Nervous system - Knowledge (XXG)

1709:—that is, rhythmicity with a period of approximately 24 hours. All animals that have been studied show circadian fluctuations in neural activity, which control circadian alternations in behavior such as the sleep-wake cycle. Experimental studies dating from the 1990s have shown that circadian rhythms are generated by a "genetic clock" consisting of a special set of genes whose expression level rises and falls over the course of the day. Animals as diverse as insects and vertebrates share a similar genetic clock system. The circadian clock is influenced by light but continues to operate even when light levels are held constant and no other external time-of-day cues are available. The clock genes are expressed in many parts of the nervous system as well as many peripheral organs, but in mammals, all of these "tissue clocks" are kept in synchrony by signals that emanate from a master timekeeper in a tiny part of the brain called the 506: 1479:. The NMDA receptor has an "associative" property: if the two cells involved in the synapse are both activated at approximately the same time, a channel opens that permits calcium to flow into the target cell. The calcium entry initiates a second messenger cascade that ultimately leads to an increase in the number of glutamate receptors in the target cell, thereby increasing the effective strength of the synapse. This change in strength can last for weeks or longer. Since the discovery of LTP in 1973, many other types of synaptic memory traces have been found, involving increases or decreases in synaptic strength that are induced by varying conditions, and last for variable periods of time. The 908:, and numerous phyla of "worms". There is a basic difference between the two groups in the placement of the nervous system within the body: protostomes possess a nerve cord on the ventral (usually bottom) side of the body, whereas in deuterostomes the nerve cord is on the dorsal (usually top) side. In fact, numerous aspects of the body are inverted between the two groups, including the expression patterns of several genes that show dorsal-to-ventral gradients. Most anatomists now consider that the bodies of protostomes and deuterostomes are "flipped over" with respect to each other, a hypothesis that was first proposed by 1452:, which has only a few known exceptions, a neuron releases the same neurotransmitters at all of its synapses. This does not mean, though, that a neuron exerts the same effect on all of its targets, because the effect of a synapse depends not on the neurotransmitter, but on the receptors that it activates. Because different targets can (and frequently do) use different types of receptors, it is possible for a neuron to have excitatory effects on one set of target cells, inhibitory effects on others, and complex modulatory effects on others still. Nevertheless, it happens that the two most widely used neurotransmitters, 1207:, then straightens, thereby propelling itself rapidly forward. Functionally this is a fast escape response, triggered most easily by a strong sound wave or pressure wave impinging on the lateral line organ of the fish. Mauthner cells are not the only identified neurons in fish—there are about 20 more types, including pairs of "Mauthner cell analogs" in each spinal segmental nucleus. Although a Mauthner cell is capable of bringing about an escape response individually, in the context of ordinary behavior other types of cells usually contribute to shaping the amplitude and direction of the response. 850: 1240:

appropriate response, and sending output signals to muscles or glands to activate the response. The evolution of a complex nervous system has made it possible for various animal species to have advanced perception abilities such as vision, complex social interactions, rapid coordination of organ systems, and integrated processing of concurrent signals. In humans, the sophistication of the nervous system makes it possible to have language, abstract representation of concepts, transmission of culture, and many other features of human society that would not exist without the human brain.

818:, and related animals have diffuse nerve nets rather than a central nervous system. In most jellyfish the nerve net is spread more or less evenly across the body; in comb jellies it is concentrated near the mouth. The nerve nets consist of sensory neurons, which pick up chemical, tactile, and visual signals; motor neurons, which can activate contractions of the body wall; and intermediate neurons, which detect patterns of activity in the sensory neurons and, in response, send signals to groups of motor neurons. In some cases groups of intermediate neurons are clustered into discrete 1460:, each have largely consistent effects. Glutamate has several widely occurring types of receptors, but all of them are excitatory or modulatory. Similarly, GABA has several widely occurring receptor types, but all of them are inhibitory. Because of this consistency, glutamatergic cells are frequently referred to as "excitatory neurons", and GABAergic cells as "inhibitory neurons". Strictly speaking, this is an abuse of terminology—it is the receptors that are excitatory and inhibitory, not the neurons—but it is commonly seen even in scholarly publications. 861:, meaning animals with left and right sides that are approximate mirror images of each other. All bilateria are thought to have descended from a common wormlike ancestor that appear as fossils beginning in the Ediacaran period, 550–600 million years ago. The fundamental bilaterian body form is a tube with a hollow gut cavity running from mouth to anus, and a nerve cord with an enlargement (a "ganglion") for each body segment, with an especially large ganglion at the front, called the "brain". 1441:. When a chemically gated ion channel is activated, it forms a passage that allows specific types of ions to flow across the membrane. Depending on the type of ion, the effect on the target cell may be excitatory or inhibitory. When a second messenger system is activated, it starts a cascade of molecular interactions inside the target cell, which may ultimately produce a wide variety of complex effects, such as increasing or decreasing the sensitivity of the cell to stimuli, or even altering 1576: 1681:

each stage, important information is extracted from the signal ensemble and unimportant information is discarded. By the end of the process, input signals representing "points of light" have been transformed into a neural representation of objects in the surrounding world and their properties. The most sophisticated sensory processing occurs inside the brain, but complex feature extraction also takes place in the spinal cord and in peripheral sensory organs such as the retina.

1351: 4925: 4914: 1013: 49: 922: 659: 1249: 2086:. If an injury to the spine produces nothing worse than swelling, the symptoms may be transient, but if nerve fibers in the spine are actually destroyed, the loss of function is usually permanent. Experimental studies have shown that spinal nerve fibers attempt to regrow in the same way as nerve fibers, but in the spinal cord, tissue destruction usually produces scar tissue that cannot be penetrated by the regrowing nerves. 1690:

embedded in the membrane of a neuron, many types of neurons are capable, even in isolation, of generating rhythmic sequences of action potentials, or rhythmic alternations between high-rate bursting and quiescence. When neurons that are intrinsically rhythmic are connected to each other by excitatory or inhibitory synapses, the resulting networks are capable of a wide variety of dynamical behaviors, including

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brain, giving rise eventually to activation of motor neurons and thereby to muscle contraction, i.e., to overt responses. Descartes believed that all of the behaviors of animals, and most of the behaviors of humans, could be explained in terms of stimulus-response circuits, although he also believed that higher cognitive functions such as language were not capable of being explained mechanistically.

1133: 1222:, used for pioneering experiments in neurophysiology because of their enormous size, both participate in the fast escape circuit of the squid. The concept of a command neuron has, however, become controversial, because of studies showing that some neurons that initially appeared to fit the description were really only capable of evoking a response in a limited set of circumstances. 2008: 1567:

circuits, the possibilities for generating intricate temporal patterns become far more extensive. A modern conception views the function of the nervous system partly in terms of stimulus-response chains, and partly in terms of intrinsically generated activity patterns—both types of activity interact with each other to generate the full repertoire of behavior.

651: 1524: 2098: 865: 1943:, both secreted by the mesoderm, are capable of inhibiting BMP4 and thereby inducing ectoderm to turn into neural tissue. It appears that a similar molecular mechanism is involved for widely disparate types of animals, including arthropods as well as vertebrates. In some animals, however, another type of molecule called 615:, it is estimated that the total number of glia roughly equals the number of neurons, although the proportions vary in different brain areas. Among the most important functions of glial cells are to support neurons and hold them in place; to supply nutrients to neurons; to insulate neurons electrically; to destroy 1867: 1769:

abilities. However, to date, no widely accepted neural or computational models have been put forward to describe how mirror neuron activity supports cognitive functions such as imitation. There are neuroscientists who caution that the claims being made for the role of mirror neurons are not supported

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and generating patterns of activity intrinsically, without requiring an external stimulus. Neurons were found to be capable of producing regular sequences of action potentials, or sequences of bursts, even in complete isolation. When intrinsically active neurons are connected to each other in complex

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Historically, for many years the predominant view of the function of the nervous system was as a stimulus-response associator. In this conception, neural processing begins with stimuli that activate sensory neurons, producing signals that propagate through chains of connections in the spinal cord and

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At a more integrative level, the primary function of the nervous system is to control the body. It does this by extracting information from the environment using sensory receptors, sending signals that encode this information into the central nervous system, processing the information to determine an

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into the internal circulation, so that they can diffuse to distant sites. In contrast to this "broadcast" mode of signaling, the nervous system provides "point-to-point" signals—neurons project their axons to specific target areas and make synaptic connections with specific target cells. Thus, neural

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of fish. Every fish has two Mauthner cells, in the bottom part of the brainstem, one on the left side and one on the right. Each Mauthner cell has an axon that crosses over, innervating neurons at the same brain level and then travelling down through the spinal cord, making numerous connections as it

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axons, and takes its color from the myelin. White matter includes all of the nerves, and much of the interior of the brain and spinal cord. Gray matter is found in clusters of neurons in the brain and spinal cord, and in cortical layers that line their surfaces. There is an anatomical convention that

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The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is a collective term for the nervous system structures that do not lie within the CNS. The large majority of the axon bundles called nerves are considered to belong to the PNS, even when the cell bodies of the neurons to which they belong reside within the brain or

