1103:(STM). An atomic force microscope has a fine probe, usually of silicon or silicon nitride, attached to a cantilever; the probe is scanned over the surface of the sample, and the forces that cause an interaction between the probe and the surface of the sample are measured and mapped. A near-field scanning optical microscope is similar to an AFM but its probe consists of a light source in an optical fiber covered with a tip that has usually an aperture for the light to pass through. The microscope can capture either transmitted or reflected light to measure very localized optical properties of the surface, commonly of a biological specimen. Scanning tunneling microscopes have a metal tip with a single apical atom; the tip is attached to a tube through which a current flows. The tip is scanned over the surface of a conductive sample until a tunneling current flows; the current is kept constant by computer movement of the tip and an image is formed by the recorded movements of the tip.
1076:. This requires careful sample preparation, since electrons are scattered strongly by most materials. The samples must also be very thin (below 100 nm) in order for the electrons to pass through it. Cross-sections of cells stained with osmium and heavy metals reveal clear organelle membranes and proteins such as ribosomes. With a 0.1 nm level of resolution, detailed views of viruses (20 – 300 nm) and a strand of DNA (2 nm in width) can be obtained. In contrast, the SEM has raster coils to scan the surface of bulk objects with a fine electron beam. Therefore, the specimen do not necessarily need to be sectioned, but coating with a nanometric metal or carbon layer may be needed for nonconductive samples. SEM allows fast surface imaging of samples, possibly in thin water vapor to prevent drying.
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809:(electron microscopes) or a probe (scanning probe microscopes). Alternatively, microscopes can be classified based on whether they analyze the sample via a scanning point (confocal optical microscopes, scanning electron microscopes and scanning probe microscopes) or analyze the sample all at once (wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes).
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471:, which is central to achieving the theoretical limits of resolution for the light microscope. This method of sample illumination produces even lighting and overcomes the limited contrast and resolution imposed by early techniques of sample illumination. Further developments in sample illumination came from the discovery of
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is a recent optical technique that increases the sensitivity of a standard optical microscope to a point where it is possible to directly visualize nanometric films (down to 0.3 nanometre) and isolated nano-objects (down to 2 nm-diameter). The technique is based on the use of non-reflecting
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Scanning optical and electron microscopes, like the confocal microscope and scanning electron microscope, use lenses to focus a spot of light or electrons onto the sample then analyze the signals generated by the beam interacting with the sample. The point is then scanned over the sample to analyze a
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One of the latest discoveries made about using an electron microscope is the ability to identify a virus. Since this microscope produces a visible, clear image of small organelles, in an electron microscope there is no need for reagents to see the virus or harmful cells, resulting in a more efficient
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lens system to focus light on the specimen and the objective lens to capture the light from the specimen and form an image. Early instruments were limited until this principle was fully appreciated and developed from the late 19th to very early 20th century, and until electric lamps were available as
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from quantum tunnelling theory, that read very small forces exchanged between a probe and the surface of a sample. The probe approaches the surface so closely that electrons can flow continuously between probe and sample, making a current from surface to probe. The microscope was not initially well
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The different types of scanning probe microscopes arise from the many different types of interactions that occur when a small probe is scanned over and interacts with a specimen. These interactions or modes can be recorded or mapped as function of location on the surface to form a characterization
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Scanning probe microscopes also analyze a single point in the sample and then scan the probe over a rectangular sample region to build up an image. As these microscopes do not use electromagnetic or electron radiation for imaging they are not subject to the same resolution limit as the optical and
753:
are approaching the resolution of electron microscopes. This occurs because the diffraction limit is occurred from light or excitation, which makes the resolution must be doubled to become super saturated. Stefan Hell was awarded the 2014 Nobel Prize in
Chemistry for the development of the STED
768:
X-ray microscopes are instruments that use electromagnetic radiation usually in the soft X-ray band to image objects. Technological advances in X-ray lens optics in the early 1970s made the instrument a viable imaging choice. They are often used in tomography (see
357:(also sometimes cited as compound microscope inventor) seems to have found after 1610 that he could close focus his telescope to view small objects and, after seeing a compound microscope built by Drebbel exhibited in Rome in 1624, built his own improved version.
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rectangular region. Magnification of the image is achieved by displaying the data from scanning a physically small sample area on a relatively large screen. These microscopes have the same resolution limit as wide field optical, probe, and electron microscopes.
533:(TEM). The transmission electron microscope works on similar principles to an optical microscope but uses electrons in the place of light and electromagnets in the place of glass lenses. Use of electrons, instead of light, allows for much higher resolution.
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in principle, they are used for such jobs as detecting defects in the subsurfaces of materials including those found in integrated circuits. On
February 4, 2013, Australian engineers built a "quantum microscope" which provides unparalleled precision.
1880:
Aspden, Reuben S.; Gemmell, Nathan R.; Morris, Peter A.; Tasca, Daniel S.; Mertens, Lena; Tanner, Michael G.; Kirkwood, Robert A.; Ruggeri, Alessandro; Tosi, Alberto; Boyd, Robert W.; Buller, Gerald S.; Hadfield, Robert H.; Padgett, Miles J. (2015).
555:, developed the first commercial transmission electron microscope and, in the 1950s, major scientific conferences on electron microscopy started being held. In 1965, the first commercial scanning electron microscope was developed by Professor Sir
622:
began publishing articles that tied theory to the experimental results obtained by the instrument. This was closely followed in 1985 with functioning commercial instruments, and in 1986 with Gerd Binnig, Quate, and Gerber's invention of the
901:), to focus light on the eye or on to another light detector. Mirror-based optical microscopes operate in the same manner. Typical magnification of a light microscope, assuming visible range light, is up to 1,250× with a theoretical
385:, 1637) describes microscopes wherein a concave mirror, with its concavity towards the object, is used, in conjunction with a lens, for illuminating the object, which is mounted on a point fixing it at the focus of the mirror.
