
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455:) that would otherwise have marched or ridden trucks into combat. In military terminology,
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greatly increased in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries with horse drawn
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contains drawings related to bellows for blast furnaces including a fabrication drawing.
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1 liter of fuel yielding 100 arms for 24 hours, when efficiency is 40% which is never
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Process of changing from working by hand or with animals to work with machinery
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Demand for metal parts used in textile machinery led to the invention of many
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944:"Electrical engines with combined power converter / motor at 86% efficiency"
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Timeline of clothing and textiles technology
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Productivity improving technologies (historical) § Mechanization
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The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention
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Francis Egerton, 3rd Duke of Bridgewater
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One of the first mechanical devices used in agriculture was the
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1104:
Mechanization in
Industry, National Bureau of Economic Research
864:
Mechanization in
Industry, National Bureau of Economic Research
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force-vector "string" as if it was being unwound from the left
440:
The term is also used in the military to refer to the use of
343:
equipment replaced manual carrying or hand trucks and carts.
140:
in China in 31 AD. By the 13th century, water wheels powered
1819:
History of the British canal system
459:
refers to ground units that can fight from vehicles, while
737:); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (
1829:
List of United Kingdom-related topics
629:, Mechanical Engineering Community, retrieved 2018-04-17.
524:
powered tools, activated by work-piece (e.g.: coin phone)
407:, mill and factory power was usually transmitted using a
1753:
History of the cooperative Movement
729:. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (
990:"Energy input–output analysis in Turkish agriculture"
753:
751:
536:
automated machine action altered through measurement
530:
selected signaling control, e.g. hydro power control
350:, but trip hammers have been replaced by modern ore
198:
was first used, to pump water from a mine, in 1712.
1806:
1735:
1637:
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762:
Science and
Technology in the Industrial Revolution
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powered tools, multi-functioned, program controlled
206:started mainly with textile machinery, such as the
1112:
824:
759:
683:
720:, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press,
1844:Timeline of materials technology
1119:. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: MIT Press.
831:. Cambridge, Massachusetts, London: MIT Press.
56:
33:used for raising ore. This woodblock is from
1629:Stockton and Darlington Railway
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854:
852:
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848:
539:segregation/rejection according to measurement
1907:
1149:
1044:Combined work capability of human vs machines
914:Ayres, R. U.; Ayres, L. W.; Warr, B. (2002).
515:powered tools, single functioned, fixed cycle
178:designed and constructed the first mill with
8:
686:An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology
657:<Based on the works of Joseph Needham>
647:. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 55.
512:powered hand-tools, e.g. electric-controlled
1914:
1900:
1892:
1156:
1142:
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1111:Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991).
823:Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991).
92:, usually are considered machines. After
709:
707:
1463:John Kay (spinning frame)
1458:John Kay (flying shuttle)
1393:Thomas and George Cranege
309:
798:The World's Work: A History of Our Time
766:. University of Toronto Press. p.
639:Temple, Robert; Joseph Needham (1986).
585:
548:correcting performance during operation
246:the first bicycle was invented and used
1849:Timeline of steam power
660:
545:correcting performance after operation
330:base circle, and wound onto the right
1564:Abbeydale Industrial Hamlet
793:"The Passing Of The Man With The Hoe"
542:selection of appropriate action cycle
493:Energy and energy efficiency theories
7:
1874:
124:used wooden parts until around 1800.
21:Productivity-improving technologies
791:Rumeley, Edward A. (August 1910).
717:English and American Tool Builders
383:and an assortment of power tools.