402:, and branch repeatedly to innervate every part of the body. Nerves are large enough to have been recognized by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, but their internal structure was not understood until it became possible to examine them using a microscope. The author Michael Nikoletseas wrote: 1689:

Although stimulus-response mechanisms are the easiest to understand, the nervous system is also capable of controlling the body in ways that do not require an external stimulus, by means of internally generated rhythms of activity. Because of the variety of voltage-sensitive ion channels that can be

803:(the signal-receiving part of a synapse). However, the function of this structure is currently unclear. Although sponge cells do not show synaptic transmission, they do communicate with each other via calcium waves and other impulses, which mediate some simple actions such as whole-body contraction. 1184:

if it has properties that distinguish it from every other neuron in the same animal—properties such as location, neurotransmitter, gene expression pattern, and connectivity—and if every individual organism belonging to the same species has one and only one neuron with the same set of properties. In

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Even mammals, including humans, show the segmented bilaterian body plan at the level of the nervous system. The spinal cord contains a series of segmental ganglia, each giving rise to motor and sensory nerves that innervate a portion of the body surface and underlying musculature. On the limbs, the

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Although the simplest reflexes may be mediated by circuits lying entirely within the spinal cord, more complex responses rely on signal processing in the brain. For example, when an object in the periphery of the visual field moves, and a person looks toward it many stages of signal processing are

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in the skin that are activated by harmful levels of heat: a special type of molecular structure embedded in the membrane causes heat to change the electrical field across the membrane. If the change in electrical potential is large enough to pass the given threshold, it evokes an action potential,

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The acephalic molluscs (i.e., bivalves) also have this ring but it is less obvious and less important. The bivalves have only three pairs of ganglia— cerebral, pedal, and visceral— with the visceral as the largest and most important of the three functioning as the principal center of "thinking".

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of the eye are only individually capable of detecting "points of light" in the outside world. Second-level visual neurons receive input from groups of primary receptors, higher-level neurons receive input from groups of second-level neurons, and so on, forming a hierarchy of processing stages. At

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are much more common, and much more diverse in function. At a chemical synapse, the cell that sends signals is called presynaptic, and the cell that receives signals is called postsynaptic. Both the presynaptic and postsynaptic areas are full of molecular machinery that carries out the signalling

1960:, neuroblasts divide asymmetrically, so that one product is a "ganglion mother cell" (GMC), and the other is a neuroblast. A GMC divides once, to give rise to either a pair of neurons or a pair of glial cells. In all, a neuroblast is capable of generating an indefinite number of neurons or glia. 1605:

that project to motor neurons controlling the arm muscles. The interneurons excite the motor neurons, and if the excitation is strong enough, some of the motor neurons generate action potentials, which travel down their axons to the point where they make excitatory synaptic contacts with muscle

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There are literally hundreds of different types of synapses. In fact, there are over a hundred known neurotransmitters, and many of them have multiple types of receptors. Many synapses use more than one neurotransmitter—a common arrangement is for a synapse to use one fast-acting small-molecule

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that transmute neural signals into activation of muscles or glands; however in many species the great majority of neurons participate in the formation of centralized structures (the brain and ganglia) and they receive all of their input from other neurons and send their output to other neurons.

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In insects, many neurons have cell bodies that are positioned at the edge of the brain and are electrically passive—the cell bodies serve only to provide metabolic support and do not participate in signalling. A protoplasmic fiber runs from the cell body and branches profusely, with some parts

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that wraps around axons and provides electrical insulation which allows them to transmit action potentials much more rapidly and efficiently. Recent findings indicate that glial cells, such as microglia and astrocytes, serve as important resident immune cells within the central nervous system.

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which is transmitted along the axon of the receptor cell, into the spinal cord. There the axon makes excitatory synaptic contacts with other cells, some of which project (send axonal output) to the same region of the spinal cord, others projecting into the brain. One target is a set of spinal

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there are short neural paths from sensory neuron to motor neuron, there are also other nearby neurons that participate in the circuit and modulate the response. Furthermore, there are projections from the brain to the spinal cord that are capable of enhancing or inhibiting the reflex.

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The central nervous system functions to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others and to receive feedback. Malfunction of the nervous system can occur as a result of genetic defects, physical damage due to trauma or toxicity, infection, or simply

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near the elbow joint, they are still relatively exposed to physical damage, which can cause pain, loss of sensation, or loss of muscle control. Damage to nerves can also be caused by swelling or bruises at places where a nerve passes through a tight bony channel, as happens in

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induces rapid contraction of the muscle cell. The entire synaptic transmission process takes only a fraction of a millisecond, although the effects on the postsynaptic cell may last much longer (even indefinitely, in cases where the synaptic signal leads to the formation of a

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embedded in the postsynaptic membrane, causing them to enter an activated state. Depending on the type of receptor, the resulting effect on the postsynaptic cell may be excitatory, inhibitory, or modulatory in more complex ways. For example, release of the neurotransmitter

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chemicals. When the presynaptic terminal is electrically stimulated, an array of molecules embedded in the membrane are activated, and cause the contents of the vesicles to be released into the narrow space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes, called the

349:, have a nervous system containing a brain, a central cord (or two cords running in parallel), and nerves radiating from the brain and central cord. The size of the nervous system ranges from a few hundred cells in the simplest worms, to around 300 billion cells in 1191:, whose nervous system is the most thoroughly described of any animal's, every neuron in the body is uniquely identifiable, with the same location and the same connections in every individual worm. One notable consequence of this fact is that the form of the 1987:. Because neurotrophins have now been identified in both vertebrate and invertebrates, this evidence suggests that neurotrophins were present in an ancestor common to bilateral organisms and may represent a common mechanism for nervous system formation. 1230:

At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others. There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells. One is by releasing chemicals called

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nervous systems. The sympathetic nervous system is activated in cases of emergencies to mobilize energy, while the parasympathetic nervous system is activated when organisms are in a relaxed state. The enteric nervous system functions to control the

1626:, are not all that different from those in a simple reflex, but the intermediate stages are completely different. Instead of a one or two step chain of processing, the visual signals pass through perhaps a dozen stages of integration, involving the 1761:). They argue that mirror neurons may be important for understanding the actions of other people, and for learning new skills by imitation. Some researchers also speculate that mirror systems may simulate observed actions, and thus contribute to 1757:. The function of the mirror system is a subject of much speculation. Many researchers in cognitive neuroscience and cognitive psychology consider that this system provides the physiological mechanism for the perception/action coupling (see the 365:

studies disorders of the nervous system and looks for interventions that can prevent or treat them. In the peripheral nervous system, the most common problem is the failure of nerve conduction, which can be due to different causes including

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species. Birds have been shown to have imitative resonance behaviors and neurological evidence suggests the presence of some form of mirroring system. In humans, brain activity consistent with that of mirror neurons has been found in the

465:, unicellular animals, and non-animals such as slime molds have cell-to-cell signalling mechanisms that are precursors to those of neurons. In radially symmetric animals such as the jellyfish and hydra, the nervous system consists of a 1735:

both when an animal acts and when the animal observes the same action performed by another. Thus, the neuron "mirrors" the behavior of the other, as though the observer were itself acting. Such neurons have been directly observed in

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Simplified schema of basic nervous system function: signals are picked up by sensory receptors and sent to the spinal cord and brain, where processing occurs that results in signals sent back to the spinal cord and then out to motor

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of the spinal cord. The visceral part, also known as the autonomic nervous system, contains neurons that innervate the internal organs, blood vessels, and glands. The autonomic nervous system itself consists of two parts: the

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formed by interconnected groups of neurons are capable of a wide variety of functions, including feature detection, pattern generation and timing, and there are seen to be countless types of information processing possible.

1214:. A command neuron is a special type of identified neuron, defined as a neuron that is capable of driving a specific behavior individually. Such neurons appear most commonly in the fast escape systems of various species—the 912:

for insects in comparison to vertebrates. Thus insects, for example, have nerve cords that run along the ventral midline of the body, while all vertebrates have spinal cords that run along the dorsal midline.

752:. Gray matter (which is only gray in preserved tissue, and is better described as pink or light brown in living tissue) contains a high proportion of cell bodies of neurons. White matter is composed mainly of 1185:

vertebrate nervous systems very few neurons are "identified" in this sense—in humans, there are believed to be none—but in simpler nervous systems, some or all neurons may be thus unique. In the roundworm

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layout of the innervation pattern is complex, but on the trunk it gives rise to a series of narrow bands. The top three segments belong to the brain, giving rise to the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

246:. Neurons have special structures that allow them to send signals rapidly and precisely to other cells. They send these signals in the form of electrochemical impulses traveling along thin fibers called 1919:

In the early 20th century, a set of famous experiments by Hans Spemann and Hilde Mangold showed that the formation of nervous tissue is "induced" by signals from a group of mesodermal cells called the

2778: 568:(sometimes called "neurone" or "nerve cell"). Neurons can be distinguished from other cells in a number of ways, but their most fundamental property is that they communicate with other cells via 2071:. It is also possible for nerves to lose function temporarily, resulting in numbness as stiffness—common causes include mechanical pressure, a drop in temperature, or chemical interactions with 1203:

goes. The synapses generated by a Mauthner cell are so powerful that a single action potential gives rise to a major behavioral response: within milliseconds the fish curves its body into a

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signaling is capable of a much higher level of specificity than hormonal signaling. It is also much faster: the fastest nerve signals travel at speeds that exceed 100 meters per second.

