1363:, or by inhalation, and carried out over the major part of the life span for rodents. In tests that check for carcinogens, maximum tolerated dosage is first determined, then a range of doses are given to around 50 animals throughout the notional lifespan of the animal of two years. After death the animals are examined for sign of tumours. Differences in metabolism between rat and human however means that human may not respond in exactly the same way to mutagen, and dosages that produce tumours on the animal test may also be unreasonably high for a human, i.e. the equivalent amount required to produce tumours in human may far exceed what a person might encounter in real life.
413:. They can affect the transcription and replication of the DNA, which in severe cases can lead to cell death. The mutagen produces mutations in the DNA, and deleterious mutation can result in aberrant, impaired or loss of function for a particular gene, and accumulation of mutations may lead to cancer. Mutagens may therefore be also carcinogens. However, some mutagens exert their mutagenic effect through their metabolites, and therefore whether such mutagens actually become carcinogenic may be dependent on the metabolic processes of an organism, and a compound shown to be mutagenic in one organism may not necessarily be carcinogenic in another.
25:
587:
82:
1268:– Males from a strain with yellow bodies are used in this test. The gene for the yellow body lies on the X-chromosome. The fruit flies are fed on a diet of test chemical, and progenies are separated by sex. The surviving males are crossed with the females of the same generation, and if no males with yellow bodies are detected in the second generation, it would indicate a lethal mutation on the X-chromosome has occurred.
4726:
4569:
972:
4746:
4593:
1056:, have also been shown to be effective antioxidants and may have anti-cancer properties. Epidemiological studies indicate that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables is associated with lower incidence of some cancers and longer life expectancy, however, the effectiveness of antioxidant supplements in cancer prevention in general is still the subject of some debate.
4736:
4581:
1344:, cells are examined for micronuclei, which are fragments or chromosomes left behind at anaphase, and is therefore a test for clastogenic agents that cause chromosome breakages. Other tests may check for various chromosomal aberrations such as chromatid and chromosomal gaps and deletions, translocations, and ploidy.
495:
processes and therefore may not necessarily be harmful. More recent approaches with sensitive analytical methods have shown that there may be non-linear or bilinear dose-responses for genotoxic effects, and that the activation of DNA repair pathways can prevent the occurrence of mutation arising from
389:
base in DNA (generating an abnormal nucleotide or nucleotide fragment), or a break in one or both strands in DNA. When duplex DNA containing a damaged base is replicated, an incorrect base may be inserted in the newly synthesized strand opposite the damaged base in the complementary template strand,
1366:
Mice with recessive mutations for a visible phenotype may also be used to check for mutagens. Females with recessive mutation crossed with wild-type males would yield the same phenotype as the wild-type, and any observable change to the phenotype would indicate that a mutation induced by the mutagen
903:
and their compounds may be mutagenic, but they may act, however, via a number of different mechanisms. Arsenic, chromium, iron, and nickel may be associated with the production of ROS, and some of these may also alter the fidelity of DNA replication. Nickel may also be linked to DNA hypermethylation
394:
in the next round of replication. Also a DNA double-strand break may be repaired by an inaccurate process leading to an altered base pair, a mutation. However, mutations and DNA damages differ in a fundamental way: mutations can, in principle, be replicated when DNA replicates, whereas DNA damages
504:
Mutagens may be of physical, chemical or biological origin. They may act directly on the DNA, causing direct damage to the DNA, and most often result in replication error. Some however may act on the replication mechanism and chromosomal partition. Many mutagens are not mutagenic by themselves, but
331:
that screens for mutagens and allows for preliminary identification of carcinogens. Early studies by Ames showed around 90% of known carcinogens can be identified in Ames test as mutagenic (later studies however gave lower figures), and ~80% of the mutagens identified through Ames test may also be
344:
for example may be mutagenic (and highly toxic), but it has not been shown to be carcinogenic. Meanwhile, compounds which are not directly mutagenic but stimulate cell growth which can reduce the effectiveness of DNA repair and indirectly increase the chance of mutations, and therefore that of
482:
In Ames test, where the varying concentrations of the chemical are used in the test, the dose response curve obtained is nearly always linear, suggesting that there may be no threshold for mutagenesis. Similar results are also obtained in studies with radiations, indicating that there may be
1160:
Many different systems for detecting mutagen have been developed. Animal systems may more accurately reflect the metabolism of human, however, they are expensive and time-consuming (may take around three years to complete), they are therefore not used as a first screen for mutagenicity or
1710:
Cautions against the immoderate use of snuff: founded on the known qualities of the tobacco plant: and the effects it must produce when this way taken into the body: and enforced by instances of persons who have perished miserably of diseases, occasioned, or rendered incurable by its
1106:
indicated that smoking caused 30% of cancers in the US. Diet is also thought to cause a significant number of cancer, and it has been estimated that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by modification to the diet. Mutagens identified in food include
395:
are not necessarily replicated. Thus DNA damaging agents often cause mutations as a secondary consequence, but not all DNA damages lead to mutation and not all mutations arise from a DNA damage. The term genotoxic means toxic (damaging) to DNA.
454:
of one or more nucleotides in DNA sequences. Although some of these mutations are lethal or cause serious disease, many have minor effects as they do not result in residue changes that have significant effect on the structure and function of the
1090:
An effective precautionary measure an individual can undertake to protect themselves is by limiting exposure to mutagens such as UV radiations and tobacco smoke. In
Australia, where people with pale skin are often exposed to strong sunlight,
1428:. However, due to their effect on other cells which are also rapidly dividing, they may have side effects such as hair loss and nausea. Research on better targeted therapies may reduce such side-effects. Ionizing radiations are used in
229:
as the cause of scrotal cancer. In 1915, Yamagawa and
Ichikawa showed that repeated application of coal tar to rabbit's ears produced malignant cancer. Subsequently, in the 1930s the carcinogen component in coal tar was identified as a
1327:
Rat primary hepatocytes may also be used to measure DNA repair following DNA damage. Mutagens may stimulate unscheduled DNA synthesis that results in more stained nuclear material in cells following exposure to mutagens.
86:
1374:
where early embryonic deaths are monitored. Male mice are treated with chemicals under test, mated with females, and the females are then sacrificed before parturition and early fetal deaths are counted in the
706:
are an important group of mutagens found in tobacco, and may also be formed in smoked meats and fish via the interaction of amines in food with nitrites added as preservatives. Other alkylating agents include
1151:
For certain mutagens, such as dangerous chemicals and radioactive materials, as well as infectious agents known to cause cancer, government legislations and regulatory bodies are necessary for their control.
1119:
generated in meat when cooked at high temperature; PAHs in charred meat and smoked fish, as well as in oils, fats, bread, and cereal; and nitrosamines generated from nitrites used as food preservatives in
1063:, which is present as a micronutrient in vegetables, is a component of important antioxidant enzymes such as gluthathione peroxidase. Many phytonutrients may counter the effect of mutagens; for example,
2598:
Dunkel VC, Zeiger E, Brusick D, et al. (1985). "Reproducibility of microbial mutagenicity assays: II. Testing of carcinogens and noncarcinogens in
Salmonella typhimurium and Escherichia coli".
1444:, mutagens are often represented as substances that are capable of completely changing the form of the recipient or granting them superpowers. Powerful radiations are the agents of mutation for the
2745:
Salerno, Monica; Cascio, Orazio; Bertozzi, Giuseppe; Sessa, Francesco; Messina, Antonietta; Monda, Vincenzo; Cipolloni, Luigi; Biondi, Antonio; Daniele, Aurora; Pomara, Cristoforo (2018-04-10).
942:– Virus DNA may be inserted into the genome and disrupts genetic function. Infectious agents have been suggested to cause cancer as early as 1908 by Vilhelm Ellermann and Oluf Bang, and 1911 by
301:(UV) radiation on maize in 1936. The effect of sunlight had previously been noted in the nineteenth century where rural outdoor workers and sailors were found to be more prone to skin cancer.
702:. The compounds transfer methyl or ethyl group to bases or the backbone phosphate groups. Guanine when alkylated may be mispaired with thymine. Some may cause DNA crosslinking and breakages.
3668:
4079:
3569:
416:
Different mutagens act on DNA differently. Powerful mutagens may result in chromosomal instability, causing chromosomal breakages and rearrangement of the chromosomes such as
1336:
These systems check for large scale changes to the chromosomes and may be used with cell culture or in animal test. The chromosomes are stained and observed for any changes.
1392:
is another method for testing mutagens. Animals are first treated with suspected mutagen, the mouse DNA is then isolated and the phage segment recovered and used to infect
1955:
1059:
Other chemicals may reduce mutagenesis or prevent cancer via other mechanisms, although for some the precise mechanism for their protective property may not be certain.
595:
3925:
3475:
Raquet, N; Schrenk, D (September 2009). "Relative photomutagenicity of furocoumarins and limettin in the hypoxanthine phosphoribosyl transferase assay in V79 cells".
2802:
Lya G. Hernández; Harry van Steeg; Mirjam
Luijten; Jan van Benthem (2009). "Mechanisms of non-genotoxic carcinogens and importance of a weight of evidence approach".
644:. As an example of the latter, 15-hydroperoxyeicosatetraenoic acid, a natural product of cellular cyclooxygenases and lipoxygenases, breaks down to form 4-hydroxy-2(
617:
They directly damage DNA, but may or may not undergo metabolism to produce promutagens (metabolites that can have higher mutagenic potential than their substrates).
3699:
Dolara P, Bigagli E, Collins A (October 2012). "Antioxidant vitamins and mineral supplementation, life span expansion and cancer incidence: a critical commentary".