773:) to produce three dimensional images of objects, including biological materials that have not been chemically fixed. Currently research is being done to improve optics for hard X-rays which have greater penetrating power.
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to photon-sparse microscopy, the sample is illuminated with infrared photons, each of which is spatially correlated with an entangled partner in the visible band for efficient imaging by a photon-counting camera.
217:
There are many types of microscopes, and they may be grouped in different ways. One way is to describe the method an instrument uses to interact with a sample and produce images, either by sending a beam of
434:
had a huge impact, largely because of its impressive illustrations. Hooke created tiny lenses of small glass globules made by fusing the ends of threads of spun glass. A significant contribution came from
1072:(SEMs). They both have series of electromagnetic and electrostatic lenses to focus a high energy beam of electrons on a sample. In a TEM the electrons pass through the sample, analogous to
416:
The microscope was still largely a novelty until the 1660s and 1670s when naturalists in Italy, the
Netherlands and England began using them to study biology. Italian scientist
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330:, appeared in Europe around 1620. The inventor is unknown, even though many claims have been made over the years. Several revolve around the spectacle-making centers in the
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accounts of the optical properties of water-filled spheres (5th century BC) followed by many centuries of writings on optics, the earliest known use of simple microscopes (
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limited. The use of shorter wavelengths of light, such as ultraviolet, is one way to improve the spatial resolution of the optical microscope, as are devices such as the
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from a sample, or by scanning across and a short distance from the surface of a sample using a probe. The most common microscope (and the first to be invented) is the
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between the holes in two metal plates riveted together, and with an adjustable-by-screws needle attached to mount the specimen. Then, Van
Leeuwenhoek re-discovered
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455:, and helped popularise the use of microscopes to view biological ultrastructure. On 9 October 1676, van Leeuwenhoek reported the discovery of micro-organisms.
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structures were developed. The main groups of techniques involve targeted chemical staining of particular cell structures, for example, the chemical compound
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Microscopes can be separated into several different classes. One grouping is based on what interacts with the sample to generate the image, i.e.,
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544:. Although TEMs were being used for research before WWII, and became popular afterwards, the SEM was not commercially available until 1965.
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light can be used to visualize circuitry embedded in bonded silicon devices, since silicon is transparent in this region of wavelengths.
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New types of scanning probe microscope have continued to be developed as the ability to machine ultra-fine probes and tips has advanced.
338:(claim made by his son) or Zacharias' father, Hans Martens, or both, claims it was invented by their neighbor and rival spectacle maker,
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696:. These techniques use these different fluorophores for analysis of cell structure at a molecular level in both live and fixed samples.
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Evolution of spatial resolution achieved with optical, transmission (TEM) and aberration-corrected electron microscopes (ACTEM)
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technique, along with Eric Betzig and
William Moerner who adapted fluorescence microscopy for single-molecule visualization.
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In the early 20th century a significant alternative to the light microscope was developed, an instrument that uses a beam of
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J. William
Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, page 391
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Digital microscopy with very low light levels to avoid damage to vulnerable biological samples is available using sensitive
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William
Rosenthal, Spectacles and Other Vision Aids: A History and Guide to Collecting, Norman Publishing, 1996, pp. 391–92
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Atti Della
Fondazione Giorgio Ronchi E Contributi Dell'Istituto Nazionale Di Ottica, Volume 30, La Fondazione-1975, p. 554
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light enables the resolution of microscopic features as well as the imaging of samples that are transparent to the eye.
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by some historians of biology, began his analysis of biological structures with the lungs. The publication in 1665 of
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who achieved up to 300 times magnification using a simple single lens microscope. He sandwiched a very small glass
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Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold; Zipursky, S. Lawrence; Matsudaira, Paul; Baltimore, David; Darnell, James (2000).
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Much current research (in the early 21st century) on optical microscope techniques is focused on development of
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Help add sources such as review articles, monographs, or textbooks. Please also establish the relevance for any
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Development of the transmission electron microscope was quickly followed in 1935 by the development of the
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of organic tissue based on the use of a microscope did not appear until 1644, in
Giambattista Odierna's
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Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter (2002).
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many wavelengths of light ranging from the ultraviolet to the visible can be used to cause samples to
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Fluorescence microscope with the filter cube turret above the objective lenses, coupled with a camera
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of the radiation used to image the sample, where shorter wavelengths allow for a higher resolution.
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Wide field optical microscopes and transmission electron microscopes both use the theory of lenses (
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The rise of fluorescence microscopy drove the development of a major modern microscope design, the
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Raymond J. Seeger, Men of
Physics: Galileo Galilei, His Life and His Works, Elsevier – 2016, p. 24
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when the flashlight is activated. However, mobile app microscopes are harder to use due to visual
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Unstained cells viewed by typical brightfield (left) compared to phase-contrast microscopy (right)
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is used to obtain an image, which is then displayed on a computer monitor. These sensors may use
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by Henry C. King, Harold Spencer Jones Publisher Courier Dover Publications, 2003, pp. 25–27
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lenses for electron microscopes) in order to magnify the image generated by the passage of a
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The performance of a compound light microscope depends on the quality and correct use of the
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may minimize the risk of damage to the most light-sensitive samples. In this application of
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producing an enlarged image of a sample placed in the focal plane. Optical microscopes have
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in the 13th century. The earliest known examples of compound microscopes, which combine an
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This article is about microscopes, the instruments, in general. For light microscopes, see
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Knoll, Max (1935). "Aufladepotentiel und Sekundäremission elektronenbestrahlter Körper".