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of many genes that play key roles in synaptic function. Recent studies have shown that sponge cells express a group of proteins that cluster together to form a structure resembling a

576:, a protoplasmic protrusion that can extend to distant parts of the body and make thousands of synaptic contacts; axons typically extend throughout the body in bundles called nerves. 1927:

defeated every attempt to figure it out, until finally it was resolved by genetic approaches in the 1990s. Induction of neural tissue requires inhibition of the gene for a so-called

572:, which are membrane-to-membrane junctions containing molecular machinery that allows rapid transmission of signals, either electrical or chemical. Many types of neuron possess an 1156:(gullet). The pedal ganglia, which control the foot, are below the esophagus and their commissure and connectives to the cerebral and pleural ganglia surround the esophagus in a 1698:. A network of neurons that uses its internal structure to generate temporally structured output, without requiring a corresponding temporally structured stimulus, is called a 579:

Even in the nervous system of a single species such as humans, hundreds of different types of neurons exist, with a wide variety of morphologies and functions. These include

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Azevedo FA, Carvalho LR, Grinberg LT, et al. (2009). "Equal numbers of neuronal and nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain".

1483:, that reinforces desired behaviour for example, depends on a variant form of LTP that is conditioned on an extra input coming from a reward-signalling pathway that uses 1198:

The brains of many molluscs and insects also contain substantial numbers of identified neurons. In vertebrates, the best known identified neurons are the gigantic

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Internal pattern generation operates on a wide range of time scales, from milliseconds to hours or longer. One of the most important types of temporal pattern is

438:). The molecular revolution swept across US universities in the 1980s. It was in the 1990s that molecular mechanisms of behavioral phenomena became widely known ( 4928: 741:. Some authors also include sensory neurons whose cell bodies lie in the periphery (for senses such as hearing) as part of the PNS; others, however, omit them. 286:

that generate an organism's perception of the world and determine its behavior. Along with neurons, the nervous system contains other specialized cells called

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Hormuzdi SG, Filippov MA, Mitropoulou G, et al. (2004). "Electrical synapses: a dynamic signaling system that shapes the activity of neuronal networks".

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Bourlat SJ, Juliusdottir T, Lowe CJ, et al. (November 2006). "Deuterostome phylogeny reveals monophyletic chordates and the new phylum Xenoturbellida".

4238: 4288: 1783: 1562:, beginning in the early 20th century and reaching high productivity by the 1940s, showed that the nervous system contains many mechanisms for maintaining 1171:

have eyes around the edges of their shells which connect to a pair of looped nerves and which provide the ability to distinguish between light and shadow.

418:). We began to understand the basic electrical phenomenon that neurons use in order to communicate among themselves, the action potential, in the 1950s ( 3657:

There are a number of exceptional situations in which GABA has been found to have excitatory effects, mainly during early development. For a review see

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appears along the midline. This fold deepens, and then closes up at the top. At this point the future CNS appears as a cylindrical structure called the

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are the simplest bilaterian animals, and reveal the basic structure of the bilaterian nervous system in the most straightforward way. As an example,

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A microscopic examination shows that nerves consist primarily of axons, along with different membranes that wrap around them and segregate them into

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cords serving the internal organs and the pedal ones serving the foot. Most pairs of corresponding ganglia on both sides of the body are linked by

290:(or simply glia), which provide structural and metabolic support. Many of the cells and vasculature channels within the nervous system make up the 4487: 1111:

have passive cell bodies arranged around the periphery, while the neural signal processing takes place in a tangle of protoplasmic fibers called

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cells. The excitatory signals induce contraction of the muscle cells, which causes the joint angles in the arm to change, pulling the arm away.

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The central nervous system is protected by major physical and chemical barriers. Physically, the brain and spinal cord are surrounded by tough

841:. Neurons are generated from a special set of ectodermal precursor cells, which also serve as precursors for every other ectodermal cell type. 728:

parts. The somatic part consists of the nerves that innervate the skin, joints, and muscles. The cell bodies of somatic sensory neurons lie in

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on each side, though some ganglia are fused to form the brain and other large ganglia. The head segment contains the brain, also known as the

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to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes that impact the body, then works in tandem with the

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have no axons, and communicate only via their dendrites.) Neural signals propagate along an axon in the form of electrochemical waves called

1152:(relatively large bundles of nerves). The ganglia above the gut are the cerebral, the pleural, and the visceral, which are located above the 98: 619:

and remove dead neurons; and to provide guidance cues directing the axons of neurons to their targets. A very important type of glial cell (

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In vertebrates, the first sign of the nervous system is the appearance of a thin strip of cells along the center of the back, called the

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neurotransmitters that play slower-acting modulatory roles. Molecular neuroscientists generally divide receptors into two broad groups:

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animals, which make up the great majority of existing species, the nervous system has a common structure that originated early in the

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The basic neuronal function of sending signals to other cells includes a capability for neurons to exchange signals with each other.

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Tantiwisawaruji, Sukanlaya; Rocha, Maria J.; Silva, Ana; Pardal, Miguel A.; Kovitvadhi, Uthaiwan; Rocha, Eduardo (31 August 2022).

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by means of long-lasting activity-dependent changes in synaptic strength. The best-known form of neural memory is a process called

909: 450:. The neurons that give rise to nerves do not lie entirely within the nerves themselves—their cell bodies reside within the brain, 5790: 5720: 1912:, running lengthwise above the neural tube. The sequence of stages from neural plate to neural tube and neural crest is known as 1596:. This can be shown in the "withdrawal reflex" causing a hand to jerk back after a hot stove is touched. The circuit begins with 641: 4819:

Zhu B, Pennack JA, McQuilton P, Forero MG, Mizuguchi K, Sutcliffe B, Gu CJ, Fenton JC, Hidalgo A (November 2008). Bate M (ed.).

4697: 5785: 5715: 5330: 427: 406:"It is difficult to believe that until approximately year 1900 it was not known that neurons are the basic units of the brain ( 31: 2056: 430:). It was in the 1960s that we became aware of how basic neuronal networks code stimuli and thus basic concepts are possible ( 5124: 738: 215: 5405: 3222:"A Stereological Study of the Three Types of Ganglia of Male, Female, and Undifferentiated Scrobicularia plana (Bivalvia)" 3046:"Insights into the urbilaterian brain: conserved genetic patterning mechanisms in insect and vertebrate brain development" 853:

Nervous system of a bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front

410:). Equally surprising is the fact that the concept of chemical transmission in the brain was not known until around 1930 ( 375: 105: 6018: 5400: 5388: 5159: 4954: 1750: 1593: 1555:

through the middle of the 20th century, attempted to explain every aspect of human behavior in stimulus-response terms.

1378: 778: 2067:, or poisoning by toxins such as heavy metals. Many cases have no cause that can be identified, and are referred to as 5440: 5378: 1500: 1157: 267: 2677:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 17: The anatomical organization of the central nervous system".

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has been recorded and most, if not all, of the neural connections are known. In this species, the nervous system is

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Bliss TV, Collingridge GL (January 1993). "A synaptic model of memory: long-term potentiation in the hippocampus".

1928: 734: 283: 211: 6679: 5945: 5795: 5730: 5358: 5069: 1897: 1699: 1540: 1513: 1385: 1322: 969: 682: 407: 175: 4327: 294:, which regulates cerebral blood flow in order to rapidly satisfy the high energy demands of activated neurons. 6687: 5725: 5451: 5111: 1983:. DNT1 shares structural similarity with all known neurotrophins and is a key factor in the fate of neurons in 1944: 1797: 1746: 1505: 1434: 1280:, although some types are capable of dendrite-to-dendrite communication. (In fact, the types of neurons called 1048: 948:

running along the length of the body and merging at the tail and the mouth. These nerve cords are connected by

725: 207: 194:, that connect the CNS to every other part of the body. Nerves that transmit signals from the brain are called 81: 4934: 4736:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 52: The induction and patterning of the nervous system".

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Bilaterians can be divided, based on events that occur very early in embryonic development, into two groups (

6810: 5424: 5152: 4947: 2027:, which combine to form a strong physical shield. Chemically, the brain and spinal cord are isolated by the 1710: 1457: 1438: 1426: 765:. There are, however, a few exceptions to this rule, notably including the part of the forebrain called the 224: 6613: 6518: 6370: 5892: 5419: 5183: 5129: 5078: 4978: 2926: 2040: 1893: 1468: 1187: 1068: 980: 758: 721: 678: 219: 203: 171: 117: 93: 2051:

may be caused by many other medical problems, including genetic conditions, metabolic conditions such as

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is the ability to extract biologically relevant information from combinations of sensory signals. In the

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initiated. The initial sensory response, in the retina of the eye, and the final motor response, in the

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In reality, this straightforward schema is subject to numerous complications. Although for the simplest

1517: 301:, but vary greatly in complexity. The only multicellular animals that have no nervous system at all are 4494: 2172:"The Neurovascular Unit Coming of Age: A Journey through Neurovascular Coupling in Health and Disease" 6649: 6385: 5875: 5772: 5702: 5528: 5383: 4792:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 53: The formation and survival of nerve cells".