1189:
biosynthesis are used in this test. The test checks for mutants that can revert to wild-type. It is an easy, inexpensive and convenient initial screen for mutagens.
3886:
1860:
1308:
3418:
Nishikawa, Takuro; Miyahara, Emiko; Horiuchi, Masahisa; Izumo, Kimiko; Okamoto, Yasuhiro; Kawai, Yoshichika; Kawano, Yoshifumi; Takeuchi, Toru (January 2012).
1562:. In the "nuclear monster" films of the 1950s, nuclear radiation mutates humans and common insects often to enormous size and aggression; these films include
1340:
is a symmetrical exchange of chromosome material between sister chromatids and may be correlated to the mutagenic or carcinogenic potential of a chemical. In
962:
cause inflammation during which oxidative species are produced, causing DNA damage and reducing efficiency of DNA repair systems, thereby increasing mutation.
936:, a section of DNA that undergoes autonomous fragment relocation/multiplication. Its insertion into chromosomal DNA disrupts functional elements of the genes.
668:). A number of mutagens may also generate these ROS. These ROS may result in the production of many base adducts, as well as DNA strand breaks and crosslinks.
2856:
Allen JW, DeWeese GK, Gibson JB, et al. (January 1987). "Synaptonemal complex damage as a measure of chemical mutagen effects on mammalian germ cells".
2631:"Alternative strategies for carcinogenicity assessment: an efficient and simplified approach based on in vitro mutagenicity and cell transformation assays"
664:)-decanal; these bifunctional electophils are mutagenic in mammalian cells and may contribute to the development and/or progression of human cancers (see
2012:
1898:
Bereits kurz nach der
Entdeckung der Möglichkeit einer Auslösung von Mutationen durch ionisierende Strahlen (Nadson u. Filippov 1925, 1928; Muller 1927)
1132:, which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation). Overly-browned starchy food such as bread, biscuits and potatoes can generate
3420:"Benzene metabolite 1,2,4-benzenetriol induces halogenated DNA and tyrosines representing halogenative stress in the HL-60 human myeloid cell line"
3240:"Production of brominating intermediates by myeloperoxidase. A transhalogenation pathway for generating mutagenic nucleobases during inflammation"
2707:
729:, originally used as a pesticide but may also be found in cooked meat, may cause cancer of the bladder, liver, ear, intestine, thyroid and breast.
1221:-deficient mutant is used for the reverse mutation, while galactose utility or resistance to 5-methyltryptophan may be used for forward mutation.
4631:
4544:
3552:
636:, and large number of these highly reactive species are generated by normal cellular processes, for example as a by-products of mitochondrial
4229:
4204:
4179:
4069:
3680:
3279:
Mamyrbaev, Arstan
Abdramanovich; Dzharkenov, Timur Agataevich; Imangazina, Zina Amangalievna; Satybaldieva, Umit Abulkhairovna (2015-04-16).
3194:
2844:
2729:
2156:
2038:
1891:
4093:
Tareke E, Rydberg P, Karlsson P, Eriksson S, Törnqvist M (August 2002). "Analysis of acrylamide, a carcinogen formed in heated foodstuffs".
3580:
4262:
3002:
786:
They are not necessarily mutagenic by themselves, but they produce promutagens mutagenic compounds through metabolic processes in cells.
3744:"Vitamin/mineral supplementation and cancer, cardiovascular, and all-cause mortality in a German prospective cohort (EPIC-Heidelberg)"
3122:
4780:
4483:
3947:
Doll R, Peto R (June 1981). "The causes of cancer: quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today".
463:, causing no visible effects at all, either because they occur in non-coding or non-functional sequences, or they do not change the
238:. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are also present in soot, which was suggested to be a causative agent of cancer over 150 years earlier.
68:
46:
2685:
1359:. The chemicals under test are usually administered in the food and in the drinking water, but sometimes by dermal application, by
1408:
Many mutagens are highly toxic to proliferating cells, and they are often used to destroy cancer cells. Alkylating agents such as
241:
The association of exposure to radiation and cancer had been observed as early as 1902, six years after the discovery of X-ray by
4750:
4597:
1606:
1457:
378:
1916:
1803:
1518:
1237:
strains deficient in DNA repair may be used to detect mutagens by their effect on the growth of these cells through DNA damage.
689:
468:
231:
4032:
4554:
4458:
3024:
665:
2972:
2681:
2314:
1693:
1140:
has also been linked to cancer; the possible mechanisms for its carcinogenicity include formation of the possible mutagen
3917:
2547:
859:
323:
in fruit flies. A large number of chemical mutagens have since been identified, especially after the development of the
3894:
1852:
1576:
353:
among others. Other carcinogens may cause cancer through a variety of mechanisms without producing mutations, such as
3040:"Contributions of DNA repair and damage response pathways to the non-linear genotoxic responses of alkylating agents"
4624:
1383:
1303:
921:
1198:– Similar to Ames test, but instead of reverse mutation, it checks for forward mutation that confer resistance to
4503:
2959:
Duesberg P, Rasnick D (October 2000). "Aneuploidy, the somatic mutation that makes cancer a species of its own".
1611:
1356:
484:
417:
3794:"Sulforaphane destabilizes the androgen receptor in prostate cancer cells by inactivating histone deacetylase 6"
4493:
4478:
4305:
4255:
1588:
1488:
1248:
1049:
790:
637:
39:
33:
3851:
Gullett NP, Ruhul Amin AR, Bayraktar S, et al. (June 2010). "Cancer prevention with natural compounds".
3342:
Journal of
Environmental Science and Health. Part C, Environmental Carcinogenesis & Ecotoxicology Reviews
1973:
1252:
is generally used. These systems can check for forward and reverse mutations, as well as recombinant events.
4341:
4295:
2056:
1500:
997:
621:
266:
4785:
4498:
4442:
3526:
1494:
1181:
1080:
841:, which can substitute for DNA bases during replication and cause transition mutations. Some examples are
50:
4740:
4585:
4129:
725:
observed high incidence of bladder cancer among workers in German synthetic aromatic amine dye industry.
4617:
4463:
2839:
Bernstein, C.; Bernstein, H. (1991). Aging, Sex, and DNA Repair. pgs. 15-16. San Diego: Academic Press.
1685:"Nature and Nurture - Lessons from Chemical Carcinogenesis: Chemical Carcinogens — From Past to Present"
1558:
1512:
726:
425:
281:
also demonstrated the mutational effect of UV radiation in 1928. Muller went on to use x-rays to create
258:
159:
136:
97:
89:
3511:
1774:
Yamagawa K, Ichikawa K (1915). "Experimentelle Studie über die
Pathogenese der Epithelialgeschwülste".
146:. Not all mutations are caused by mutagens: so-called "spontaneous mutations" occur due to spontaneous
1801:
Cook JW, Hewett CL, Hieger I (1933). "The isolation of a cancer-producing hydrocarbon from coal tar".
304:
4361:
3805:
2500:
2445:
2387:
2340:
2231:
2181:
1988:
1564:
1546:
1522:
1478:
1284:
917:
447:
361:
that reduces the ability to fight cancer cells or pathogens that can cause cancer, disruption of the
4707:
3531:
2376:"An improved bacterial test system for the detection and classification of mutagens and carcinogens"
2294:
4730:
4573:
4320:
4310:
4248:
4039:
958:
913:
871:
505:
can form mutagenic metabolites through cellular processes, for example through the activity of the
451:
421:
274:
3743:
1306:(CHO) cells or mouse lymphoma cells may be used to test for mutagenesis. Such systems include the
273:
mutants as well as observable changes to the chromosomes, visible due to the presence of enlarged
4524:
4508:
4315:
4285:
3774:
3724:
3212:
3087:
Kim D, Guengerich FP (2005). "Cytochrome P450 activation of arylamines and heterocyclic amines".
2461:
2328:
2306:
2080:
2072:
1947:
1137:
1116:
947:
641:
530:
518:
308:
254:
210:
609:
Chemical mutagens either directly or indirectly damage DNA. On this basis, they are of 2 types:
381:
is an agent that causes a change in the structure of DNA that is not itself replicated when the
242:
3338:"Environmental carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: photochemistry and phototoxicity"
2747:"Anabolic androgenic steroids and carcinogenicity focusing on Leydig cell: a literature review"
2548:"Statistical analysis of Salmonella test data and comparison to results of animal cancer tests"
2489:"Detection of carcinogens as mutagens in the Salmonella/microsome test: assay of 300 chemicals"
1831:"Historical Development of the Linear Nonthreshold Dose-Response Model as Applied to Radiation"
4775:
4770:
4713:
4422:
4225:
4200:
4175:
4152:
4110:
4013:
3964:
3868:
3833:
3766:
3716:
3676:
3647:
3544:
3492:
3457:
3439:
3400:
3375:
3357:
3318:
3300:
3261:
3200:
3190:
3159:
3104:
3100:
3069:
3018:
2994:
2976:
2914:
2873:
2840:
2819:
2784:
2766:
2725:
2652:
2611:
2570:
2528:
2469:
2415:
2356:
2298:
2259:
2197:
2152:
2129:
2034:
2004:
1939:
1887:
1756:
1661:
1429:
1397:
1233:
1076:
774:
633:
629:
586:
566:
560:
358:
4033:"Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons – Occurrence in foods, dietary exposure and health effects"
755:
salt that is a common reagent in organic synthesis and a component in many car airbag systems
4473:
4407:
4356:
4300:
4144:
4102:
4003:
3995:
3956:
3860:
3823:
3813:
3758:
3708:
3637:
3629:
3536:
3484:
3447:
3431:
3365:
3349:
3308:
3292:
3251:
3182:
3149:
3096:
3059:
3051:
2968:
2904:
2865:
2811:
2774:
2758:
2717:
2642:
2603:
2562:
2518:
2508:
2453:
2405:
2395:
2348:
2290:
2249:
2239:
2189:
2119:
2111:
2064:
1996:
1931:
1879:
1811:
1783:
1746:
1738:
1651:
1643:
1409:
1213:
993:
863:
768:
699:
362:
354:
346:
213:
made the first direct link of cancer to chemical substances by noting that excessive use of
201:(from which the word "cancer" is derived via Latin), meaning crab. In 1567, Swiss physician
761:
combined with ultraviolet radiation causes DNA cross-linking and hence chromosome breakage.