14:
2061:History of electrical engineering
1378:Isambard Kingdom Brunel
1873:
1862:
1861:
1614:Portsmouth Block Mills
1339:
521:powered tools, remote-controlled
367:Construction equipment includes
2107:Secondary sector of the economy
1839:Timeline of invention
1814:History of technology
1677:Newcomen steam engine
1453:Joseph Marie Jacquard
422:A step beyond mechanization is
182:ca. 1650. In the 18th century
1934:History of technology cultures
1599:Derwent Valley Mills
1468:Francis Cabot Lowell
620:Mechanization & Automation
306:list of agricultural machinery
1:
2081:History of nuclear technology
2056:History of computing hardware
2034:History of technology domains
1056:"Mechanization and its level"
1017:10.1016/s0960-1481(03)00135-6
2066:History of materials science
714:Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916),
574:Newly industrialized country
1824:Industrial archaeology
1727:Watt steam engine
1413:Abraham Darby III
449:armoured personnel carriers
2143:
1692:Reverberatory furnace
1619:Quarry Bank Mill
1408:Abraham Darby II
1321:Economies of agglomeration
667:: CS1 maint: postscript (
490:
471:Mechanical vs human labour
433:
390:
295:
284:After 1900 factories were
100:and it is controlled by a
39:by George Bauer (pen name
18:
2029:
1929:
1857:
1403:Abraham Darby I
1337:
1176:
758:Musson; Robinson (1969).
599:. London: John W. Parker.
118:Salisbury Cathedral clock
2046:History of communication
2041:History of biotechnology
1717:Stephenson's Rocket
1533:Richard Trevithick
932:IC Engine 20% efficient
593:Willis, Robert (1861).
564:Bulk materials handling
498:Levels of mechanization
2112:Agricultural machinery
2071:History of measurement
1941:Prehistoric technology
1788:Rochdale Pioneers
1773:Industrial unrest
1579:Bridgewater Canal
1523:Robert Stephenson
1518:George Stephenson
1493:William Radcliffe
1448:Benjamin Huntsman
1423:William Fairbairn
1383:Edmund Cartwright
1358:Richard Arkwright
1261:Industry/Manufacturing
1102:Jerome, Harry (1934).
988:Ozkan, Burhan (2004).
887:. 1983. Archived from
861:Jerome, Harry (1934).
362:Bulk material handling
335:
298:Mechanized agriculture
250:Mechanized agriculture
125:
61:
44:
2016:Industrial Revolution
1923:History of technology
1758:Cottage industry
1443:Eaton Hodgkinson
1428:James Hargreaves
1363:Thomas Boulsover
690:. London: Routledge.
533:performance recording
313:
231:continuous production
204:Industrial Revolution
196:Newcomen steam engine
190:Industrial revolution
122:Industrial Revolution
115:
28:
2086:History of transport
2051:History of computing
1697:Sheffield plate
1498:Richard Roberts
1478:Thomas Newcomen
1398:Samuel Crompton
1368:Matthew Boulton
1326:Economies of density
682:McNeil, Ian (1990).
478:large diesel engines
2076:History of medicine
1707:Spinning jenny
1702:Spinning frame
1672:Flying shuttle
1662:Crucible steel
1543:John Wilkinson
1528:Thomas Telford
1373:James Brindley
1009:2004REne...29...39O
453:mechanized infantry
451:, to move troops (
2127:Industrial history
1798:Industrial warfare
1647:Blast furnace
1508:Samuel Slater
1503:Thomas Savery
1473:Lunar Society
1331:Economies of scale
1085:2011-08-15 at the
625:2019-04-17 at the
465:motorized infantry
336:
281:of glass bottles.