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Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 9: Propagated signaling: the action potential".

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Yurchenko, Olga V.; Skiteva, Olga I.; Voronezhskaya, Elena E.; Dyachuk, Vyacheslav A. (April 2018).

3131: 2931: 1491:, that is, to a capability for the nervous system to adapt itself to variations in the environment. 6398: 6167: 5915: 5760: 5755: 5290: 5223: 1968: 1829: 1639: 1449: 1248: 1219: 439: 367: 3409: 1876: 1575: 1000:, have different numbers of neurons and groups of neurons that perform sex-specific functions. In 6590: 6461: 6223: 6214: 6200: 5950: 5920: 5851: 5820: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5745: 5521: 5431: 5285: 4572: 4468: 4319: 4269: 4027: 3859: 3810: 3684: 3640: 3561:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 11: Signaling at the nerve-muscle synapse".

3110: 3026: 2821: 2656: 2613: 2111: 2044: 1964: 1809: 1789: 1563: 1487:

as neurotransmitter. All these forms of synaptic modifiability, taken collectively, give rise to

1442: 1300: 1141: 1036: 993: 945: 796: 419: 411: 371: 314: 291: 251: 3154: 3146: 2711: 2047:, but for long nerves this process may take months to complete. In addition to physical damage, 1812:

of immature neurons from their birthplaces in the embryo to their final positions, outgrowth of

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nervous system is completely specified by the genome, with no experience-dependent plasticity.

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McCulloch WS, Pitts W (1943). "A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity".

3885: 3851: 3802: 3759: 3713: 3709: 3703: 3676: 3632: 3595: 3568: 3541: 3511: 3474: 3444: 3413: 3371: 3346: 3320: 3302: 3261: 3243: 3194: 3158: 3102: 3067: 3018: 2975: 2936: 2893: 2889: 2862: 2813: 2744: 2715: 2706: 2684: 2648: 2605: 2557: 2503: 2457: 2425: 2365: 2336: 2311: 2275: 2209: 2191: 2150: 1619: 1559: 1528: 1488: 1092: 390:

The nervous system derives its name from nerves, which are cylindrical bundles of fibers (the

3534:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 10: Overview of synaptic transmission".

1847:. The gastrula has the shape of a disk with three layers of cells, an inner layer called the 1646:, and several brainstem nuclei. These areas perform signal-processing functions that include 662:

Horizontal section of the head of an adult female human, showing skin, skull, and brain with

242:

which, at a cellular level, is defined by the presence of a special type of cell, called the

198:(efferent), while those nerves that transmit information from the body to the CNS are called 6756: 6263: 6246: 6127: 6077: 6072: 5902: 5865: 5860: 5208: 4924: 4913: 4842: 4832: 4668: 4660: 4619: 4611: 4554: 4452: 4411: 4303: 4253: 4011: 3914: 3841: 3794: 3749: 3668: 3624: 3503: 3401: 3310: 3292: 3251: 3233: 3094: 3057: 3010: 2967: 2881: 2852: 2805: 2640: 2597: 2493: 2415: 2405: 2265: 2255: 2199: 2183: 2116: 2072: 2024: 1936: 1924: 1732: 1706: 1597: 1413: 1390: 1371: 1313: 1309: 1304: 1285: 1269: 1253: 1215: 1012: 949: 350: 259: 255: 163: 159: 4649:"Eight Problems for the Mirror Neuron Theory of Action Understanding in Monkeys and Humans" 4257: 2764:

Purves D, Augustine GJ, Fitzpatrick D, Hall WC, LaMantia AS, McNamara JO, White LE (2008).

48: 6764: 6712: 6664: 6595: 6585: 6182: 6010: 5670: 5639: 5634: 5516: 5511: 5335: 4519: 3659:

Marty A, Llano I (June 2005). "Excitatory effects of GABA in established brain networks".

3440: 3434: 3281:"Nervous system development in the Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas (Mollusca: Bivalvia)" 2955: 2453: 2447: 2121: 2103: 1742: 1659: 1631: 1132: 1076: 921: 708:, a three-layered system of membranes, including a tough, leathery outer layer called the 658: 620: 535: 271: 4210:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 25: Constructing the visual image".

4183:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 21: Coding of sensory information".

3402: 2839:

Jacobs DK, Nakanishi N, Yuan D, Camara A, Nichols SA, Hartenstein V, et al. (2007).

4607: 4550: 4512: 3790: 3006: 2593: 2401: 1272:

molecules, which bind to chemical receptor molecules in the membrane of the target cell.

6641: 6531: 6375: 6353: 6172: 6027: 5960: 5930: 5887: 5707: 5665: 5643: 5563: 5446: 5270: 5175: 5096: 4847: 4820: 4673: 4648: 4624: 4591: 4368: 4072: 3315: 3280: 3256: 3221: 2737: 2420: 2385: 2270: 2243: 2204: 2171: 1762: 1663: 1592:

input and ends with a motor output, passing through a sequence of neurons connected in

1589: 1400: 1350: 1318: 1211: 997: 897: 701: 580: 447: 435: 431: 279: 275: 263: 239: 170:

about 550 to 600 million years ago. In vertebrates, it consists of two main parts, the

167: 143: 4559: 4534: 4015: 3628: 1892:. The inner portion of the neural plate (along the midline) is destined to become the 1308:

process. The presynaptic area contains large numbers of tiny spherical vessels called

6804: 6784: 6624: 6449: 6437: 6424: 6408: 6162: 6097: 5609: 5594: 5275: 5086: 5057: 4902: 4872: 4708: 4441:"Is the mirror neuron system involved in imitation? A short review and meta-analysis" 2882: 2617: 1901: 1817: 1754: 1728: 1722: 1673: 1655: 1635: 1516:

formed from a greatly simplified mathematical abstraction of a neuron are capable of

1480: 1476: 1472: 1453: 1422: 1395: 1327: 1289: 1281: 1204: 1199: 1064: 1060: 1056: 766: 542: 423: 228: 199: 4576: 4472: 4456: 4323: 4031: 3863: 3688: 3644: 3114: 2914: 2825: 1851:, which gives rise to the lining of most internal organs, a middle layer called the 6769: 6092: 6040: 5855: 5777: 5690: 5571: 5501: 5280: 5203: 5101: 5033: 4876: 4273: 3882:

Theoretical Neuroscience: Computational and Mathematical Modeling of Neural Systems

3814: 3030: 2660: 2304:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 2: Nerve cells and behavior".

2034:

Although nerves tend to lie deep under the skin except in a few places such as the

1972: 1909: 1889: 1844: 1793: 1695: 1509: 1464: 1340: 1331: 1108: 1088: 989: 893: 885: 749: 697: 667: 624: 584: 547: 530: 525: 379: 232: 2796:

Afifi AK (July 1994). "Basal ganglia: functional anatomy and physiology. Part 1".

2550:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 4: The cytology of neurons".

599:(named from the Greek for "glue") are non-neuronal cells that provide support and 505: 4837: 4821:"Drosophila neurotrophins reveal a common mechanism for nervous system formation" 4793: 4737: 4211: 4184: 4157: 4130: 4103: 3936: 3589: 3562: 3535: 3507: 3468: 3188: 2678: 2551: 2524:

Our 500 million-year-old nervous system fossil shines a light on animal evolution

2410: 2305: 2187: 1547:, developed the concept of stimulus-response mechanisms in much more detail, and 1004:, males have exactly 383 neurons, while hermaphrodites have exactly 302 neurons. 583:

that transmute physical stimuli such as light and sound into neural signals, and

86: 6697: 6546: 6526: 6341: 6336: 6276: 5870: 5685: 5589: 5547: 5479: 5474: 5295: 5233: 5228: 5198: 5091: 5043: 4991: 2035: 1913: 1905: 1840: 1821: 1602: 1548: 1335: 1107:

transmitting signals and other parts receiving signals. Thus, most parts of the

1103:

sensation. The sensory information from these organs is processed by the brain.

881: 877: 830: 745: 693: 663: 612: 604: 451: 399: 326: 318: 195: 183: 4156:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 39: The control of gaze".

3672: 2809: 1950:

Induction of neural tissues causes formation of neural precursor cells, called

1523: 795:, that is, no neurons, and therefore no nervous system. They do, however, have 627:

in the peripheral nervous system) generates layers of a fatty substance called

210:, nervous systems. The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into the 6605: 6474: 6444: 6393: 6298: 6006: 5940: 5629: 5506: 5469: 5016: 4615: 4307: 4129:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 38: Voluntary movement".

3297: 2580:

Allen NJ, Barres BA (2009). "Neuroscience: Glia – more than just brain glue".

2093: 2068: 2002: 1955: 1951: 1828:

between these axons and their postsynaptic partners, and finally the lifelong

1805: 1651: 1643: 1585: 1552: 1149: 1028: 985: 961: 953: 889: 849: 815: 709: 674: 596: 515: 490: 415: 358: 322: 287: 3588:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 15: Neurotransmitters".