4488:
4468:
4351:
3224:
1441:
1400:, the plaque formed with DNA containing mutation are white, while those without are blue.
1145:
1072:
718:
603:
506:
488:
460:
382:
350:
278:
246:
214:
155:
81:
2893:"Radiation-induced genomic instability and its implications for radiation carcinogenesis"
2054:
Altenburg E (1928). "The Limit of
Radiation Frequency Effective in Producing Mutations".
878:
may block transcription and replication, making them highly toxic to proliferating cells.
3809:
2670:
2504:
2449:
2391:
2344:
2235:
2185:
1992:
4427:
4381:
4376:
4346:
4325:
4008:
3983:
3828:
3793:
3642:
3617:
3452:
3419:
3370:
3337:
3313:
3280:
3064:
3039:
2779:
2746:
2254:
2219:
2124:
2099:
1751:
1726:
1656:
1631:
1601:
1528:
1453:
1389:
796:
739:
species, may be converted by metabolic processes into the active mutagen or carcinogen.
712:
708:
599:
559:
radiations with wavelength above 260 nm are absorbed strongly by bases, producing
542:
514:
293:
in fruit flies, but also have effects on the genetic makeup of humans. Similar work by
250:
235:
218:
3186:
3177:
Lipp HP, Hartmann JT, Stanley A (2005). "45 - Cytostatic drugs". In
Aronson JK (ed.).
2523:
2488:
2410:
2375:
1917:"Muller's Nobel lecture on dose-response for ionizing radiation: ideology or science?"
491:
for mutagenesis. Some have proposed that low level of some mutagens may stimulate the
4764:
4539:
4437:
4290:
3864:
2869:
2566:
2310:
2215:
1506:
1473:
1465:
1449:
1376:
1314:
1029:
846:
842:
812:
721:
and amides have been associated with carcinogenesis since 1895 when German physician
294:
222:
3728:
2084:
479:
and change the number of chromosomes in the cell. They are known as aneuploidogens.
4702:
4640:
4432:
4074:
4070:"Roast potatoes and toast that's a bit too brown may cause cancer, say authorities"
4043:
3778:
1951:
1483:
1425:
1417:
1360:
1290:
1211:– Both forward and reverse mutation detection system have been modified for use in
1199:
1141:
1103:
1099:
1064:
984:
875:
822:
748:
675:
436:
410:
366:
341:
312:
112:
2115:
487:
for mutagens. However, the no-threshold model is disputed with some arguing for a
209:
gas in modern times) caused a wasting disease in miners, and in England, in 1761,
3396:
Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons: Chemistry, characterization and carcinogenesis
2352:
1883:
1776:
Mitteilungen aus der Medizinischen Fakultät der Kaiserlichen Universität zu Tokyo
257:
in 1925. The mutagenic property of mutagens was first demonstrated in 1927, when
4692:
4534:
4366:
3618:"A Sarcoma of the Fowl Transmissible by an Agent Separable from the Tumor Cells"
3055:
2933:
2815:
2713:
2436:(May 1979). "Identifying environmental chemicals causing mutations and cancer".
2193:
1445:
1421:
1263:
1084:
989:
980:
943:
838:
722:
703:
671:
556:
404:
316:
298:
194:
143:
3798:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2493:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2380:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2278:
2224:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2000:
1830:
1684:
4669:
4529:
4271:
3762:
3712:
3296:
2762:
2703:
2433:
2279:"A history of ultraviolet photobiology for humans, animals and microorganisms"
2172:
Stadler LJ (August 1928). "Mutations in Barley Induced by X-Rays and Radium".
1935:
1647:
1632:"Ancient Greek and Greco-Roman methods in modern surgical treatment of cancer"
1582:
1218:
1133:
1121:
1112:
1040:. Vitamin C may prevent some cancers by inhibiting the formation of mutagenic
1025:
1013:
933:
867:
695:
625:
591:
550:
492:
476:
464:
440:
386:
328:
282:
202:
183:
171:
147:
132:
93:
3960:
3540:
3443:
3361:
3304:
3204:
2770:
2578:
2220:"Genetic Effects of Ultra-Violet Radiation in Maize: I. Unfiltered Radiation"
4687:
4659:
4417:
4148:
3818:
2647:
2630:
2513:
1874:
Böhme H (1961). "Angewandte Mikrobiologie". In Bünning E, Gäumann E (eds.).
1552:
1534:
1413:
1186:
1170:
1129:
1108:
1053:
1045:
1041:
1021:
1017:
1009:
1005:
971:
939:
767:, an industrial solvent and precursor in the production of drugs, plastics,
570:
546:
538:
510:
443:
429:
324:
270:
191:
151:
4156:
4114:
3999:
3872:
3837:
3770:
3720:
3651:
3548:
3496:
3461:
3379:
3322:
3265:
3256:
3239:
3163:
3154:
3137:
3108:
3073:
2980:
2918:
2909:
2892:
2823:
2788:
2656:
2457:
2360:
2331:, Robson JM, Carr JG (March 1947). "The Chemical Production of Mutations".
2302:
2263:
2244:
2201:
2008:
1943:
1760:
1665:
912:, arsenic, nickel and cadmium may also affect DNA repair processes such as
4017:
3968:
3353:
2877:
2615:
2607:
2574:
2532:
2419:
2400:
2133:
545:
cause DNA breakage and other damages. The most common lab sources include
4412:
3633:
2473:
1815:
1540:
1469:
1278:
1092:
1068:
1060:
953:
896:
826:
808:
758:
732:
679:
574:
391:
385:. Examples of DNA damage include a chemical addition or disruption of a
320:
286:
124:
120:
104:
3435:
2721:
1742:
1727:"Percivall Pott (1714-1788) and chimney sweepers' cancer of the scrotum"
692:(PAH), when activated to diol-epoxides can bind to DNA and form adducts.
349:, which stimulate growth of the prostate gland and increase the risk of
4664:
2465:
2076:
1708:
1352:
1319:
1148:
system which is known to produce mutagenic compounds from promutagens.
905:
892:
888:
801:
764:
742:
456:
4106:
3488:
3404:
3394:
2671:"Toxicology And Carcinogenesis Studies Of Sodium Azide in F344/N Rats"
1878:(in German). Vol. 23. Berlin: Springer Verlag. pp. 502–509.
16:
Physical or chemical agent that increases the rate of genetic mutation
4371:
3597:
Ellermann V.; Bang O. (1908). "Experimentelle Leukämie bei Hühnern".
3013:. Calabrese says mistake led to adopting the LNT model in toxicology.
1787:
1294:
have been used in various test assays for mutagenecity of chemicals.
1037:
1033:
909:
900:
683:
534:
205:
suggested that an unidentified substance in mined ore (identified as
175:
135:, although not all necessarily are. All mutagens have characteristic
128:
4222:
Principles of Toxicology – Environmental and Industrial Applications
2995:"Calabrese says mistake led to adopting the LNT model in toxicology"
745:
and some compounds that contain bromine in their chemical structure.
2068:
297:
also showed the mutational effect of X-rays on barley in 1928, and
253:
and German Filippov were the first who created fungi mutants under
139:
with some chemicals becoming mutagenic through cellular processes.
4697:
4679:
4391:
4386:
3663:
3661:
3281:"Mutagenic and carcinogenic actions of chromium and its compounds"
1570:
1125:
1001:
1000:
or potentially harmful chemicals. These may be found naturally in
970:
752:
736:
585:
472:
262:
206:
179:
80:
2973:
10.1002/1097-0169(200010)47:2<81::AID-CM1>3.0.CO;2-#
1461:
1136:, a chemical shown to cause cancer in animal studies. Excessive
1095:
is the most common cancer diagnosed in people aged 15–44 years.
777:, a highly toxic and oxidizing substance used in electroplating.
290:
226:
127:
above the natural background level. As many mutations can cause
4613:
4609:
4244:
3599:
Zentralbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenkd. Infectionskr. Hyg. Abt. Orig
2932:
Durland, Justin; Ahmadian-Moghadam, Hamid (19 September 2022).
3792:
Gibbs A, Schwartzman J, Deng V, et al. (September 2009).
870:, are molecules that may insert between bases in DNA, causing
307:
were not demonstrated to cause mutation until the 1940s, when
187:
116:
18:
4240:
3238:
Henderson JP, Byun J, Williams MV, et al. (March 2001).
1032:
is the red-orange colored compounds found in vegetables like
182:
were described more than 2,000 years before the discovery of
3570:"Health Risk Assessment Guidance for Metals – Mutagenicity"
3136:
Lee SH, Williams MV, Dubois RN, et al. (August 2005).
3038:
Klapacz J, Pottenger LH, Engelward BP, et al. (2016).
2487:
McCann J, Choi E, Yamasaki E, et al. (December 1975).
2151:(7th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson Education, Inc.
1246:
Systems similar to Ames test have been developed in yeast.
563:, which can cause error in replication if left uncorrected.
1630:
Papavramidou N, Papavramidis T, Demetriou T (March 2010).
435:
Mutagens may also modify the DNA sequence; the changes in
340:
Mutagens are not necessarily carcinogens, and vice versa.