2015:
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received due to the complex nature of the underlying theoretical explanations. In 1984
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technology limited practical application of the technique. It was not until 1978 when
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Gould, Stephen Jay (2000). "Chapter 2: The Sharp-Eyed Lynx, Outfoxed by Nature".
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digital cameras. It has been demonstrated that a light source providing pairs of
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913:. This limits practical magnification to ~1,500×. Specialized techniques (e.g.,
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sample to produce an observable image. Other major types of microscopes are the
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transmitted through the sample, or reflected by the sample. The waves used are
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The most recent developments in light microscope largely centre on the rise of
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1883:"Photon-sparse microscopy: visible light imaging using infrared illumination"
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to view the slide. This microscope technique made it possible to study the
602:
17:
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Pennycook, S.J.; Varela, M.; Hetherington, C.J.D.; Kirkland, A.I. (2011).
1054:
Transmission electron micrograph of a dividing cell undergoing cytokinesis
73:
cited. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed.
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The Lying Stones of Marrakech: Penultimate Reflections in Natural History
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1002:. In addition to, or instead of, directly viewing the object through the
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323:
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1518:. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 392.
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use sound waves to measure variations in acoustic impedance. Similar to
668:. During the last decades of the 20th century, particularly in the post-
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in 1955; both of which allow imaging of unstained, transparent samples.
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uoregon.edu, Galileo Galilei (Excerpt from the Encyclopedia Britannica)
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in the light passing through a transparent specimen are converted into
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can improve resolution by around two to four times and techniques like
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Although objects resembling lenses date back 4,000 years and there are
243:
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1858:
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The traditional optical microscope has more recently evolved into the
785:
Types of microscopes illustrated by the principles of their beam paths
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2099:
1840:"Materials Advances through Aberration-Corrected Electron Microscopy"
957:, which allows viewing by eye or with specifically sensitive cameras.
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1940:(3rd rev. & extended ed.). Berlin: Springer. p. 620.
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map. The three most common types of scanning probe microscopes are
878:
The most common type of microscope (and the first invented) is the
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of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope.
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changes in the image. The use of phase contrast does not require
627:, then Binnig's and Rohrer's Nobel Prize in Physics for the SPM.
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and the technique rapidly gained popularity through the 1980s.
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and his postgraduate student Gary Stewart, and marketed by the
547:
Transmission electron microscopes became popular following the
529:, developed the first prototype electron microscope in 1931, a
214:
means being invisible to the eye unless aided by a microscope.
1559:"Early Microscopes Revealed a New World of Tiny Living Things"
1230:
Bardell, David (May 2004). "The Invention of the Microscope".
685:
598:
42:
2030:
1601:"Modern Uses of Electron Microscopy for Detection of Viruses"
1408:
Reading the Book of Nature in the Dutch Golden Age, 1575-1715
1146:, are often limited to 40x, and the resolution limits of the
688:, use of antibodies conjugated to fluorescent reporters, see
198:
used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the
2137:
1099:(NSOM or SNOM, scanning near-field optical microscopy), and
1752:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2014 – Scientific Background"
936:
substrates for cross-polarized reflected light microscopy.
618:
and D.R. Hamann, while at AT&T's Bell Laboratories in
1660:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
2881:
Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRF)
1310:
Fundamentals of light microscopy and electronic imaging
1244:
10.1893/0005-3155(2004)75<78:tiotm>2.0.co;2
921:) may exceed this magnification but the resolution is
1734:"Looking at the Structure of Cells in the Microscope"
1599:
Goldsmith, Cynthia S.; Miller, Sara E. (2009-10-01).
1110:
Leaf surface viewed by a scanning electron microscope
365:
for the compound microscope Galileo submitted to the
353:, who was noted to have a version in London in 1619.
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Photo-activated localization microscopy (PALM/STORM)
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Albert Van Helden; Sven Dupré; Rob van Gent (2010).
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609:phenomenon. They created a practical instrument, a
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1534:Bad medicine: doctors doing harm since Hippocrates
1471:
1356:. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 32–36, 43.
467:developed a key principle of sample illumination,
1536:. Oxford : Oxford University Press. p. 110.
1308:Murphy, Douglas B.; Davidson, Michael W. (2011).
1064:The two major types of electron microscopes are
1018:(CCD) technology, depending on the application.
314:) dates back to the widespread use of lenses in
1815:Modern developments in X-ray and neutron optics
751:stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy
346:patent in 1608), and claims it was invented by
1006:, a type of sensor similar to those used in a
397:Carl Zeiss binocular compound microscope, 1914
334:, including claims it was invented in 1590 by
2982:
2822:Interference reflection microscopy (IRM/RICM)
2713:
2357:
2060:
1161:Fluorescence interference contrast microscopy
366:
194: 'to look (at); examine, inspect') is a
8:
2038:Exploring the World of Optics and Microscopy
745:analysis of fluorescently labelled samples.
737:Microscopy § Sub-diffraction techniques
521:to generate an image. The German physicist,
103:
3942:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instrument
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1738:Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th Edition
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1495:
1312:(2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
1209:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience. 2008.
1207:Characterization and Analysis of Polymers
89:Learn how and when to remove this message
4307:Instruments used in medical laboratories
2792:Differential interference contrast (DIC)
1961:Sakurai, T.; Watanabe, Y., eds. (2000).