3306: 3247: 2260: 2195: 6568: 6363: 6144: 5955: 5489: 5340: 5313: 5305: 5028: 5001: 4664: 4400:"Imitative Learning in Japanese Quail using Bidirectional Control Procedure" 4348: 2971: 2126: 2083: 2076: 2007: 1996: 1691: 1623: 1471:(abbreviated LTP), which operates at synapses that use the neurotransmitter 1153: 1100: 1096: 1020: 941: 901: 858: 600: 564:

The nervous system is defined by the presence of a special type of cell—the

474: 470: 466: 362: 342: 338: 17: 5975: 4856: 4682: 4633: 4568: 4464: 4425: 4384: 4315: 4265: 4102:

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 36: Spinal reflexes".

4023: 3855: 3763: 3754: 3737: 3680: 3636: 3515: 3324: 3265: 3106: 3085:

ADEY WR (February 1951). "The nervous system of the earthworm Megascolex".

3071: 3062: 3045: 3022: 2979: 2940: 2866: 2652: 2609: 2507: 2498: 2481: 2429: 2279: 2213: 1855:, which gives rise to the bones and muscles, and an outer layer called the 1252:

Major elements in synaptic transmission. An electrochemical wave called an

461:

All animals more advanced than sponges have nervous systems. However, even

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Sakarya O, Armstrong KA, Adamska M, et al. (2007). Vosshall L (ed.).

6744: 6707: 6702: 6629: 6501: 6082: 6067: 6045: 5619: 5604: 5599: 5323: 5318: 5245: 5240: 5050: 5023: 4986: 2857: 2840: 2064: 2052: 2016: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1836: 1766: 1627: 1484: 1405: 1168: 1125: 1112: 1044: 1032: 976: 957: 838: 834: 819: 811: 762: 713: 705: 616: 510: 455: 382:

is the field of science that focuses on the study of the nervous system.

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on the animal's eyespots provide sensory information on light and dark.

6774: 6692: 6669: 6573: 6563: 6558: 6496: 6479: 6432: 6137: 6087: 6062: 5882: 5843: 4416: 4399: 3918: 2060: 1940: 1825: 1737: 1430: 1293: 1265: 1232: 1145: 1040: 905: 826: 792: 712:. The brain is also protected by the skull, and the spinal cord by the 611:, and participate in signal transmission in the nervous system. In the 569: 310: 135: 4002:

Piccolino M (November 2002). "Fifty years of the Hodgkin-Huxley era".

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Origins of neuroscience: a history of explorations into brain function

650: 6729: 6724: 6659: 6654: 6600: 6536: 6484: 6403: 6293: 6281: 6236: 6195: 6190: 6132: 6057: 5542: 5497: 5262: 5038: 3798: 1976: 1880:

Four stages in the development of the neural tube in the human embryo

1801: 1677: 1610: 1261: 1080: 1071:, which is composed of three pairs of fused ganglia. It controls the 1052: 1024: 788: 753: 628: 608: 565: 552: 486: 462: 395: 330: 302: 243: 147: 3846: 3829: 2601: 1908:, whereas the future PNS appears as two strips of tissue called the 1824:

through the embryo towards postsynaptic partners, the generation of

1039:

made up of two parallel connectives running along the length of the

744:

The vertebrate nervous system can also be divided into areas called

654:

Diagram showing the major divisions of the vertebrate nervous system

864: 485:

The nervous system contains two main categories or types of cells:

6739: 6734: 6619: 6346: 6253: 6154: 6112: 6102: 6051: 4996: 2020: 1875: 1866: 1865: 1574: 1522: 1131: 1084: 1011: 965: 920: 863: 848: 689: 657: 649: 334: 187: 179: 155: 123: 69: 5144: 4939: 345:. All other animal species, with the exception of a few types of 250:, which can be directly transmitted to neighboring cells through 202:(afferent). The PNS is divided into two separate subsystems, the 6506: 6241: 6117: 6035: 5735: 5581: 5011: 4513:

The Mirror System Hypothesis. Linking Language to Theory of Mind

2364:

Nikoletseas Michael M. (2010) Behavioral and Neural Plasticity.

1932: 1813: 1277: 1257: 1016:

Internal anatomy of a spider, showing the nervous system in blue

952:

nerves like the rungs of a ladder. These transverse nerves help

937: 573: 520: 391: 346: 313:, which have very simple body plans. The nervous systems of the 247: 191: 5979: 5148: 4943: 1835:

All bilaterian animals at an early stage of development form a

1832:

in synapses which are thought to underlie learning and memory.

6541: 6358: 6122: 2386:"A post-synaptic scaffold at the origin of the animal kingdom" 1980: 1979:. Zhu et al. identified DNT1, the first neurotrophin found in 868:

Area of the human body surface innervated by each spinal nerve

262:. A cell that receives a synaptic signal from a neuron may be 1463:

One very important subset of synapses are capable of forming

757:

a cluster of neurons in the brain or spinal cord is called a

704:

contains the brain. The CNS is enclosed and protected by the

2242:

Herculano-Houzel S, Avelino-de-Souza K, et al. (2014).

761:, whereas a cluster of neurons in the periphery is called a 3979:

Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution

2710:(39th ed.). Elsevier Churchill Livingstone. pp. 996:; the nervous systems of the two sexes, males and female 166:

to respond to such events. Nervous tissue first arose in

1303:

make direct electrical connections between neurons, but

4439:

Molenberghs P, Cunnington R, Mattingley J (July 2009).

2043:. If a nerve is completely transected, it will often 1967:

organisms (including humans) is a family of secreted

1947:

or FGF may also play an important role in induction.

1288:, which produce cell-to-cell signals at points where 27:

Part of an animal that coordinates actions and senses

4590:

Dinstein I, Thomas C, Behrmann M, Heeger DJ (2008).

975:

The nervous system of one very small roundworm, the

231:

while those exiting from the spinal cord are called

190:, which are enclosed bundles of the long fibers, or 6755: 6678: 6640: 6517: 6460: 6419: 6384: 6325: 6262: 6222: 6213: 6181: 6153: 6026: 6017: 5901: 5842: 5835: 5771: 5701: 5658: 5618: 5580: 5562: 5555: 5541: 5488: 5460: 5366: 5357: 5304: 5261: 5254: 5191: 5182: 5110: 5077: 5068: 4977: 4362: 4360: 4070:Simmons PJ, Young D (1999). "Ch 1.: Introduction". 1963:As shown in a 2008 study, one factor common to all 1859:, which gives rise to the skin and nervous system. 688:The CNS is the major division, and consists of the 104: 92: 80: 68: 63: 58: 41: 4071: 3930: 3928: 2841:"Evolution of sensory structures in basal metazoa" 2736: 2331:Finger S (2001). "Ch. 1: The brain in antiquity". 2059:, vitamin deficiency, infectious diseases such as 1900:(PNS). As development proceeds, a fold called the 1475:acting on a special type of receptor known as the 2082:Physical damage to the spinal cord may result in 1144:organized around a number of paired ganglia, the 4342: 4340: 3738:"Plasticity in the human central nervous system" 2915:"The origin and evolution of the nervous system" 2482:"The segmented Urbilateria: A testable scenario" 1136:Simplified diagram of the mollusc nervous system 833:, radiata only have two primordial cell layers, 3615:Strata P, Harvey R (1999). "Dale's principle". 3187:Ruppert, E.E.; Fox, R.S.; Barnes, R.D. (2004). 3132:"Wormbook: Specification of the nervous system" 1031:, have a nervous system made up of a series of 900:. Protostomes, the more diverse group, include 888:. Deuterostomes include vertebrates as well as 4237:Rizzolatti, Giacomo; Craighero, Laila (2004). 1839:, which is polarized, with one end called the 1765:skills, while others relate mirror neurons to 933:nervous system in isolation, viewed from above 5991: 5160: 4955: 4731: 4729: 4533:Théoret, Hugo; Pascual-Leone, Alvaro (2002). 4486:Keysers, Christian; Gazzola, Valeria (2006). 4367:Rizzolatti, Giacomo; Fadiga, Luciano (1999). 4097: 4095: 3708:. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 3529: 3527: 3525: 3343:Identified neurons and behavior of arthropods 2672: 2670: 2521:Ortega-Hernandez, Javier (29 February 2016), 1571:Reflexes and other stimulus-response circuits 1140:The cephalic molluscs have two pairs of main 1055:, the brain is anatomically divided into the 988:including its synapses. Every neuron and its 227:. Nerves that exit from the brain are called 8: 4763:Sanes DH, Reh TH, Harris WA (2006). "Ch. 1, 3938:The Integrative Action of the Nervous System 3462: 3460: 2575: 2573: 2545: 2543: 2541: 2475: 2473: 2019:membranes, and enclosed in the bones of the 1935:appears to be involved. Two proteins called 1545:The Integrative Action of the Nervous System 3126: 3124: 2299: 2297: 2295: 2293: 2291: 2289: 2011:Layers protecting the brain and spinal cord 1784:Development of the nervous system in humans 1268:, it provokes release of a small amount of 274:. The connections between neurons can form 6219: 6023: 5998: 5984: 5976: 5839: 5559: 5552: 5363: 5258: 5188: 5167: 5153: 5145: 5074: 4962: 4948: 4940: 2441: 2439: 2170:Iadecola, Costantino (27 September 2017). 1975:which regulate the growth and survival of 857:The vast majority of existing animals are 469:, a diffuse network of isolated cells. In 47: 4846: 4836: 4672: 4623: 4558: 4415: 3845: 3753: 3702:Paradiso MA, Bear MF, Connors BW (2007). 3314: 3296: 3255: 3237: 3061: 2930: 2856: 2497: 2419: 2409: 2379: 2377: 2269: 2259: 2203: 1584:The simplest type of neural circuit is a 825:The development of the nervous system in 791:have no cells connected to each other by 4445:Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 4369:"Resonance Behaviors and Mirror Neurons" 3875: 3873: 3731: 3729: 3336: 3334: 2006: 1676:, for example, sensory receptors in the 1299:Synapses may be electrical or chemical. 1247: 4047:Foundations of cellular neurophysiology 3153:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 3044:Lichtneckert R, Reichert H (May 2005). 2137: 1788:In vertebrates, landmarks of embryonic 1551:, the school of thought that dominated 1043:. Typically, each body segment has one 677:(including humans) is divided into the 4705:Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 4535:"Language Acquisition: Do as You Hear" 4258:10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144230 3828:Kauer JA, Malenka RC (November 2007). 3408:. Cambridge University Press. p. 2452:(7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. 2446:Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD (2004). 2145:Tortora, G.J.; Derrickson, B. (2016). 1210:Mauthner cells have been described as 1083:. Many arthropods have well-developed 1067:. Immediately behind the brain is the 984:, has been completely mapped out in a 121: 38: 3368:Neurons, Networks, and Motor Behavior 2956:"The last common bilaterian ancestor" 2768:. Sinauer Associates. pp. 15–16. 1923:. For decades, though, the nature of 1321:. The neurotransmitter then binds to 720:spinal cord. The PNS is divided into 666:(brown in this image) and underlying 7: 4698:"Where do mirror neurons come from?" 4398:Akins, Chana; Klein, Edward (2002). 2880:Sanes DH, Reh TA, Harris WA (2006). 2147:Principles of Anatomy and Physiology 1276:Most neurons send signals via their 964:") end function similar to a simple 929:side view of the front of the worm. 700:contains the spinal cord, while the 477:period, over 550 million years ago. 370:and demyelinating disorders such as 4347:Keysers, Christian (23 June 2011). 3830:"Synaptic plasticity and addiction" 3151:The insects: structure and function 2954:Erwin DH, Davidson EH (July 2002). 1931:, or BMP. Specifically the protein 1870:Human embryo, showing neural groove 1527:Illustration of pain pathway, from 829:is relatively unstructured. Unlike 623:in the central nervous system, and 398:), that emanate from the brain and 2055:, inflammatory conditions such as 646:List of regions in the human brain 297:Nervous systems are found in most 25: 4769:Development of the Nervous System 4653:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 3705:Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain 3439:(5 ed.). Macmillan. p. 2884:Development of the nervous system 1780:Development of the nervous system 1558:However, experimental studies of 956:the two sides of the animal. Two 773:Comparative anatomy and evolution 4935:The Human Brain Project Homepage 4923: 4912: 4074:Nerve cells and animal behaviour 3404:Nerve cells and animal behaviour 2096: 1694:dynamics, periodicity, and even 1349: 1330:at a synaptic contact between a 1124:This section is an excerpt from 642:List of nerves of the human body 504: 5331:Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell 4457:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.03.010 2244:"The elephant brain in numbers" 1861: 1543:, in his influential 1906 book 238:The nervous system consists of 178:(PNS). The CNS consists of the 32:Nervous system (disambiguation) 4404:Animal Learning & Behavior 2704:Standring, Susan, ed. (2005). 739:parasympathetic nervous system 1: 4560:10.1016/S0960-9822(02)01251-4 4246:Annual Review of Neuroscience 4016:10.1016/S0166-2236(02)02276-2 3629:10.1016/S0361-9230(99)00100-8 3370:. MIT Press. pp. 38–44. 3193:(7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. 2743:. Plenum Press. p. vii. 2739:The peripheral nervous system 2084:loss of sensation or movement 1896:(CNS), the outer portion the 1435:chemically gated ion channels 559:Structure of a typical neuron 376:amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 186:. The PNS consists mainly of 4838:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060284 4798:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 4795:Principles of Neural Science 4742:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 4739:Principles of Neural Science 4523:, 2005, retrieved 2006-02-17 4493:. Bcn-nic.nl. Archived from 4488:"Progress in Brain Research" 4216:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 4213:Principles of Neural Science 4189:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 4186:Principles of Neural Science 4162:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 4159:Principles of Neural Science 4135:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 4132:Principles of Neural Science 4108:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 4105:Principles of Neural Science 3594:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 3591:Principles of Neural Science 3567:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 3564:Principles of Neural Science 3540:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 3537:Principles of Neural Science 3508:10.1016/j.bbamem.2003.10.023 3473:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 3470:Principles of Neural Science 3400:Simmons PJ, Young D (1999). 