221:
wrote a paper on the high incidence of scrotal cancer in
111:
is a physical or chemical agent that permanently changes
2029:
Griffiths AJ, Wessler SR, Carroll SB, Doebley J (2012).
1302:
Mammalian cell lines such as Chinese hamster V79 cells,
409:
Mutagens can cause changes to the DNA and are therefore
3291:(3). Springer Science and Business Media LLC: 159–167.
1115:
which may be present in contaminated peanuts and corn;
365:(e.g. in breast cancer), tissue-specific toxicity, and
3123:"Promutagen - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
1075:. Others that may be effective against cancer include
815:
activation for their mutagenic effect. These are the
3742:
Li K, Kaaks R, Linseisen J, et al. (June 2012).
1476:. Mutagens are also featured in video games such as
1111:
from food contaminated with fungal growths, such as
4678:
4647:
4517:
4451:
4400:
4334:
4278:
1853:""Russian Trail" in the Discovery of DNA Structure"
678:which can cause transition mutations by converting
373:
Difference between mutagens and DNA damaging agents
2100:"Seventy years ago: mutation becomes experimental"
1683:
3673:Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet
2891:Huang L, Snyder AR, Morgan WF (September 2003).
2835:
2833:
3694:
3692:
2546:McCann J, Gold LS, Horn L, et al. (1988).
975:Fruits and vegetables are rich in antioxidants.
439:sequences by mutations include substitution of
277:in fruit fly salivary glands. His collaborator
142:The process of DNA becoming modified is called
92:for chemicals that are sensitising, mutagenic,
3044:Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research
2804:Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research
1714:. London: Printed for Baldwin R and Jackson J.
4625:
4256:
2033:(10th ed.). W. H. Freeman. p. 255.
174:, substances that were shown to be linked to
8:
3675:. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
3285:Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine
3181:. Vol. 28. Elsevier. pp. 538–551.
3089:Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology
807:Some chemical mutagens additionally require
289:. He also found that X-rays not only mutate
4031:Scientific Committee on Food (4 Dec 2002).
2295:10.1562/0031-8655(2002)0760561AHOUPF2.0.CO2
1859:. Vol. 3, no. N2. INFOLIO. 2004.
1388:using a mouse strain infected with a viral
1179:– This is the most commonly used test, and
1098:In 1981, human epidemiological analysis by
336:Difference between mutagens and carcinogens
131:in animals, such mutagens can therefore be
4632:
4618:
4610:
4263:
4249:
4241:
4220:Williams PL, James RC, Roberts SM (2000).
4095:Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
3918:"Skin-tone gene could predict cancer risk"
2374:Ames BN, Lee FD, Durston WE (March 1973).
1677:
1675:
4007:
3827:
3817:
3641:
3530:
3451:
3369:
3312:
3255:
3153:
3101:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.45.120403.100010
3063:
2908:
2778:
2646:
2593:
2591:
2522:
2512:
2409:
2399:
2253:
2243:
2123:
1750:
1655:
1416:, as well as intercalating agent such as
908:deacetylation, while some metals such as
170:The first mutagens to be identified were
69:Learn how and when to remove this message
3949:Journal of the National Cancer Institute
1071:has been shown to be protective against
32:This article includes a list of general
4224:(2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
4199:(3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
3984:"Diet, nutrition, and avoidable cancer"
3512:"Metals, toxicity and oxidative stress"
3393:Cooke, M.; Dennis, A. J. (1986-01-01).
2098:Crow JF, Abrahamson S (December 1997).
1910:
1908:
1906:
1622:
285:mutants that he used in his studies of
4545:List of extremely hazardous substances
3220:
3210:
3138:"Cyclooxygenase-2-mediated DNA damage"
3016:
2317:from the original on 17 November 2011.
1974:"Artificial Transmutation of the Gene"
1835:University of New Hampshire Law Review
1731:British Journal of Industrial Medicine
1725:Brown JR, Thornton JL (January 1957).
4082:from the original on 23 January 2017.
3510:Valko M, Morris H, Cronin MT (2005).
2691:from the original on 23 October 2011.
2018:from the original on 30 October 2012.
345:cancer. One example of this would be
217:may cause nasal cancer. In 1775, Sir
7:
4735:
4580:
3622:The Journal of Experimental Medicine
3558:from the original on 24 August 2015.
1863:from the original on 18 August 2017.
123:and thus increases the frequency of
4745:
4592:
3244:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
3142:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
2702:Hill, John; McCreary, John (2019).
1961:from the original on 2 August 2017.
1696:from the original on 19 March 2011.
782:Indirectly acting chemical mutagens
3928:from the original on 24 April 2015
3005:from the original on 1 August 2017
2961:Cell Motility and the Cytoskeleton
1468:franchise the MUTAGEN "ooze" for
1313:for resistance to 8-azaguanine or
38:it lacks sufficient corresponding
14:
4484:Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko
3988:Environmental Health Perspectives
3424:Environmental Health Perspectives
2704:"22.6 Carcinogens and Teratogens"
874:during replication. Some such as
613:Directly acting chemical mutagens
4744:
4734:
4725:
4724:
4591:
4579:
4568:
4567:
4195:Hodgson E (2004). "Chapter 21".
4068:Siddique, Haroon (23 Jan 2017).
3865:10.1053/j.seminoncol.2010.06.014
2031:Introduction to Genetic Analysis
1607:DNA damage (naturally occurring)
1202:in a histidine revertant strain.
735:from plants, such as those from
690:Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
23:
4197:A Textbook of Modern Toxicology
3887:"Skin Cancer Facts and Figures"
3669:National Research Council, U.S.
3477:Chemical Research in Toxicology
2629:Benigni R, Bossa C (May 2011).
2602:. 7 Suppl 5 (suppl. 5): 1–248.
2283:Photochemistry and Photobiology
2277:Hockberger PE (December 2002).
1028:, and various other compounds.
1008:. Examples of antioxidants are
996:compounds that may help remove
265:can cause genetic mutations in
197:named tumors resembling a crab
4555:Occupational safety and health
4459:1858 Bradford sweets poisoning
2147:Campbell NA, Reece JB (2005).
1915:Calabrese EJ (December 2011).
1396:. Using similar method as the
1193:Resistance to 8-azaguanine in
666:15-Hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid
1:
4170:Milunsky A, Annas GJ (1980).
3751:European Journal of Nutrition
3701:European Journal of Nutrition
3336:Yu, Hongtao (November 2002).
3187:10.1016/S0378-6080(05)80467-2
2218:, Sprague GF (October 1936).
594:(at center) of the mutagenic
489:dose rate dependent threshold
369:(e.g. in colorectal cancer).
3982:Willett WC (November 1995).
3179:Side Effects of Drugs Annual
2870:10.1016/0165-7992(87)90076-5
2709:Chemistry for Changing Times
2567:10.1016/0165-1218(88)90017-1
2353:10.1126/science.105.2723.243
1884:10.1007/978-3-642-94810-7_40
4174:. Boston, MA: Springer US.
4128:Pöschl G, Seitz HK (2004).
3519:Current Medicinal Chemistry
3056:10.1016/j.mrrev.2015.11.001
2816:10.1016/j.mrrev.2009.07.002
2194:10.1126/science.68.1756.186
2116:10.1093/genetics/147.4.1491
1636:Annals of Surgical Oncology
1577:Attack of the 50 Foot Woman
1144:, and the induction of the
648:)-nonenal, 4-hydroperoxy-2(
517:. Such mutagens are called
428:. Such mutagens are called
4802:
3023:: CS1 maint: postscript (
2001:10.1126/science.66.1699.84
1876:Bericht über das Jahr 1960
1370:Mice may also be used for
1168:
992:are an important group of
978:
922:nucleotide excision repair
475:. Some mutagens can cause
402:
4722:
4563:
4504:2022 Aqaba toxic gas leak
3763:10.1007/s00394-011-0224-1
3713:10.1007/s00394-012-0389-2
3297:10.1007/s12199-015-0458-2
2763:10.18632/oncotarget.24767
2600:Environmental Mutagenesis
1936:10.1007/s00204-011-0728-8
1648:10.1245/s10434-009-0886-6
1612:Linear no-threshold model
1338:Sister chromatid exchange
1044:compounds (nitrosamine).
791:Polyaromatic hydrocarbons
573:in DNA which decays into
190:; in 500 B.C., the Greek
4781:Radiation health effects
4494:Consumption of Tide Pods
4479:Niigata Minamata disease
4306:Environmental toxicology
3541:10.2174/0929867053764635
1589:The Amazing Colossal Man
1332:Chromosome check systems
1249:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
956:– some bacteria such as
232:polyaromatic hydrocarbon
225:, and suggested chimney
4342:Acceptable daily intake
4296:Occupational toxicology
4172:Genetics and the Law II
3819:10.1073/pnas.0908908106
2934:"Genetics, Mutagenesis"
2514:10.1073/pnas.72.12.5135
1972:Muller HJ (July 1927).
1829:Kathren RL (Dec 2002).
1501:Resistance: Fall of Man
1322:-resistance (OUA) assay
622:Reactive oxygen species
496:a low dose of mutagen.
53:more precise citations.
4499:Visakhapatnam gas leak
4443:Whole bowel irrigation
4137:Alcohol and Alcoholism
4000:10.1289/ehp.95103s8165
3961:10.1093/jnci/66.6.1192
3579:. 2007. Archived from
3257:10.1074/jbc.M005379200
3155:10.1074/jbc.M504178200
2910:10.1038/sj.onc.1206697
2458:10.1126/science.373122
2245:10.1073/pnas.22.10.572
1924:Archives of Toxicology
1495:Metroid Prime: Trilogy
1404:In anti-cancer therapy
1372:dominant lethal assays
1182:Salmonella typhimurium
1081:cruciferous vegetables
1067:in vegetables such as
976:
606:
390:and this can become a
275:"polytene" chromosomes
100:
4464:2007 pet food recalls
4149:10.1093/alcalc/agh057
3616:Rous P (April 1911).