262:combine harvesters
258:threshing machines
256:and horse powered
180:epicycloidal teeth
126:
45:
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2093:
1889:
1888:
1763:Factory Acts
1748:Child labour
1712:Steam engine
1624:Soho Foundry
1513:John Smeaton
1438:Thomas Highs
1433:Hawks family
1080:basic-to-advanced
743:978-0-917914-73-7
569:Industrialisation
506:hand/muscle power
463:refers to units (
445:armoured vehicles
387:Powered machinery
341:material handling
272:Twentieth century
41:Georgius Agricola
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2117:Armoured warfare
2011:Great Divergence
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1722:Water frame
1657:Cotton mill
1483:Robert Owen
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1291:Steam power
1246:Coal mining
1224:Potential future
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997:Renewable Energy
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434:Main article:
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430:Military usage
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381:cherry pickers
377:concrete pumps
320:Line of Action
316:involute gears
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208:spinning jenny
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184:involute gears
138:blast furnaces
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1026:on 2022-05-25
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805:: 13246–13258
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227:paper machine
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162:machine tools
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129:Ancient times
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52:mechanisation
49:
48:Mechanization
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22:
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1793:Urbanization
1222:
1215:
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1201:
1194:
1187:
1180:
1114:
1103:
1075:
1064:. Retrieved
1060:the original
1050:
1039:
1028:. Retrieved
1021:the original
1000:
996:
983:
974:
963:
952:. Retrieved
948:the original
938:
927:
909:
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889:the original
876:
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826:
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807:. Retrieved
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366:
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348:trip hammers
345:
337:
334:base circle.
331:
327:
323:
283:
275:
266:
248:in Germany.
240:invented by
235:
222:
216:
200:John Smeaton
193:
173:
168:
166:
156:
149:
146:trip hammers
134:Water wheels
132:
62:
57:
51:
47:
46:
34:
2001:Renaissance
1783:Proletariat
1743:Bourgeoisie
527:measurement
286:electrified
242:Jethro Tull
223:self acting
212:water frame
210:(1764) and
102:closed loop
80:and belts,
2101:Categories
1640:technology
1638:Invention/
1604:Ironbridge
1301:Technology
1281:Metallurgy
1171:revolution
1165:Industrial
1066:2010-05-13
1030:2018-04-20
954:2011-03-22
809:2009-07-10
580:References
509:hand-tools
491:See also:
457:mechanized
424:automation
413:unit drive
409:line shaft
391:See also:
356:ball mills
324:stationary
296:See also:
292:Categories
238:seed drill
98:automation
31:mine hoist
2122:Machinery
1986:Byzantine
1946:Neolithic
1807:Reference
1574:Bethlehem
1569:Allentown
1316:Workforce
1286:Sociology
1276:Machinery
1266:Invention
1003:(1): 39.
921:(Report).
663:cite book
610:workshop.
461:motorized
176:Desargues
65:machinery
1868:Category
1594:Cromford
1584:Broseley
1306:Textiles
1083:Archived
735:27-24075
726:16011753
623:Archived
553:See also
352:crushers
332:rotating
328:rotating
214:(1768).
154:(1555).
142:sawmills
2006:Ottoman
1976:Chinese
1880:Commons
1778:Luddite
1687:Railway
1667:Factory
1349:People/
1005:Bibcode
442:tracked
403:Before
254:reapers
108:History
78:sheaves
74:pulleys
2021:Modern
1981:Indian
1557:Places
1351:groups
1256:Cotton
1234:Themes
1210:Fourth
1196:Second
1123:
835:
774:
741:
733:
724:
694:
651:
369:cranes
304:, and
158:Clocks
90:cranks
82:shafts
1971:Roman
1956:Mayan
1652:Canal
1296:Steel
1217:Fifth
1203:Third
1189:First
1182:Proto
1024:(PDF)
993:(PDF)
919:(PDF)
892:(PDF)
885:(PDF)
868:(PDF)
70:gears
1961:Inca
1271:Iron
1251:Coke
1241:Coal
1167:and
1121:ISBN
833:ISBN
772:ISBN
739:ISBN
731:LCCN
722:LCCN
692:ISBN
669:link
649:ISBN
354:and
314:Two
229:for
194:The
144:and
116:The
88:and
86:cams
50:(or
1013:doi
76:or
2103::
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1001:29
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661:{{
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1033:.
1015::
1007::
957:.
870:.
841:.
812:.
780:.
700:.
671:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