3341:Hoyle G, Wiersma CA (1977). 2784:Dorland's Medical Dictionary 2683:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 2680:Principles of Neural Science 2556:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 2553:Principles of Neural Science 2411:10.1371/journal.pone.0000506 2310:. McGraw-Hill Professional. 2307:Principles of Neural Science 2231:. Columbia University Press. 2188:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.07.030 1751:primary somatosensory cortex 1685:Intrinsic pattern generation 784:Neural precursors in sponges 779:Evolution of nervous systems 158:information by transmitting 5441:Postganglionic nerve fibers 4771:. Elsevier Academic Press. 4647:Hickok, G. (21 July 2009). 4287:Keysers, Christian (2010). 3880:Dayan P, Abbott LF (2005). 3736:Cooke SF, Bliss TV (2006). 2888:. Academic Press. pp. 2527:, The Conversation US, Inc. 2149:(15th ed.). J. Wiley. 1495:Neural circuits and systems 1448:According to a rule called 1158:circumesophageal nerve ring 361:. The medical specialty of 6827: 5436:Preganglionic nerve fibers 4239:"The mirror-neuron system" 4045:Johnston D, Wu SM (1995). 3673:10.1016/j.tins.2005.04.003 2810:10.1177/088307389400900306 2000: 1994: 1929:bone morphogenetic protein 1777: 1720: 1514:artificial neural networks 1296:contact with other cells. 1264:. When the wave reaches a 1123: 925:Earthworm nervous system. 896:(mainly acorn worms), and 776: 735:sympathetic nervous system 639: 254:or cause chemicals called 29: 5946:Olfactory receptor neuron 5610:Neurofibril/neurofilament 5070:Peripheral nervous system 4903:Resources in your library 4616:10.1016/j.cub.2007.11.004 4308:10.1016/j.cub.2009.08.026 4078:. Cambridge Univ. Press. 3298:10.1186/s12983-018-0259-8 1898:peripheral nervous system 1700:central pattern generator 1512:showed in 1943 that even 1429:, along with one or more 1421:neurotransmitter such as 1126:Mollusca § Nervous system 683:peripheral nervous system 176:peripheral nervous system 116: 46: 4931:at Wikibooks (non-human) 3147:"Ch. 20: Nervous system" 2261:10.3389/fnana.2014.00046 1945:Fibroblast Growth Factor 1755:inferior parietal cortex 1747:supplementary motor area 1439:second messenger systems 1049:supraesophageal ganglion 53:The human nervous system 4696:Heyes, Cecilia (2009). 4665:10.1162/jocn.2009.21189 4592:"A mirror up to nature" 3935:Sherrington CS (1906). 2972:10.1242/dev.129.13.3021 2057:Guillain–Barré syndrome 1711:suprachiasmatic nucleus 1412:Structure of a typical 341:) consist of a diffuse 225:gastrointestinal system 6450:Lymphoid immune system 6019:Musculoskeletal system 5893:Neuromuscular junction 5756:III or Aδ or fast pain 4979:Central nervous system 4373:Italiennes de Biologie 3496:Biochim. Biophys. Acta 3063:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800664 2335:. Oxford Univ. Press. 2041:carpal tunnel syndrome 2012: 1894:central nervous system 1881: 1871: 1770:by adequate research. 1588:, which begins with a 1581: 1535: 1469:long-term potentiation 1273: 1137: 1069:subesophageal ganglion 1017: 981:Caenorhabditis elegans 934: 910:Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire 869: 854: 679:central nervous system 673:The nervous system of 670: 655: 636:Anatomy in vertebrates 444: 408:Santiago Ramón y Cajal 172:central nervous system 118:Anatomical terminology 6438:Myeloid immune system 6224:Cardiovascular system 4518:29 March 2009 at the 3099:10.1002/cne.900940104 2229:Columbia Encyclopedia 2049:peripheral neuropathy 2010: 1879: 1869: 1707:circadian rhythmicity 1578: 1526: 1518:universal computation 1251: 1135: 1053:insect nervous system 1015: 924: 867: 852: 661: 653: 404: 299:multicellular animals 150:that coordinates its 6790:Islets of Langerhans 6650:Genitourinary system 6386:Integumentary system 5911:Meissner's corpuscle 5876:Postsynaptic density 5773:Efferent nerve fiber 5761:IV or C or slow pain 5703:Afferent nerve fiber 5529:Satellite glial cell 4920:at Wikibooks (human) 3954:Passions of the Soul 3952:Descartes R (1989). 3755:10.1093/brain/awl082 3285:Frontiers in Zoology 3190:Invertebrate Zoology 2766:Neuroscience. 4th ed 2499:10.1093/icb/43.1.137 2480:Balavoine G (2003). 2449:Invertebrate Zoology 1759:common coding theory 1244:Neurons and synapses 1176:"Identified" neurons 801:postsynaptic density 30:For other uses, see 6680:Reproductive system 6399:Subcutaneous tissue 6168:Cartilaginous joint 5916:Merkel nerve ending 4875:William E. Skaggs, 4608:2008CBio...18..R13D 4551:2002CBio...12.R736T 4333:on 19 January 2013. 3956:. Voss S. Hackett. 3907:Bull. Math. Biophys 3791:1993Natur.361...31B 3748:(Pt 7): 1659–1673. 3239:10.3390/ani12172248 3145:Chapman RF (1998). 3015:10.1038/nature05241 3007:2006Natur.444...85B 2735:Hubbard JI (1974). 2594:2009Natur.457..675A 2402:2007PLoSO...2..506S 2029:blood–brain barrier 1969:signaling molecules 1640:superior colliculus 1541:Charles Sherrington 1301:Electrical synapses 1220:squid giant synapse 1180:A neuron is called 1115:, in the interior. 730:dorsal root ganglia 440:Eric Richard Kandel 368:diabetic neuropathy 321:(comb jellies) and 252:electrical synapses 6462:Respiratory system 6215:Circulatory system 5951:Photoreceptor cell 5921:Pacinian corpuscle 5852:Electrical synapse 5806:Lower motor neuron 5801:Upper motor neuron 5522:Internodal segment 5462:Connective tissues 5432:Autonomic ganglion 4918:The Nervous System 4417:10.3758/bf03192836 4350:The Empathic Brain 3919:10.1007/BF02478259 3834:Nat. Rev. Neurosci 3366:Stein PSG (1999). 2858:10.1093/icb/icm094 2227:"Nervous System". 2112:Circulatory system 2013: 1882: 1872: 1843:and the other the 1790:neural development 1582: 1536: 1443:gene transcription 1274: 1256:travels along the 1138: 1087:organs, including 1037:ventral nerve cord 1018: 994:sexually dimorphic 960:at the head (the " 935: 870: 855: 793:synaptic junctions 671: 656: 420:Alan Lloyd Hodgkin 412:Henry Hallett Dale 372:multiple sclerosis 315:radially symmetric 292:neurovascular unit 258:to be released at 168:wormlike organisms 6798: 6797: 6321: 6320: 6311:Glymphatic system 6209: 6208: 5973: 5972: 5969: 5968: 5936:Free nerve ending 5903:Sensory receptors 5831: 5830: 5746:Ib or Golgi or Aα 5654: 5653: 5537: 5536: 5414:Ramus communicans 5353: 5352: 5349: 5348: 5219:Commissural fiber 5214:Association fiber 5209:Projection fibers 5142: 5141: 5138: 5137: 4889:Library resources 4805:978-0-8385-7701-1 4778:978-0-12-618621-5 4749:978-0-8385-7701-1 4545:(21): R736–R737. 4223:978-0-8385-7701-1 4196:978-0-8385-7701-1 4169:978-0-8385-7701-1 4142:978-0-8385-7701-1 4115:978-0-8385-7701-1 4085:978-0-521-62726-9 4056:978-0-262-10053-3 3988:978-1-4051-1262-8 3963:978-0-87220-035-7 3891:978-0-262-54185-5 3719:978-0-7817-6003-4 3601:978-0-8385-7701-1 3574:978-0-8385-7701-1 3547:978-0-8385-7701-1 3480:978-0-8385-7701-1 3450:978-0-7167-7690-1 3419:978-0-521-62726-9 3377:978-0-262-69227-4 3352:978-0-306-31001-0 3200:978-0-03-025982-1 3164:978-0-521-57890-5 2966:(13): 3021–3032. 2919:Int. J. Dev. Biol 2913:Ghysen A (2003). 2899:978-0-12-618621-5 2750:978-0-306-30764-5 2721:978-0-443-07168-3 2690:978-0-8385-7701-1 2645:10.1002/cne.21974 2588:(7230): 675–677. 2563:978-0-8385-7701-1 2370:978-1-4537-8945-2 2355:Finger, pp. 43–50 2342:978-0-19-514694-3 2317:978-0-8385-7701-1 2156:978-1-119-34373-8 1886: 1885: 1816:from neurons and 1731:is a neuron that 1670:Feature detection 1648:feature detection 1620:oculomotor nuclei 1598:sensory receptors 1564:cell excitability 1560:electrophysiology 1489:neural plasticity 1379:Neurotransmitter 1310:synaptic vesicles 1305:chemical synapses 1286:action potentials 1167:Some such as the 1035:, connected by a 351:African elephants 260:chemical synapses 256:neurotransmitters 132: 131: 127: 16:(Redirected from 6818: 6757:Endocrine system 6519:Digestive system 6264:Lymphatic system 6247:Lymphatic vessel 6220: 6024: 6000: 5993: 5986: 5977: 5866:Synaptic vesicle 5861:Chemical synapse 5840: 5560: 5553: 5364: 5259: 5189: 5169: 5162: 5155: 5146: 5075: 4964: 4957: 4950: 4941: 4927: 4916: 4861: 4860: 4850: 4840: 4816: 4810: 4809: 4789: 4783: 4782: 4765:Neural induction 4760: 4754: 4753: 4733: 4724: 4723: 4721: 4719: 4714:on 26 April 2012 4713: 4707:. Archived from 4702: 4693: 4687: 4686: 4676: 4659:(7): 1229–1243. 4644: 4638: 4637: 4627: 4587: 4581: 4580: 4562: 4530: 4524: 4508: 4502: 4501: 4500:on 30 June 2007. 4499: 4492: 4483: 4477: 4476: 4436: 4430: 4429: 4419: 4395: 4389: 4388: 4364: 4355: 4354: 4344: 4335: 4334: 4332: 4326:. Archived from 4302:(21): R971–973. 4293: 4289:"Mirror Neurons" 4284: 4278: 4277: 4243: 4234: 4228: 4227: 4207: 4201: 4200: 4180: 4174: 4173: 4153: 4147: 4146: 4126: 4120: 4119: 4099: 4090: 4089: 4077: 4067: 4061: 4060: 4042: 4036: 4035: 3999: 3993: 3992: 3977:Baum WM (2005). 