3354:10.1081/GNC-120016203
2648:10.1093/mutage/ger004
2608:10.1002/em.2860070902
2401:10.1073/pnas.70.3.782
1523:Command & Conquer
1304:Chinese hamster ovary
1266:Recessive Lethal Test
1185:strains deficient in
974:
887:Many metals, such as
727:2-Acetylaminofluorene
624:(ROS) – These may be
589:
459:. Many mutations are
245:and radioactivity by
137:mutational signatures
98:toxic to reproduction
84:
4362:Fixed-dose procedure
4130:"Alcohol and cancer"
3916:Callaway, E (2008).
3853:Seminars in Oncology
3634:10.1084/jem.13.4.397
2680:(technical report).
1816:10.1039/JR9330000395
1355:are usually used in
1285:Arabidopsis thaliana
860:Intercalating agents
854:Intercalating agents
674:agents, for example
467:sequence due to the
4321:In vitro toxicology
4311:Forensic toxicology
4040:European Commission
3994:(Suppl 8): 165–70.
3810:2009PNAS..10616663G
3436:10.1289/ehp.1103437
2757:(27): 19415–19426.
2722:10.1021/ed050pa44.2
2584:on 30 October 2012.
2505:1975PNAS...72.5135M
2450:1979Sci...204..587A
2392:1973PNAS...70..782A
2345:1947Sci...105..243A
2236:1936PNAS...22..572S
2186:1928Sci....68..186S
1993:1927Sci....66...84M
1743:10.1136/oem.14.1.68
1472:the mutagen is the
1348:Animal test systems
1138:alcohol consumption
1117:heterocyclic amines
959:Helicobacter pylori
946:who discovered the
914:DNA mismatch repair
872:frameshift mutation
652:)-nonenal, 4-oxo-2(
531:Ionizing radiations
4525:Biological warfare
4509:List of poisonings
4316:Medical toxicology
4286:Aquatic toxicology
1857:SCIENCE First Hand
1298:Cell culture assay
977:
948:Rous sarcoma virus
642:lipid peroxidation
638:electron transport
607:
379:DNA damaging agent
309:Charlotte Auerbach
255:ionizing radiation
101:
4758:
4757:
4714:Microtox bioassay
4607:
4606:
4423:Chelation therapy
4231:978-0-471-29321-7
4206:978-0-471-26508-5
4181:978-1-4613-3080-6
4107:10.1021/jf020302f
4101:(17): 4998–5006.
3897:on 10 August 2012
3682:978-0-309-05391-4
3586:on 12 April 2012.
3489:10.1021/tx9002287
3196:978-0-444-51571-1
2858:Mutation Research
2845:978-0-12-092860-6
2731:978-0-13-498863-4
2555:Mutation Research
2158:978-0-8053-7146-8
2040:978-1-4292-7634-4
1893:978-3-642-94811-4
1430:radiation therapy
1398:blue-white screen
1342:micronucleus Test
1234:Bacillus subtilis
1161:carcinogenicity.
1077:indole-3-carbinol
928:Biological agents
775:Chromium trioxide
634:hydrogen peroxide
630:hydroxyl radicals
582:Chemical mutagens
567:Radioactive decay
561:pyrimidine dimers
525:Physical mutagens
509:system and other
485:no safe threshold
383:DNA is replicated
359:immunosuppression
347:anabolic steroids
305:Chemical mutagens
79:
78:
71:
4793:
4748:
4747:
4738:
4737:
4728:
4727:
4634:
4627:
4620:
4611:
4595:
4594:
4583:
4582:
4571:
4570:
4474:Minamata disease
4408:Activated carbon
4357:Biomagnification
4301:Entomotoxicology
4265:
4258:
4251:
4242:
4236:
4235:
4217:
4211:
4210:
4192:
4186:
4185:
4167:
4161:
4160:
4134:
4125:
4119:
4118:
4090:
4084:
4083:
4065:
4059:
4058:
4056:
4054:
4048:
4042:. Archived from
4037:
4028:
4022:
4021:
4011:
3979:
3973:
3972:
3944:
3938:
3937:
3935:
3933:
3913:
3907:
3906:
3904:
3902:
3893:. Archived from
3883:
3877:
3876:
3848:
3842:
3841:
3831:
3821:
3789:
3783:
3782:
3748:
3739:
3733:
3732:
3696:
3687:
3686:
3665:
3656:
3655:
3645:
3613:
3607:
3606:
3594:
3588:
3587:
3585:
3574:
3566:
3560:
3559:
3557:
3534:
3525:(10): 1161–208.
3516:
3507:
3501:
3500:
3472:
3466:
3465:
3455:
3415:
3409:
3408:
3390:
3384:
3383:
3373:
3333:
3327:
3326:
3316:
3276:
3270:
3269:
3259:
3235:
3229:
3228:
3222:
3218:
3216:
3208:
3174:
3168:
3167:
3157:
3148:(31): 28337–46.
3133:
3127:
3126:
3119:
3113:
3112:
3084:
3078:
3077:
3067:
3035:
3029:
3028:
3022:
3014:
3012:
3010:
2991:
2985:
2984:
2956:
2950:
2949:
2947:
2945:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2912:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2853:
2847:
2837:
2828:
2827:
2799:
2793:
2792:
2782:
2742:
2736:
2735:
2699:
2693:
2692:
2690:
2675:
2667:
2661:
2660:
2650:
2626:
2620:
2619:
2595:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2577:. Archived from
2552:
2543:
2537:
2536:
2526:
2516:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2444:(4393): 587–93.
2430:
2424:
2423:
2413:
2403:
2371:
2365:
2364:
2325:
2319:
2318:
2274:
2268:
2267:
2257:
2247:
2212:
2206:
2205:
2169:
2163:
2162:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2127:
2095:
2089:
2088:
2063:(683): 540–545.
2051:
2045:
2044:
2026:
2020:
2019:
2017:
1978:
1969:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1921:
1912:
1901:
1900:
1871:
1865:
1864:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1826:
1820:
1819:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1788:10.11501/1675887
1771:
1765:
1764:
1754:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1704:
1698:
1697:
1690:www.medscape.com
1687:
1679:
1670:
1669:
1659:
1627:
1410:cyclophosphamide
1384:Transgenic mouse
1207:Escherichia coli
994:anticarcinogenic
864:ethidium bromide
821:, which include
820:
819:
769:synthetic rubber
700:ethylnitrosourea
461:silent mutations
363:endocrine system
355:tumour promotion
327:in the 1970s by
261:discovered that
113:genetic material
74:
67:
63:
60:
54:
49:this article by
40:inline citations
27:
26:
19:
4801:
4800:
4796:
4795:
4794:
4792:
4791:
4790:
4761:
4760:
4759:
4754:
4718:
4710: (TZ test)
4674:
4643:
4638:
4608:
4603:
4559:
4513:
4489:Seveso disaster
4469:Bhopal disaster
4447:
4396:
4352:Bioaccumulation
4330:
4274:
4269:
4239:
4232:
4219:
4218:
4214:
4207:
4194:
4193:
4189:
4182:
4169:
4168:
4164:
4132:
4127:
4126:
4122:
4092:
4091:
4087:
4067:
4066:
4062:
4052:
4050:
4046:
4035:
4030:
4029:
4025:
3981:
3980:
3976:
3955:(6): 1191–308.
3946:
3945:
3941:
3931:
3929:
3915:
3914:
3910:
3900:
3898:
3885:
3884:
3880:
3850:
3849:
3845:
3804:(39): 16663–8.
3791:
3790:
3786:
3746:
3741:
3740:
3736:
3698:
3697:
3690:
3683:
3667:
3666:
3659:
3615:
3614:
3610:
3596:
3595:
3591:
3583:
3572:
3568:
3567:
3563:
3555:
3532:10.1.1.498.2796
3514:
3509:
3508:
3504:
3474:
3473:
3469:
3417:
3416:
3412:
3392:
3391:
3387:
3335:
3334:
3330:
3278:
3277:
3273:
3250:(11): 7867–75.
3237:
3236:
3232:
3219:
3209:
3197:
3176:
3175:
3171:
3135:
3134:
3130:
3121:
3120:
3116:
3086:
3085:
3081:
3037:
3036:
3032:
3015:
3008:
3006:
2993:
2992:
2988:
2958:
2957:
2953:
2943:
2941:
2931:
2930:
2926:
2903:(37): 5848–54.
2890:
2889:
2885:
2855:
2854:
2850:
2838:
2831:
2810:(2–3): 94–109.
2801:
2800:
2796:
2744:
2743:
2739:
2732:
2712:(15 ed.).
2701:
2700:
2696:
2688:
2673:
2669:
2668:
2664:
2628:
2627:
2623:
2597:
2596:
2589:
2581:
2561:(1–4): 183–95.
2550:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2486:
2485:
2481:
2432:
2431:
2427:
2373:
2372:
2368:
2339:(2723): 243–7.
2327:
2326:
2322:
2276:
2275:
2271:
2214:
2213:
2209:
2180:(1756): 186–7.
2171:
2170:
2166:
2159:
2146:
2145:
2141:
2097:
2096:
2092:
2053:
2052:
2048:
2041:
2028:
2027:
2023:
2015:
1976:
1971:
1970:
1966:
1958:
1919:
1914:
1913:
1904:
1894:
1873:
1872:
1868:
1851:
1850:
1846:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1773:
1772:
1768:
1724:
1723:
1719:
1707:Hill J (1761).