1303:
1301:
788:
703:. The principle was patented in 1957 by
3823:Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) device
2031:Nikon MicroscopyU, tutorials from Nikon
1987:"Quantum Microscope for Living Biology"
1808:
1806:
1198:
1097:near-field scanning optical microscopes
1041:Modern transmission electron microscope
844:in these microscopes is limited by the
3871:Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
2787:Quantitative phase-contrast microscopy
2616:Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry
2142:Typical atomic force microscopy set-up
1138:microscopes can optionally be used as
975:illumination technique in which small
927:near-field scanning optical microscope
856:electron microscopes described above.
102:
2404:High-performance liquid chromatograph
1963:Advances in scanning probe microscopy
1727:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1695:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1687:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1677:
672:era, many techniques for fluorescent
7:
2949:
2914:Stimulated emission depletion (STED)
2656:
1658:Roadmap of Scanning Probe Microscopy
692:, and fluorescent proteins, such as
2680:
1938:Springer handbook of nanotechnology
1787:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2014"
1706:Molecular Cell Biology. 4th Edition
525:, working with electrical engineer
505:Electron microscope constructed by
373:in 1625 (Galileo had called it the
3866:Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
1702:"Microscopy and Cell Architecture"
721:confocal laser scanning microscope
481:differential interference contrast
401:The first detailed account of the
295:18th-century microscopes from the
25:
2886:Lightsheet microscopy (LSFM/SPIM)
1582:Zeitschrift für Technische Physik
1066:transmission electron microscopes
287:Optical microscope § History
283:Timeline of microscope technology
3911:Thermogravimetric analyzer (TGA)
3721:Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
2948:
2937:
2936:
2835:
2679:
2667:
2655:
2644:
2643:
531:transmission electron microscope
389:Rise of modern light microscopes
263:transmission electron microscope
47:
2249:Scanning quantum dot microscopy
897:glass (occasionally plastic or
2891:Lattice light-sheet microscopy
2802:Second harmonic imaging (SHIM)
2389:Atomic absorption spectrometer
2204:Photothermal microspectroscopy
2016:Milestones in Light Microscopy
1378:"Who Invented the Microscope?"
1101:scanning tunneling microscopes
719:developed the first practical
1:
2036:Molecular Expressions :
1936:Bhushan, Bharat, ed. (2010).
1605:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
1166:Laser capture microdissection
1120:Scanning acoustic microscopes
1070:scanning electron microscopes
585:First atomic force microscope
64:secondary or tertiary sources
1353:The Origins of the Telescope
1273:The history of the telescope
915:scanning confocal microscopy
727:Super resolution microscopes
561:Cambridge Instrument Company
538:scanning electron microscope
267:scanning electron microscope
2394:Flame emission spectrometer
2187:Near-field scanning optical
2157:Ballistic electron emission
2040:, Florida State University.
1557:Liz Logan (27 April 2016).
1333:Sir Norman Lockyer (1876).
1186:Royal Microscopical Society
1181:Multifocal plane microscopy
1171:Microscope image processing
733:Super-resolution microscopy
605:, Switzerland to study the
342:(who applied for the first
36:Microscope (disambiguation)
4357:
2285:Scanning probe lithography
2025:FAQ on Optical Microscopes
1405:Eric Jorink (2010-10-25).
1083:
1057:
863:
816:for light microscopes and
761:
730:
637:
574:
571:Scanning probe microscopes
551:. Ernst Ruska, working at
494:
322:near the specimen with an
280:
271:scanning probe microscopes
180:
177: 'small' and
163:
29:
4304:
4172:
4155:
4144:
4066:Time-domain reflectometer
3976:
3963:
3833:Liquid chromatograph (LC)
3796:
3783:
3456:
3443:
3015:
3004:
2932:
2833:
2735:
2639:
2470:Ion mobility spectrometry
2460:Electroanalytical methods
2295:Feature-oriented scanning
2259:Scanning SQUID microscopy
2254:Scanning SQUID microscope
2135:
2076:Scanning probe microscopy
1086:Scanning probe microscopy
969:Phase-contrast microscopy
771:micro-computed tomography
694:green fluorescent protein
611:scanning probe microscope
577:scanning probe microscope
567:way to detect pathogens.
367:
297:Musée des Arts et Métiers
108:
71:primary research articles
2239:Scanning joule expansion
2234:Scanning ion-conductance
2219:Scanning electrochemical
2182:Magnetic resonance force
1093:atomic force microscopes
1074:basic optical microscopy
634:Fluorescence microscopes
226:through a sample in its
121:Small sample observation
56:This scientific article
3901:Melting-point apparatus
3282:Cryogenic storage dewar
2852:Fluorescence microscopy
2812:Structured illumination
2767:Bright-field microscopy
2630:Analytical Biochemistry
2419:Melting point apparatus
2290:Dip-pen nanolithography
2027:(archived 4 April 2009)
1911:10.1364/OPTICA.2.001049
1532:Wootton, David (2006).
1515:Encyclopædia Britannica
951:fluorescence microscopy
889:containing one or more
805:(optical microscopes),
747:Structured illumination
662:fluorescence microscopy
640:fluorescence microscope
625:atomic force microscope
620:Murray Hill, New Jersey
463:light sources. In 1893
437:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
420:, called the father of
269:) and various types of
255:fluorescence microscope
4341:Scientific instruments
4326:Microbiology equipment
3838:Mass spectrometer (MS)
3828:Gas chromatograph (GC)
2924:Near-field (NSOM/SNOM)
2862:Multiphoton microscopy
2609:Analytica Chimica Acta
2143:
1656:Morita, Seizo (2007).