1706:
1705:
1701:
1681:
1680:
1673:
1629:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1598:
1464:, while in the
1442:science fiction
1438:
1424:may be used in
1406:
1350:
1334:
1300:
1276:Plants such as
1274:
1260:
1244:
1173:
1167:
1158:
1146:cytochrome P450
1087:from red wine.
1073:prostate cancer
987:
979:Main articles:
969:
930:
885:
856:
835:
817:
816:
797:Aromatic amines
784:
719:Aromatic amines
698:agents such as
656:)-nonenal, and
615:
584:
543:alpha particles
527:
507:cytochrome P450
502:
407:
401:
375:
351:prostate cancer
338:
279:Edgar Altenburg
247:Henri Becquerel
243:Wilhelm Röntgen
168:
156:DNA replication
75:
64:
58:
55:
45:Please help to
44:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4799:
4797:
4789:
4788:
4783:
4778:
4773:
4763:
4762:
4756:
4755:
4723:
4720:
4719:
4717:
4716:
4711:
4708:Viability test
4705:
4700:
4695:
4690:
4684:
4682:
4676:
4675:
4673:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4651:
4649:
4645:
4644:
4639:
4637:
4636:
4629:
4622:
4614:
4605:
4604:
4602:
4601:
4589:
4577:
4564:
4561:
4560:
4558:
4557:
4552:
4547:
4542:
4537:
4532:
4527:
4521:
4519:
4518:Related topics
4515:
4514:
4512:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4491:
4486:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4466:
4461:
4455:
4453:
4449:
4448:
4446:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4428:Gastric lavage
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4404:
4402:
4398:
4397:
4395:
4394:
4389:
4384:
4382:Toxicity class
4379:
4377:Toxic capacity
4374:
4369:
4364:
4359:
4354:
4349:
4347:Acute toxicity
4344:
4338:
4336:
4332:
4331:
4329:
4328:
4326:Toxicogenomics
4323:
4318:
4313:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4288:
4282:
4280:
4276:
4275:
4270:
4268:
4267:
4260:
4253:
4245:
4238:
4237:
4230:
4212:
4205:
4187:
4180:
4162:
4120:
4085:
4060:
4049:on 19 May 2011
4023:
3974:
3939:
3908:
3891:Cancer Council
3878:
3843:
3784:
3734:
3688:
3681:
3657:
3628:(4): 397–411.
3608:
3589:
3561:
3502:
3483:(9): 1639–47.
3467:
3410:
3385:
3348:(2): 149–183.
3328:
3271:
3230:
3221:|journal=
3195:
3169:
3128:
3114:
3079:
3030:
2986:
2951:
2924:
2883:
2848:
2829:
2794:
2737:
2730:
2694:
2662:
2621:
2587:
2538:
2499:(12): 5135–9.
2479:
2425:
2366:
2320:
2269:
2207:
2164:
2157:
2139:
2090:
2069:10.1086/280230
2046:
2039:
2021:
1987:(1699): 84–7.
1964:
1930:(12): 1495–8.
1902:
1892:
1866:
1844:
1821:
1793:
1766:
1717:
1699:
1671:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1614:
1609:
1604:
1602:Carcinogenesis
1597:
1594:
1529:Gears of War 3
1454:Fantastic Four
1437:
1434:
1405:
1402:
1390:shuttle vector
1367:has occurred.
1349:
1346:
1333:
1330:
1299:
1296:
1273:
1270:
1259:
1254:
1243:
1240:
1239:
1238:
1222:
1203:
1195:S. typhimurium
1190:
1169:Main article:
1166:
1163:
1157:
1154:
968:
965:
964:
963:
951:
937:
929:
926:
884:
881:
880:
879:
855:
852:
851:
850:
834:
831:
805:
804:
799:
794:
783:
780:
779:
778:
772:
762:
756:
746:
740:
730:
716:
713:vinyl chloride
693:
687:
669:
614:
611:
583:
580:
579:
578:
564:
554:
526:
523:
515:cyclooxygenase
501:
498:
403:Main article:
400:
397:
374:
371:
337:
334:
259:Hermann Muller
251:Georgii Nadson
223:chimney sweeps
219:Percivall Pott
167:
164:
77:
76:
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4798:
4787:
4786:Radioactivity
4784:
4782:
4779:
4777:
4774:
4772:
4769:
4768:
4766:
4753:
4752:
4743:
4742:
4733:
4732:
4721:
4715:
4712:
4709:
4706:
4704:
4701:
4699:
4696:
4694:
4691:
4689:
4686:
4685:
4683:
4681:
4677:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4658:
4656:
4653:
4652:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4635:
4630:
4628:
4623:
4621:
4616:
4615:
4612:
4600:
4599:
4590:
4588:
4587:
4578:
4576:
4575:
4566:
4565:
4562:
4556:
4553:
4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4540:Hazard symbol
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4522:
4520:
4516:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4460:
4457:
4456:
4454:
4450:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4438:Hemoperfusion
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4405:
4403:
4399:
4393:
4390:
4388:
4385:
4383:
4380:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4368:
4365:
4363:
4360:
4358:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4345:
4343:
4340:
4339:
4337:
4333:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4314:
4312:
4309:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4292:
4291:Ecotoxicology
4289:
4287:
4284:
4283:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4266:
4261:
4259:
4254:
4252:
4247:
4246:
4243:
4233:
4227:
4223:
4216:
4213:
4208:
4202:
4198:
4191:
4188:
4183:
4177:
4173:
4166:
4163:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4143:(3): 155–65.
4142:
4138:
4131:
4124:
4121:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4089:
4086:
4081:
4077:
4076:
4071:
4064:
4061:
4045:
4041:
4034:
4027:
4024:
4019:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3978:
3975:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3958:
3954:
3950:
3943:
3940:
3927:
3923:
3922:New Scientist
3919:
3912:
3909:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3882:
3879:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3859:(3): 258–81.
3858:
3854:
3847:
3844:
3839:
3835:
3830:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3788:
3785:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3757:(4): 407–13.
3756:
3752:
3745:
3738:
3735:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3707:(7): 769–81.
3706:
3702:
3695:
3693:
3689:
3684:
3678:
3674:
3670:
3664:
3662:
3658:
3653:
3649:
3644:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3612:
3609:
3604:
3600:
3593:
3590:
3582:
3578:
3571:
3565:
3562:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3513:
3506:
3503:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3471:
3468:
3463:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3414:
3411:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3397:
3389:
3386:
3381:
3377:
3372:
3367:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3332:
3329:
3324:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3275:
3272:
3267:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3249:
3245:
3241:
3234:
3231:
3226:
3214:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3173:
3170:
3165:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3132:
3129:
3124:
3118:
3115:
3110:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3083:
3080:
3075:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3034:
3031:
3026:
3020:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2990:
2987:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2967:(2): 81–107.
2966:
2962:
2955:
2952:
2939:
2935:
2928:
2925:
2920:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2902:
2898:
2894:
2887:
2884:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2852:
2849:
2846:
2842:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2798:
2795:
2790:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2741:
2738:
2733:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2711:
2710:
2705:
2698:
2695:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2672:
2666:
2663:
2658:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2641:(3): 455–60.
2640:
2636:
2632:
2625:
2622:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2594:
2592:
2588:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2549:
2542:
2539:
2534:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2483:
2480:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2429:
2426:
2421:
2417:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2370:
2367:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2324:
2321:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2289:(6): 561–79.
2288:
2284:
2280:
2273:
2270:
2265:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2230:(10): 572–8.
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2211:
2208:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2168:
2165:
2160:
2154:
2150:
2143:
2140:
2135:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2110:(4): 1491–6.
2109:
2105:
2101:
2094:
2091:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2059:
2058:
2050:
2047:
2042:
2036:
2032:
2025:
2022:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1982:
1975:
1968:
1965:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1918:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1870:
1867:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1848:
1845:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1825:
1822:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1804:J. Chem. Soc.
1797:
1794:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1770:
1767:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1721:
1718:
1713:
1712:
1703:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1686:
1678:
1676:
1672:
1667:
1663:
1658:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1626:
1623:
1617:
1613:
1610:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1590:
1585:
1584:
1579:
1578:
1573:
1572:
1567:
1566:
1561:
1560:
1555:
1554:
1549:
1548:
1543:
1542:
1537:
1536:
1531:
1530:
1525:
1524:
1520:
1519:Freedom Force
1515:
1514:
1509:
1508:
1507:Resident Evil
1503:
1502:
1497:
1496:
1491:
1490:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1475:
1474:Terrigen Mist
1471:
1467:
1466:Ninja Turtles
1463:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1450:Marvel Comics
1447:
1443:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1415:
1411:
1403:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1385:
1380:
1378:
1377:uterine horns
1373:
1368:
1364:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1347:
1345:
1343:
1339:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1316:
1315:6-thioguanine
1312:
1310:
1305:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1292:
1287:
1286:
1281:
1280:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1265:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1250:
1241:
1236:
1235:
1230:
1226:
1223:
1220:
1216:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1201:
1197:
1196:
1191:
1188:
1184:
1183:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1172:
1164:
1162:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1105:
1101:
1096:
1094:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
986:
982:
973:
966:
961:
960:
955:
952:
949:
945:
941:
938:
935:
932:
931:
927:
925:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
902:
898:
894:
890:
882:
877:
873:
869:
865:
861:
858:
857:
853:
848:
847:2-aminopurine
844:
843:5-bromouracil
840:
837:
836:
832:
830:
828:
824:
823:furocoumarins
818:photomutagens
814:
813:visible light
810:
803:
800:
798:
795:
792:
789:
788:
787:
781:
776:
773:
770:
766:
763:
760:
757:
754:
750:
747:
744:
741:
738:
734:
731:
728:
724:
720:
717:
714:
710:
705:
701:
697:
694:
691:
688:
685:
681:
677:
673:
670:
667:
663:
660:-4,5-epoxy-2(
659:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
620:
619:
618:
612:
610:
605:
604:tobacco smoke
601:
597:
593:
588:
581:
576:
572:
568:
565:
562:
558:
555:
552:
548:
544:
540:
536:
532:
529:
528:
524:
522:
520:
516:
512:
508:
499:
497:
494:
490:
486:
480:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
453:
449:
445:
442:
438:
433:
431:
427:
423:
419:
418:translocation
414:
412:
406:
398:
396:
393:
388:
384:
380:
372:
370:
368:
364:
360:
356:
352:
348:
343:
335:
333:
332:carcinogens.