1111:
1055:
1042:
965:
794:
786:
657:
586:
510:
398:
303:
249:that passed through a
34:. For other uses, see
4213:Acid-resistant gloves
3894:differential scanning
2777:Dark-field microscopy
2501:Coning and quartering
2409:Infrared spectrometer
2244:Scanning Kelvin probe
2141:
1502:Henker, Otto (1911).
1478:. New York: Harmony.
1109:
1053:
1040:
1016:charge-coupled device
963:
905:of around 0.250
792:
784:
655:
584:
563:as the "Stereoscan".
504:
396:
294:
281:Further information:
196:laboratory instrument
27:Scientific instrument
3790:Analytical chemistry
3292:Laminar flow cabinet
2998:Laboratory equipment
2845:Fluorescence methods
2623:Analytical Chemistry
2465:Gravimetric analysis
2429:Optical spectrometer
2373:Analytical chemistry
2331:Vibrational analysis
2214:Scanning capacitance
1965:. Berlin: Springer.
1817:. Berlin: Springer.
1617:10.1128/cmr.00027-09
838:electron microscopes
491:Electron microscopes
407:L'occhio della mosca
369:Accademia dei Lincei
4162:Personal protective
3071:Meker–Fisher burner
2876:Image deconvolution
2857:Confocal microscopy
2797:Dispersion staining
2772:Köhler illumination
2229:Scanning Hall probe
2209:Piezoresponse force
2167:Electrostatic force
1902:2015Optic...2.1049A
1386:. 14 September 2013
1060:Electron microscope
1046:Electron microscope
973:optical microscopic
830:optical microscopes
701:confocal microscope
648:confocal microscope
497:electron microscope
469:Köhler illumination
403:microscopic anatomy
259:electron microscope
145:electron microscope
126:Notable experiments
105:
4005:Function generator
3988:Bench power supply
3927:Analytical balance
3688:Ostwald viscometer
3683:Graduated cylinder
3422:Inoculation needle
2748:Optical microscopy
2729:Optical microscopy
2536:Separation process
2531:Sample preparation
2172:Kelvin probe force
2144:
2117:Scanning tunneling
1791:www.nobelprize.org
1759:www.nobelprize.org
1505:"Microscope"
1140:optical microscope
1112:
1056:
1043:
1000:digital microscope
966:
880:optical microscope
870:Digital microscope
866:Optical microscope
860:Optical microscope
795:
787:
690:immunofluorescence
658:
644:immunofluorescence
607:quantum tunnelling
589:From 1981 to 1983
587:
511:
399:
312:magnifying glasses
304:
236:optical microscope
141:Optical microscope
32:Optical microscope
4313:
4312:
4300:
4299:
4296:
4295:
4273:Fire extinguisher
4263:Biosafety cabinet
4251:
4250:
4140:
4139:
4136:
4135:
4071:Transistor tester
4061:Spectrum analyzer
3959:
3958:
3955:
3954:
3779:
3778:
3775:
3774:
3651:Measuring devices
3473:Soxhlet extractor
3439:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3387:Spectrophotometer
3382:Pipeclay triangle
3134:Mortar and pestle
2964:
2963:
2909:Diffraction limit
2695:
2694:
2577:Standard addition
2572:Internal standard
2562:Calibration curve
2475:Mass spectrometry
2434:Spectrophotometer
2414:Mass spectrometer
2399:Gas chromatograph
2339:
2338:
2020:Nature Publishing
1993:. 4 February 2013
1972:978-3-642-56949-4
1947:978-3-642-02525-9
1859:10.1557/mrs2006.4
1824:978-3-540-74561-7
1813:Erko, A. (2008).
1667:978-3-540-34315-8
1561:. Smithsonian.com
1543:978-0-19-280355-9
1485:978-0-224-05044-9
1418:978-90-04-18671-2
1363:978-90-6984-615-6
1319:978-0-471-69214-0
1285:978-0-486-43265-6
1216:978-0-470-23300-9
1027:entangled photons
758:X-ray microscopes
418:Marcello Malpighi
336:Zacharias Janssen
150:
149:
99:
98:
91:
58:needs additional
16:(Redirected from
4348:
4170:
4157:
4146:
4051:Network analyzer
3978:
3965:
3798:
3785:
3458:
3445:
3427:Inoculation loop
3297:Microtiter plate
3237:Test tube holder
3129:Magnetic stirrer
3017:
3006:
2991:
2984:
2977:
2968:
2952:
2951:
2940:
2939:
2902:limit techniques
2839:
2760:contrast methods
2758:Illumination and
2722:
2715:
2708:
2699:
2683:
2682:
2671:
2659:
2658:
2647:
2646:
2582:Isotope dilution
2366:
2359:
2352:
2343:
2300:Millipede memory
2269:Scanning voltage
2264:Scanning thermal
2069:
2062:
2055:
2046:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1983:
1977:
1976:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1933:
1924:
1923:
1913:
1887:
1877:
1871:
1870:
1844:
1835:
1829:
1828:
1810:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1797:
1783:
1777:
1776:
1774:
1773:
1767:
1761:. Archived from
1756:
1748:
1742:
1741:
1729:
1710:
1709:
1697:
1672:
1671:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1636:
1596:
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1568:
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1554:
1548:
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1529:
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1519:
1507:
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1489:
1477:
1467:
1461:
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1450:
1447:
1441:
1438:
1432:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1393:
1391:
1374:
1368:
1367:
1347:
1341:
1340:
1336:Nature Volume 14
1330:
1324:
1323:
1305:
1296:
1293:
1287:
1270:
1264:
1263:
1227:
1221:
1220:
1203:
1176:Microscope slide
903:resolution limit
764:X-ray microscope
717:Christoph Cremer
549:Second World War
485:Georges Nomarski
483:illumination by
372:
371:
361:coined the name
351:Cornelis Drebbel
251:thinly sectioned
232:photon emissions
191:
184:
174:
167:
113:
106:
94:
87:
83:
80:
74:
51:
50:
43:
21:
4356:
4355:
4351:
4350:
4349:
4347:
4346:
4345:
4316:
4315:
4314:
4309:
4292:
4288:Solvent cabinet
4247:
4218:Eyewash station
4201:
4166:
4164:equipment (PPE)
4163:
4151:
4132:
4111:
4080:
4024:
4015:Pulse generator
3981:Control devices
3972:
3951:
3915:
3881:Thermochemistry
3875:
3852:
3792:
3771:
3740:
3697:
3663:Conical measure
3646:
3615:
3552:
3521:
3498:
3482:
3452:
3431:
3412:Test tube brush
3322:
3307:Picotiter plate
3270:
3256:
3252:Lab drying rack
3211:Extension clamp
3187:
3168:
3107:
3093:
3029:
3011:
3000:
2995:
2965:
2960:
2928:
2901:
2900:Sub-diffraction
2895:
2840:
2831:
2759:
2753:
2731:
2726:
2696:
2691:
2635:
2586:
2545:
2489:
2438:
2381:Instrumentation
2375:
2370:
2340:
2335:
2304:
2273:
2199:Photon scanning
2145:
2133:
2122:Electrochemical
2110:Photoconductive
2078:
2073:
2012:
2007:
2006:
1996:
1994:
1985:
1984:
1980:
1973:
1960:
1959:
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1948:
1935:
1934:
1927:
1885:
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1842:
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1812:
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1804:
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1780:
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1731:
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1713:
1699:
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1579:
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1555:
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1523:
1501:
1500:
1493:
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1435:
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1403:
1399:
1389:
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1371:
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1332:
1331:
1327:
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1307:
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1299:
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1290:
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1229:
1228:
1224:
1217:
1205:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1156:
1133:
1117:
1088:
1082:
1062:
1048:
1023:photon-counting
995:in live cells.
876:
864:Main articles:
862:
826:electromagnetic
779:
766:
760:
743:superresolution
739:
731:Main articles:
729:
650:
636:
595:Heinrich Rohrer
579:
573:
499:
493:
445:red blood cells
391:
377:'little eye').
355:Galileo Galilei
340:Hans Lippershey
289:
279:
230:, by detecting
95:
84:
78:
75:
68:
52:
48:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4354:
4352:
4344:
4343:
4338:
4333:
4328:
4318:
4317:
4311:
4310:
4305:
4302:
4301:
4298:
4297:
4294:
4293:
4291:
4290:
4285:
4283:Safety cabinet
4280:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4259:
4257:
4253:
4252:
4249:
4248:
4246:
4245:
4243:Safety goggles
4240:
4238:Safety glasses
4235:
4233:Nitrile gloves
4230:
4228:Medical gloves
4225:
4220:
4215:
4209:
4207:
4203:
4202:
4200:
4199:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4179:
4173:
4167:
4160:
4153:
4152:
4149:
4142:
4141:
4138:
4137:
4134:
4133:
4131:
4130:
4125:
4123:Alligator clip
4119:
4117:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4109:
4104:
4099:
4097:Soldering iron
4094:
4088:
4086:
4082:
4081:
4079:
4078:
4073:
4068:
4063:
4058:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4041:Logic analyzer
4038:
4032:
4030:
4026:
4025:
4023:
4022:
4017:
4012:
4007:
4002:
4001:
4000:
3998:Voltage source
3995:
3993:Current source
3984:
3982:
3974:
3973:
3968:
3961:
3960:
3957:
3956:
3953:
3952:
3950:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3932:Colony counter
3929:
3923:
3921:
3917:
3916:
3914:
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3897:
3896:
3885:
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3876:
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3873:
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3854:
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3815:
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3804:
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3690:
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3670:
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3660:
3654:
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3645:
3644:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3623:
3621:
3617:
3616:
3614:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3571:Vacuum (Dewar)
3568:
3562:
3560:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3550:
3545:
3540:
3535:
3529:
3527:
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3404:
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3330:
3328:
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3321:
3320:
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3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
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3279:
3273:
3271:
3269:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3258:
3257:
3255:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3242:Test tube rack
3239:
3234:
3231:
3226:
3223:
3218:
3217:Funnel support
3215:
3212:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3190:
3188:
3186:
3185:
3182:
3177:
3173:
3170:
3169:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3124:Liquid whistle
3121:
3116:
3110:
3108:
3106:
3105:
3102:
3098:
3095:
3094:
3092:
3091:
3089:Vacuum dry box
3086:
3081:
3076:
3073:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3051:Heating mantle
3048:
3043:
3038:
3036:Alcohol burner
3032:
3030:
3028:
3027:
3024:
3020:
3013:
3012:
3009:
3002:
3001:
2996:
2994:
2993:
2986:
2979:
2971:
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2897:
2896:
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2883:
2878:
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2859:
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2848:
2846:
2842:
2841:
2834:
2832:
2830:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2807:4Pi microscope
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2782:Phase contrast
2779:
2774:
2769:
2763:
2761:
2755:
2754:
2752:
2751:
2744:
2736:
2733:
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2727:
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2665:
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2640:
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2634:
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2605:
2597:
2595:
2588:
2587:
2585:
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2177:Magnetic force
2174:
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2162:Chemical force
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1611:(4): 552–563.
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1084:Main article:
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1080:Scanning probe
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1058:Main article:
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1008:digital camera
874:USB microscope
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762:Main article:
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557:Charles Oatley
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3343:Balance brush
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2526:Pulverization
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2224:Scanning gate
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1991:Science Daily
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1768:on 2018-03-20
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1281:0-486-43265-3
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1031:ghost imaging
1028:
1024:
1019:
1017:
1013:
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1005:
1001:
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994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
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952:
947:
945:
944:Near infrared
941:
937:
934:
930:
928:
924:
920:
916:
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904:
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896:
892:
888:
885:
882:. This is an
881:
875:
871:
867:
859:
857:
853:
849:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
818:electromagnet
815:
810:
808:
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791:
783:
776:
774:
772:
765:
757:
755:
752:
748:
744:
738:
734:
726:
724:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
705:Marvin Minsky
702:
697:
695:
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687:
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679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
654:
649:
645:
641:
633:
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621:
617:
616:Jerry Tersoff
612:
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583:
578:
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498:
490:
488:
486:
482:
479:in 1953, and
478:
477:Frits Zernike
474:
470:
466:
465:August Köhler
461:
456:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
433:
432:
427:
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411:The Fly's Eye
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247:visible light
245:
241:
238:, which uses
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215:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
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183:
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159:
158:Ancient Greek
155:
146:
142:
139:
137:Related items
135:
132:
129:Discovery of
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
107:
101:
93:
90:
82:
72:
66:
65:
61:
54:
45:
44:
41:
37:
33:
19:
4268:Fire blanket
4206:Eye and hand
4192:Rubber apron
4056:Oscilloscope
4020:Potentiostat
3947:Plate reader
3843:pH indicator
3813:CHN analyzer
3808:AutoAnalyzer
3601:Round-bottom
3494:Boston round
3376:
3357:Filter paper
3312:Refrigerator
3229:Retort stand
3197:Clamp holder
3193:Beaker clamp
3159:Vortex mixer
3154:Stirring rod
3149:Static mixer
3079:Teclu burner
2953:
2941:
2870:Three-photon
2746:
2740:
2739:
2684:
2672:
2660:
2648:
2628:
2621:
2614:
2607:
2600:
2593:publications
2557:Chemometrics
2541:Sub-sampling
2480:Spectroscopy
2423:
2320:
2278:Applications
2090:Atomic force
2037:
2019:
1995:. Retrieved
1990:
1981:
1962:
1956:
1937:
1896:(12): 1049.
1893:
1889:
1875:
1850:
1847:MRS Bulletin
1846:
1833:
1814:
1794:. Retrieved
1790:
1781:
1770:. Retrieved
1763:the original
1758:
1746:
1737:
1705:
1657:
1651:
1608:
1604:
1594:
1585:
1581:
1575:
1563:. Retrieved
1552:
1533:
1513:
1473:
1465:
1454:
1445:
1436:
1427:
1407:
1400:
1388:. Retrieved
1383:Live Science
1381:
1372:
1352:
1345:
1335:
1328:
1309:
1291:
1272:
1268:
1238:(2): 78–84.
1235:
1231:
1225:
1206:
1201:
1134:
1118:
1089:
1063:
1020:
997:
977:phase shifts
967:
948:
938:
931:
909:or 250
877:
854:
850:
811:
796:
767:
740:
698:
659:
629:
588:
565:
546:
535:
517:rather than
512:
457:
431:Micrographia
429:
426:Robert Hooke
415:
410:
406:
400:
382:
374:
362:
305:
228:optical path
216:
188:
185:
178:
171:
168:
161:
153:
151:
100:
85:
76:
57:
40:
4331:Microscopes
4256:Other items
4182:Face shield
4029:Measurement
4010:Galvanostat
3970:Electronics
3920:Other items
3906:Thermometer
3889:Calorimeter
3818:Colorimeter
3762:Gas syringe
3745:Other items
3673:Eye dropper
3548:Watch glass
3533:Evaporating
3512:Cold finger
3327:Other items
3233:Screw clamp
3225:Pinch clamp
3214:Flask clamp
3164:Wash bottle
3119:Homogenizer
2686:WikiProject
2550:Calibration
2511:Dissolution
2450:Calorimetry
2105:Non-contact
1148:camera lens
1131:Mobile apps
1115:Other types
1068:(TEMs) and
940:Ultraviolet
923:diffraction
919:Vertico SMI
907:micrometres
707:, although
591:Gerd Binnig
523:Ernst Ruska
507:Ernst Ruska
453:spermatozoa
332:Netherlands
212:Microscopic
18:Microscopes
4336:Microscopy
4320:Categories
4187:Respirator
4128:Test probe
4046:Multimeter
3858:Microscopy
3678:Eudiometer
3642:Separatory
3611:Volumetric
3576:Erlenmeyer
3504:Condensers
3468:Dean–Stark
3417:Wire brush
3377:Microscope
3372:Centrifuge
3347:Cork borer
3302:Petri dish
3277:Agar plate
3264:Containers
3247:Wire gauze
3084:Water bath
3046:Desiccator
2866:Two-photon
2741:Microscope
2591:Prominent
2516:Filtration
2443:Techniques
2424:Microscope
2326:Microscopy
2321:Microscope
2095:Conductive
1997:5 February
1796:2018-03-20
1772:2018-03-20
1588:: 467–475.