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
300:
296:
295:Lewis Stadler
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
239:
237:
233:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
165:
163:
161:
160:recombination
158:, repair and
157:
153:
149:
145:
140:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
99:
95:
91:
88:
87:international
83:
73:
70:
62:
52:
48:
42:
41:
35:
30:
21:
20:
4749:
4739:
4729:
4703:Seed testing
4654:
4641:Genotoxicity
4596:
4584:
4572:
4549:
4433:Hemodialysis
4221:
4215:
4196:
4190:
4171:
4165:
4140:
4136:
4123:
4098:
4094:
4088:
4075:The Guardian
4073:
4063:
4051:. Retrieved
4044:the original
4026:
3991:
3987:
3977:
3952:
3948:
3942:
3930:. Retrieved
3921:
3911:
3899:. Retrieved
3895:the original
3890:
3881:
3856:
3852:
3846:
3801:
3797:
3787:
3754:
3750:
3737:
3704:
3700:
3672:
3625:
3621:
3611:
3602:
3598:
3592:
3581:the original
3576:
3564:
3522:
3518:
3505:
3480:
3476:
3470:
3430:(1): 62–67.
3427:
3423:
3413:
3395:
3388:
3345:
3341:
3331:
3288:
3284:
3274:
3247:
3243:
3233:
3178:
3172:
3145:
3141:
3131:
3117:
3092:
3088:
3082:
3047:
3043:
3033:
3007:. Retrieved
2998:
2989:
2964:
2960:
2954:
2942:. Retrieved
2937:
2927:
2900:
2896:
2886:
2864:(1): 19–24.
2861:
2857:
2851:
2807:
2803:
2797:
2754:
2750:
2740:
2708:
2697:
2677:
2665:
2638:
2634:
2624:
2599:
2579:the original
2558:
2554:
2541:
2496:
2492:
2482:
2441:
2437:
2428:
2386:(3): 782–6.
2383:
2379:
2369:
2336:
2332:
2323:
2286:
2282:
2272:
2227:
2223:
2210:
2177:
2173:
2167:
2148:
2142:
2107:
2103:
2093:
2060:
2055:
2049:
2030:
2024:
1984:
1980:
1967:
1927:
1923:
1897:
1875:
1869:
1856:
1847:
1838:
1834:
1824:
1807:
1802:
1796:
1779:
1775:
1769:
1737:(1): 68–70.
1734:
1730:
1720:
1709:
1702:
1689:
1642:(3): 665–7.
1639:
1635:
1625:
1587:
1581:
1575:
1569:
1563:
1557:
1551:
1545:
1539:
1533:
1527:
1517:
1511:
1505:
1499:
1493:
1487:
1484:System Shock
1477:
1439:
1426:chemotherapy
1418:daunorubicin
1407:
1393:
1382:
1381:
1371:
1369:
1365:
1351:
1341:
1337:
1335:
1326:
1318:
1307:
1301:
1291:Tradescantia
1289:
1283:
1277:
1275:
1272:Plant assays
1262:
1261:
1256:
1247:
1245:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1212:
1206:
1205:
1200:8-Azaguanine
1194:
1192:
1180:
1176:
1159:
1156:Test systems
1150:
1142:acetaldehyde
1104:Richard Peto
1100:Richard Doll
1097:
1089:
1065:sulforaphane
1058:
1016:precursors,
990:Antioxidants
988:
985:Antioxidants
957:
886:
876:daunorubicin
833:Base analogs
806:
785:
749:Sodium azide
704:Nitrosamines
676:nitrous acid
661:
657:
653:
649:
645:
616:
608:
503:
481:
437:nucleic acid
434:
415:
408:
376:
367:inflammation
342:Sodium azide
339:
313:J. M. Robson
303:
269:, producing
240:
198:
169:
141:
108:
102:
94:carcinogenic
65:
56:
37:
4751:WikiProject
4693:Comet assay
4598:WikiProject
4535:Food safety
4367:Lethal dose
2944:18 November
2635:Mutagenesis
1810:: 395–405.
1782:: 295–344.
1489:The Witcher
1446:superheroes
1422:doxorubicin
1357:animal test
1085:resveratrol
1026:polyphenols
981:Antimutagen
944:Peyton Rous
940:Oncoviruses
934:Transposons
839:Base analog
723:Ludwig Rehn
709:mustard gas
672:Deaminating
600:benzopyrene
557:Ultraviolet
519:promutagens
405:Mutagenesis
317:mustard gas
315:found that
299:ultraviolet
267:fruit flies
236:benzopyrene
195:Hippocrates
184:chromosomes
172:carcinogens
144:mutagenesis
133:carcinogens
51:introducing
4765:Categories
4698:algal test
4670:Carcinogen
4530:Carcinogen
4401:Treatments
4272:Toxicology
3605:: 595–609.
2940:. 2023 Jan
2938:StatPearls
2751:Oncotarget
2329:Auerbach C
2216:Stadler LJ
1618:References
1583:Tarantula!
1436:In fiction
1264:Sex-Linked
1257:Drosophila
1225:DNA repair
1219:Tryptophan
1134:acrylamide
1122:cured meat
1113:aflatoxins
1109:mycotoxins
1048:, such as
1046:Flavonoids
1030:β-Carotene
1014:carotenoid
1006:vegetables
967:Protection
868:proflavine
862:, such as
696:Alkylating
626:superoxide
596:metabolite
592:DNA adduct
569:, such as
551:cesium-137
539:gamma rays
511:oxygenases
493:DNA repair
477:aneuploidy
469:redundancy
465:amino-acid
448:insertions
444:base-pairs
441:nucleotide
430:clastogens
387:nucleotide
329:Bruce Ames
319:can cause
283:Drosophila
271:phenotypic
203:Paracelsus
148:hydrolysis
115:, usually
59:April 2023
34:references
4688:Ames test
4660:Clastogen
4452:Incidents
4418:Cathartic
3527:CiteSeerX
3444:1552-9924
3362:1059-0501
3305:1342-078X
3223:ignored (
3213:cite book
3205:0378-6080
3095:: 27–49.
3050:: 77–91.
2771:1949-2553
2311:222100404
1682:Luch, A.
1553:Underrail
1535:StarCraft
1458:Daredevil
1414:cisplatin
1187:histidine
1177:Ames test
1171:Ames test
1165:Bacterial
1130:ascorbate
1054:green tea
1042:N-nitroso
1022:vitamin E
1018:vitamin C
1010:vitamin A
771:and dyes.
547:cobalt-60
452:deletions
426:inversion
411:genotoxic
325:Ames test
321:mutations
211:John Hill
192:physician
166:Discovery
125:mutations
90:pictogram
4776:Mutation
4771:Mutagens
4731:Category
4574:Category
4413:Antidote
4335:Concepts
4157:15082451
4115:12166997
4080:Archived
3926:Archived
3873:20709209
3838:19805354
3771:21779961
3729:36973911
3721:22684632
3671:(1996).
3652:19867421
3553:Archived
3549:15892631
3497:19725558
3462:21859636
3380:12515673
3323:25877777
3266:11096071
3164:15964853
3109:15822170
3074:27036068
3019:cite web
3003:Archived
3001:. 2017.
2999:phys.org
2981:11013390
2919:12947391
2897:Oncogene
2824:19631282
2789:29721213
2686:Archived
2684:. 1991.
2657:21398403
2361:17769478
2315:Archived
2303:12511035
2264:16588111
2202:17774921
2104:Genetics
2085:83653780
2057:Am. Nat.