1193:References
1136:Mobile app
993:cell cycle
911:nanometres
895:refractive
887:instrument
846:wavelength
842:Resolution
836:beams (in
638:See also:
597:worked at
575:See also:
495:See also:
383:Dioptrique
375:occhiolino
363:microscope
348:expatriate
328:real image
326:to view a
316:eyeglasses
261:(both the
204:Microscopy
156:(from
154:microscope
104:Microscope
79:April 2017
4278:Fume hood
4223:Glove box
4076:Voltmeter
3461:Apparatus
3450:Glassware
3339:Autoclave
3334:Aspirator
3287:Incubator
3221:Iron ring
3144:Sonicator
3114:Chemostat
3056:Hot plate
2485:Titration
2192:Nano-FTIR
1920:2334-2536
1853:: 36–43.
1625:0893-8512
1411:. BRILL.
1004:eyepieces
981:amplitude
955:fluoresce
807:electrons
684:to label
542:Max Knoll
527:Max Knoll
515:electrons
460:condensor
441:ball lens
422:histology
344:telescope
224:electrons
200:naked eye
60:citations
4177:Lab coat
4102:Tweezers
4092:Heat gun
3848:pH meter
3757:Bell jar
3637:Dropping
3591:Florence
3581:Fernbach
3543:Syracuse
3402:Scoopula
3352:Crucible
3061:Lab oven
2943:Category
2650:Category
2506:Dilution
2494:Sampling
2309:See also
2100:Infrared
1867:41889433
1643:19822888
1390:31 March
1260:96668398
1154:See also
1150:itself.
989:staining
985:contrast
834:electron
678:cellular
674:staining
324:eyepiece
265:and the
4116:General
4036:Ammeter
3736:Thistle
3693:Pipette
3668:Cuvette
3658:Burette
3627:Büchner
3620:Funnels
3606:Schlenk
3586:Fleaker
3566:Büchner
3487:Bottles
3407:Spatula
3397:Stopper
3367:Forceps
3267:Storage
3184:Holders
3104:Shakers
3075:Striker
3023:Heaters
3010:General
2955:Commons
2662:Commons
2602:Analyst
2521:Masking
1898:Bibcode
1634:2772359
1512:(ed.).
1252:4608700
1095:(AFM),
884:optical
803:photons
670:genomic
666:biology
553:Siemens
509:in 1933
447:(after
277:History
244:refract
208:science
206:is the
4150:Safety
3752:Beaker
3731:Thiele
3716:Cragie
3711:Drying
3632:Hirsch
3596:Retort
3558:Flasks
3526:Dishes
3517:Liebig
3478:Kipp's
3392:Splint
3202:Tripod
3180:Clamps
3176:Stands
3139:Shaker
3101:Mixers
3026:Dryers
2817:Sarfus
2674:Portal
2083:Common
1969:
1944:
1918:
1890:Optica
1865:
1821:
1664:
1641:
1631:
1623:
1565:3 June
1540:
1482:
1415:
1360:
1316:
1279:
1258:
1250:
1213:
971:is an
933:Sarfus
899:quartz
891:lenses
872:, and
814:optics
713:Thomas
646:, and
603:Zürich
451:) and
240:lenses
189:skopéō
182:σκοπέω
172:mikrós
165:μικρός
4085:Tools
3703:Tubes
3538:Petri
2827:Raman
2150:Other
1886:(PDF)
1863:S2CID
1843:(PDF)
1766:(PDF)
1755:(PDF)
1508:. In
1256:S2CID
1248:JSTOR
1144:noise
1124:Sonar
832:) or
799:light
777:Types
709:laser
519:light
409:, or
308:Greek
301:Paris
220:light
160:
131:cells
3767:Vial
3726:Test
3362:File
3066:Kiln
1999:2013
1967:ISBN
1942:ISBN
1916:ISSN
1819:ISBN
1662:ISBN
1639:PMID
1621:ISSN
1567:2016
1538:ISBN
1480:ISBN
1413:ISBN
1392:2017
1358:ISBN
1314:ISBN
1277:ISBN
1232:BIOS
1211:ISBN
1012:CMOS
828:(in
822:wave
735:and
715:and
682:DAPI
593:and
285:and
118:Uses
1906:doi
1855:doi
1629:PMC
1613:doi
1240:doi
1014:or
983:or
949:In
840:).
801:or
686:DNA
676:of
664:in
601:in
599:IBM
540:by
475:by
428:'s
242:to
222:or
62:to
4322::
2868:,
2018:,
1989:.
1928:^
1914:.
1904:.
1892:.
1888:.
1861:.
1851:31
1849:.
1845:.
1805:^
1789:.
1757:.
1736:.
1714:^
1704:.
1676:^
1637:.
1627:.
1619:.
1609:22
1607:.
1603:.
1586:16
1584:.
1524:^
1494:^
1380:.
1300:^
1283:,
1254:.
1246:.
1236:75
1234:.
929:.
917:,
868:,
642:,
413:.
299:,
273:.
257:,
202:.
152:A
143:,
2990:e
2983:t
2976:v
2872:)
2864:(
2721:e
2714:t
2707:v
2365:e
2358:t
2351:v
2068:e
2061:t
2054:v
2001:.
1975:.
1950:.
1922:.
1908::
1900::
1894:2
1869:.
1857::
1827:.
1799:.
1775:.
1740:.
1708:.
1670:.
1645:.
1615::
1569:.
1546:.
1488:.
1421:.
1394:.
1366:.
1339:.
1322:.
1262:.
1242::
1219:.
381:(
192:)
186:(
175:)
169:(
92:)
86:(
81:)
77:(
67:.
38:.
20:)
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