2013:Archived
2009:17802387
1956:Archived
1944:21717110
1861:Archived
1761:13396156
1694:Archived
1666:20049643
1596:See also
1565:Godzilla
1559:Maneater
1541:BioShock
1513:Infamous
1470:Inhumans
1279:Zea mays
1124:such as
1093:melanoma
1069:broccoli
1061:Selenium
1038:tomatoes
1012:and its
954:Bacteria
897:chromium
827:limettin
759:Psoralen
733:Alkaloid
680:cytosine
575:nitrogen
533:such as
513:such as
457:proteins
422:deletion
392:mutation
287:genetics
199:karkinos
121:organism
119:, in an
105:genetics
4741:Commons
4665:Aneugen
4655:Mutagen
4586:Commons
4550:Mutagen
4018:8741778
4009:1518978
3969:7017215
3829:2757849
3806:Bibcode
3779:1692747
3643:2124874
3453:3261936
3405:7252502
3371:3812823
3314:4434237
3065:4818947
2878:3099192
2780:5922407
2714:Pearson
2678:nih.gov
2616:3905369
2575:3285186
2533:1061098
2501:Bibcode
2466:1748159
2446:Bibcode
2438:Science
2434:Ames BN
2420:4577135
2388:Bibcode
2341:Bibcode
2333:Science
2255:1076819
2232:Bibcode
2182:Bibcode
2174:Science
2149:Biology
2134:9409815
2125:1208325
2077:2457052
1989:Bibcode
1981:Science
1952:4708210
1752:1037746
1657:2820670
1547:Fallout
1479:Cyberia
1394:E. coli
1353:Rodents
1320:ouabain
1229:E. coli
1214:E. coli
1209:systems
1034:carrots
906:histone
893:cadmium
889:arsenic
802:Benzene
765:Benzene
743:Bromine
399:Effects
234:(PAH),
109:mutagen
47:improve
4680:Assays
4372:Poison
4279:Fields
4228:
4203:
4178:
4155:
4113:
4053:21 Aug
4016:
4006:
3967:
3932:24 Jan
3871:
3836:
3826:
3777:
3769:
3727:
3719:
3679:
3650:
3640:
3547:
3529:
3495:
3460:
3450:
3442:
3403:
3378:
3368:
3360:
3321:
3311:
3303:
3264:
3203:
3193:
3162:
3107:
3072:
3062:
3009:24 Jan
2979:
2917:
2876:
2843:
2822:
2787:
2777:
2769:
2728:
2655:
2614:
2573:
2531:
2524:388891
2521:
2474:373122
2472:
2464:
2418:
2411:433358
2408:
2359:
2309:
2301:
2262:
2252:
2200:
2155:
2132:
2122:
2083:
2075:
2037:
2007:
1950:
1942:
1890:
1759:
1749:
1664:
1654:
1586:, and
1556:, and
1460:, and
1361:gavage
1317:, and
1002:fruits
916:, and
910:cobalt
901:nickel
883:Metals
793:(PAHs)
684:uracil
535:X-rays
473:codons
424:, and
263:x-rays
180:Tumors
176:cancer
152:errors
129:cancer
36:, but
4648:Agent
4392:Venom
4387:Toxin
4133:(PDF)
4047:(PDF)
4036:(PDF)
3901:2 Jul
3775:S2CID
3747:(PDF)
3725:S2CID
3584:(PDF)
3573:(PDF)
3556:(PDF)
3515:(PDF)
2689:(PDF)
2674:(PDF)
2582:(PDF)
2551:(PDF)
2462:JSTOR
2307:S2CID
2081:S2CID
2073:JSTOR
2016:(PDF)
1977:(PDF)
1959:(PDF)
1948:S2CID
1920:(PDF)
1571:Them!
1386:assay
1311:assay
1242:Yeast
1126:bacon
1079:from
753:azide
751:, an
737:Vinca
640:, or
602:from
500:Types
291:genes
215:snuff
207:radon
4226:ISBN
4201:ISBN
4176:ISBN
4153:PMID
4111:PMID
4055:2010
4014:PMID
3965:PMID
3934:2019
3903:2010
3869:PMID
3834:PMID
3767:PMID
3717:PMID
3677:ISBN
3648:PMID
3577:EBRC
3545:PMID
3493:PMID
3458:PMID
3440:ISSN
3401:OSTI
3376:PMID
3358:ISSN
3319:PMID
3301:ISSN
3262:PMID
3225:help
3201:ISSN
3191:ISBN
3160:PMID
3105:PMID
3070:PMID
3025:link
3011:2019
2977:PMID
2946:2023
2915:PMID
2874:PMID
2841:ISBN
2820:PMID
2785:PMID
2767:ISSN
2726:ISBN
2653:PMID
2612:PMID
2571:PMID
2529:PMID
2470:PMID
2416:PMID
2357:PMID
2299:PMID
2260:PMID
2198:PMID
2153:ISBN
2130:PMID
2035:ISBN
2005:PMID
1940:PMID
1888:ISBN
1841:(1).
1757:PMID
1662:PMID
1462:Hulk
1420:and
1412:and
1309:HPRT
1288:and
1231:and
1102:and
1083:and
1050:EGCG
1036:and
1004:and
983:and
920:and
918:base
904:and
866:and
845:and
825:and
711:and
632:and
549:and
541:and
450:and
446:and
311:and
227:soot
186:and
107:, a
85:The
4145:doi
4103:doi
4004:PMC
3996:doi
3992:103
3957:doi
3861:doi
3824:PMC
3814:doi
3802:106
3759:doi
3709:doi
3638:PMC
3630:doi
3537:doi
3485:doi
3448:PMC
3432:doi
3428:120
3366:PMC
3350:doi
3309:PMC
3293:doi
3252:doi
3248:276
3183:doi
3150:doi
3146:280
3097:doi
3060:PMC
3052:doi
3048:767
2969:doi
2905:doi
2866:doi
2862:190
2812:doi
2808:682
2775:PMC
2759:doi
2718:doi
2682:NIH
2643:doi
2604:doi
2563:doi
2559:205
2519:PMC
2509:doi
2454:doi
2442:204
2406:PMC
2396:doi
2349:doi
2337:105
2291:doi
2250:PMC
2240:doi
2190:doi
2120:PMC
2112:doi
2108:147
2065:doi
1997:doi
1932:doi
1880:doi
1812:doi
1784:doi
1747:PMC
1739:doi
1711:use
1652:PMC
1644:doi
1516:,
1452:'s
1448:in
1440:In
1052:in
998:ROS
811:or
682:to
658:cis
598:of
471:of
188:DNA
154:in
117:DNA
103:In
96:or
4767::
4151:.
4141:39
4139:.
4135:.
4109:.
4099:50
4097:.
4078:.
4072:.
4038:.
4012:.
4002:.
3990:.
3986:.
3963:.
3953:66
3951:.
3924:.
3920:.
3889:.
3867:.
3857:37
3855:.
3832:.
3822:.
3812:.
3800:.
3796:.
3773:.
3765:.
3755:51
3753:.
3749:.
3723:.
3715:.
3705:51
3703:.
3691:^
3660:^
3646:.
3636:.
3626:13
3624:.
3620:.
3603:46
3601:.
3575:.
3551:.
3543:.
3535:.
3523:12
3521:.
3517:.
3491:.
3481:22
3479:.
3456:.
3446:.
3438:.
3426:.
3422:.
3399:.
3374:.
3364:.
3356:.
3346:20
3344:.
3340:.
3317:.
3307:.
3299:.
3289:20
3287:.
3283:.
3260:.
3246:.
3242:.
3217::
3215:}}
3211:{{
3199:.
3189:.
3158:.
3144:.
3140:.
3103:.
3093:45
3091:.
3068:.
3058:.
3046:.
3042:.
3021:}}
3017:{{
2997:.
2975:.
2965:47
2963:.
2936:.
2913:.
2901:22
2899:.
2895:.
2872:.
2860:.
2832:^
2818:.
2806:.
2783:.
2773:.
2765:.
2753:.
2749:.
2724:.
2716:.
2706:.
2676:.
2651:.
2639:26
2637:.
2633:.
2610:.
2590:^
2569:.
2557:.
2553:.
2527:.
2517:.
2507:.
2497:72
2495:.
2491:.
2468:.
2460:.
2452:.
2440:.
2414:.
2404:.
2394:.
2384:70
2382:.
2378:.
2355:.
2347:.
2335:.
2313:.
2305:.
2297:.
2287:76
2285:.
2281:.
2258:.
2248:.
2238:.
2228:22
2226:.
2222:.
2196:.
2188:.
2178:68
2176:.
2128:.
2118:.
2106:.
2102:.
2079:.
2071:.
2061:62
2011:.
2003:.
1995:.
1985:66
1983:.
1979:.
1954:.
1946:.
1938:.
1928:85
1926:.
1922:.
1905:^
1896:.
1886:.
1855:.
1837:.
1833:.
1808:24
1780:15
1778:.
1755:.
1745:.
1735:14
1733:.
1729:.
1692:.
1688:.
1674:^
1660:.
1650:.
1640:17
1638:.
1634:.
1592:.
1580:,
1574:,
1568:,
1550:,
1544:,
1538:,
1532:,
1526:,
1521:,
1510:,
1504:,
1498:,
1492:,
1486:,
1456:,
1432:.
1379:.
1324:.
1282:,
1227:–
1217:.
1024:,
1020:,
924:.
899:,
895:,
891:,
829:.
809:UV
628:,
590:A
537:,
521:.
432:.
420:,
377:A
357:,
249:.
178:.
162:.
150:,
4633:e
4626:t
4619:v
4264:e
4257:t
4250:v
4234:.
4209:.
4184:.
4159:.
4147::
4117:.
4105::
4057:.
4020:.
3998::
3971:.
3959::
3936:.
3905:.
3875:.
3863::
3840:.
3816::
3808::
3781:.
3761::
3731:.
3711::
3685:.
3654:.
3632::
3539::
3499:.
3487::
3464:.
3434::
3407:.
3382:.
3352::
3325:.
3295::
3268:.
3254::
3227:)
3207:.
3185::
3166:.
3152::
3125:.
3111:.
3099::
3076:.
3054::
3027:)
2983:.
2971::
2948:.
2921:.
2907::
2880:.
2868::
2826:.
2814::
2791:.
2761::
2755:9
2734:.
2720::
2659:.
2645::
2618:.
2606::
2565::
2535:.
2511::
2503::
2476:.
2456::
2448::
2422:.
2398::
2390::
2363:.
2351::
2343::
2293::
2266:.
2242::
2234::
2204:.
2192::
2184::
2161:.
2136:.
2114::
2087:.
2067::
2043:.
1999::
1991::
1934::
1882::
1839:1
1818:.
1814::
1790:.
1786::
1763:.
1741::
1668:.
1646::
1481:,
1128:(
950:.
849:.
715:.
686:.
662:E
654:E
650:E
646:E
577:.
571:C
553:.
72:)
66:(
61:)
57:(
43:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