3974: 3968: 3967: 3949: 3943: 3942: 3932: 3923: 3922: 3902: 3896: 3895: 3877: 3868: 3867: 3849: 3825: 3819: 3818: 3799:10.1038/361031a0 3774: 3768: 3767: 3757: 3733: 3724: 3723: 3699: 3693: 3692: 3655: 3649: 3648: 3623:(5–6): 349–350. 3612: 3606: 3605: 3585: 3579: 3578: 3558: 3552: 3551: 3531: 3520: 3519: 3502:(1–2): 113–137. 3491: 3485: 3484: 3464: 3455: 3454: 3433:Gray PO (2006). 3430: 3424: 3423: 3407: 3397: 3391: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3363: 3357: 3356: 3345:. Plenum Press. 3338: 3329: 3328: 3318: 3300: 3276: 3270: 3269: 3259: 3241: 3217: 3211: 3205: 3204: 3184: 3178: 3175: 3169: 3168: 3142: 3136: 3135: 3128: 3119: 3118: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3065: 3041: 3035: 3034: 2990: 2984: 2983: 2951: 2945: 2944: 2934: 2925:(7–8): 555–562. 2910: 2904: 2903: 2887: 2877: 2871: 2870: 2860: 2845:Integr Comp Biol 2836: 2830: 2829: 2793: 2787: 2776: 2770: 2769: 2761: 2755: 2754: 2742: 2732: 2726: 2725: 2701: 2695: 2694: 2674: 2665: 2664: 2628: 2622: 2621: 2577: 2568: 2567: 2547: 2536: 2535: 2534: 2532: 2518: 2512: 2511: 2501: 2486:Int Comp Biology 2477: 2468: 2467: 2443: 2434: 2433: 2423: 2413: 2381: 2372: 2362: 2356: 2353: 2347: 2346: 2328: 2322: 2321: 2301: 2284: 2283: 2273: 2263: 2239: 2233: 2232: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2207: 2167: 2161: 2160: 2142: 2117:Digestive system 2106: 2101: 2100: 2099: 2073:local anesthetic 2025:vertebral column 1925:neural induction 1921:organizer region 1862: 1808:precursors, the 1506:Warren McCulloch 1450:Dale's principle 1414:chemical synapse 1391:Neurotransmitter 1353: 1314:neurotransmitter 1270:neurotransmitter 1254:action potential 1216:squid giant axon 990:cellular lineage 898:Xenoturbellidans 621:oligodendrocytes 508: 454:, or peripheral 164:endocrine system 124:edit on Wikidata 75:systema nervosum 51: 39: 21: 6826: 6825: 6821: 6820: 6819: 6817: 6816: 6815: 6801: 6800: 6799: 6794: 6751: 6713:Seminal vesicle 6674: 6636: 6586:Small intestine 6513: 6456: 6415: 6380: 6317: 6258: 6205: 6183:Muscular system 6177: 6149: 6028:Skeletal system 6013: 6004: 5974: 5965: 5897: 5827: 5776: 5767: 5751:II or Aβ and Aγ 5706: 5697: 5650: 5640:Apical dendrite 5635:Dendritic spine 5614: 5576: 5546: 5533: 5517:Node of Ranvier 5512:Myelin incisure 5484: 5456: 5345: 5336:Oligodendrocyte 5319:Ependymal cells 5300: 5250: 5178: 5173: 5143: 5134: 5125:Parasympathetic 5106: 5064: 4973: 4968: 4909: 4908: 4907: 4897: 4896: 4892: 4885: 4869: 4867:Further reading 4864: 4818: 4817: 4813: 4806: 4791: 4790: 4786: 4779: 4762: 4761: 4757: 4750: 4735: 4734: 4727: 4717: 4715: 4711: 4700: 4695: 4694: 4690: 4646: 4645: 4641: 4589: 4588: 4584: 4539:Current Biology 4532: 4531: 4527: 4520:Wayback Machine 4510:Michael Arbib, 4509: 4505: 4497: 4490: 4485: 4484: 4480: 4438: 4437: 4433: 4397: 4396: 4392: 4379:(2–3): 85–100. 4366: 4365: 4358: 4346: 4345: 4338: 4330: 4296:Current Biology 4291: 4286: 4285: 4281: 4241: 4236: 4235: 4231: 4224: 4209: 4208: 4204: 4197: 4182: 4181: 4177: 4170: 4155: 4154: 4150: 4143: 4128: 4127: 4123: 4116: 4101: 4100: 4093: 4086: 4069: 4068: 4064: 4057: 4044: 4043: 4039: 4010:(11): 552–553. 4004:Trends Neurosci 4001: 4000: 3996: 3989: 3976: 3975: 3971: 3964: 3951: 3950: 3946: 3934: 3933: 3926: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3892: 3879: 3878: 3871: 3847:10.1038/nrn2234 3840:(11): 844–858. 3827: 3826: 3822: 3785:(6407): 31–39. 3776: 3775: 3771: 3735: 3734: 3727: 3720: 3701: 3700: 3696: 3661:Trends Neurosci 3658: 3656: 3652: 3617:Brain Res. Bull 3614: 3613: 3609: 3602: 3587: 3586: 3582: 3575: 3560: 3559: 3555: 3548: 3533: 3532: 3523: 3493: 3492: 3488: 3481: 3466: 3465: 3458: 3451: 3432: 3431: 3427: 3420: 3399: 3398: 3394: 3389: 3385: 3378: 3365: 3364: 3360: 3353: 3340: 3339: 3332: 3278: 3277: 3273: 3219: 3218: 3214: 3208: 3201: 3186: 3185: 3181: 3177:Chapman, p. 546 3176: 3172: 3165: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3130: 3129: 3122: 3087:J. Comp. Neurol 3084: 3083: 3079: 3043: 3042: 3038: 3001:(7115): 85–88. 2992: 2991: 2987: 2953: 2952: 2948: 2932:10.1.1.511.5106 2912: 2911: 2907: 2900: 2879: 2878: 2874: 2838: 2837: 2833: 2798:J. Child Neurol 2795: 2794: 2790: 2777: 2773: 2763: 2762: 2758: 2751: 2734: 2733: 2729: 2722: 2703: 2702: 2698: 2691: 2676: 2675: 2668: 2633:J. Comp. Neurol 2630: 2629: 2625: 2602:10.1038/457675a 2579: 2578: 2571: 2564: 2549: 2548: 2539: 2530: 2528: 2520: 2519: 2515: 2479: 2478: 2471: 2464: 2445: 2444: 2437: 2383: 2382: 2375: 2363: 2359: 2354: 2350: 2343: 2330: 2329: 2325: 2318: 2303: 2302: 2287: 2248:Front Neuroanat 2241: 2240: 2236: 2226: 2225: 2221: 2169: 2168: 2164: 2157: 2144: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2122:Muscular system 2104:Medicine portal 2102: 2097: 2095: 2092: 2005: 1999: 1993: 1798:differentiation 1786: 1778:Main articles: 1776: 1743:premotor cortex 1725: 1719: 1687: 1660:decision-making 1632:cerebral cortex 1573: 1533:Treatise of Man 1497: 1418: 1417: 1416: 1410: 1409: 1408: 1403: 1398: 1393: 1388: 1383: 1380: 1376: 1373: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1357: 1246: 1228: 1212:command neurons 1178: 1173: 1172: 1129: 1121: 1091:for vision and 1077:salivary glands 1010: 919: 847: 809: 786: 781: 775: 648: 638: 594: 581:sensory neurons 562: 561: 560: 557: 556: 555: 550: 545: 540: 537: 533: 528: 523: 518: 513: 499: 483: 388: 325:(which include 280:neural circuits 276:neural pathways 270:, or otherwise 216:parasympathetic 128: 54: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 6824: 6822: 6814: 6813: 6811:Nervous system 6803: 6802: 6796: 6795: 6793: 6792: 6787: 6782: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6761: 6759: 6753: 6752: 6750: 6749: 6748: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6717: 6716: 6715: 6710: 6705: 6700: 6695: 6684: 6682: 6676: 6675: 6673: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6646: 6644: 6642:Urinary system 6638: 6637: 6635: 6634: 6633: 6632: 6627: 6622: 6610: 6609: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6588: 6578: 6577: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6564:Laryngopharynx 6561: 6551: 6550: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6534: 6532:Salivary gland 6523: 6521: 6515: 6514: 6512: 6511: 6510: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6489: 6488: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6466: 6464: 6458: 6457: 6455: 6454: 6453: 6452: 6442: 6441: 6440: 6429: 6427: 6425:immune systems 6421:Haematopoietic 6417: 6416: 6414: 6413: 6412: 6411: 6401: 6396: 6390: 6388: 6382: 6381: 6379: 6378: 6373: 6371:Somatic system 6368: 6367: 6366: 6361: 6354:Sensory system 6351: 6350: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6331: 6329: 6327:Nervous system 6323: 6322: 6319: 6318: 6316: 6315: 6314: 6313: 6306:CNS equivalent 6303: 6302: 6301: 6296: 6286: 6285: 6284: 6279: 6268: 6266: 6260: 6259: 6257: 6256: 6251: 6250: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6228: 6226: 6217: 6211: 6210: 6207: 6206: 6204: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6187: 6185: 6179: 6178: 6176: 6175: 6173:Synovial joint 6170: 6165: 6159: 6157: 6151: 6150: 6148: 6147: 6142: 6141: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6049: 6043: 6032: 6030: 6021: 6015: 6014: 6005: 6003: 6002: 5995: 5988: 5980: 5971: 5970: 5967: 5966: 5964: 5963: 5961:Taste receptor 5958: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5938: 5933: 5931:Muscle spindle 5928: 5926:Ruffini ending 5923: 5918: 5913: 5907: 5905: 5899: 5898: 5896: 5895: 5890: 5888:Ribbon synapse 5885: 5880: 5879: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5858: 5848: 5846: 5837: 5833: 5832: 5829: 5828: 5826: 5825: 5824: 5823: 5818: 5813: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5782: 5780: 5769: 5768: 5766: 5765: 5764: 5763: 5758: 5753: 5748: 5743: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5718: 5712: 5710: 5708:Sensory neuron 5699: 5698: 5696: 5695: 5694: 5693: 5683: 5678: 5676:Pseudounipolar 5673: 5668: 5662: 5660: 5656: 5655: 5652: 5651: 5649: 5648: 5647: 5646: 5644:Basal dendrite 5637: 5632: 5624: 5622: 5616: 5615: 5613: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 5595:Axon terminals 5592: 5586: 5584: 5578: 5577: 5575: 5574: 5568: 5566: 5557: 5550: 5539: 5538: 5535: 5534: 5532: 5531: 5526: 5525: 5524: 5519: 5514: 5509: 5494: 5492: 5486: 5485: 5483: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5466: 5464: 5458: 5457: 5455: 5454: 5449: 5447:Nerve fascicle 5444: 5438: 5429: 5428: 5427: 5422: 5410: 5409: 5408: 5403: 5393: 5392: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5370: 5368: 5361: 5355: 5354: 5351: 5350: 5347: 5346: 5344: 5343: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5327: 5326: 5316: 5310: 5308: 5302: 5301: 5299: 5298: 5293: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5273: 5267: 5265: 5256: 5252: 5251: 5249: 5248: 5243: 5238: 5237: 5236: 5231: 5226: 5221: 5216: 5211: 5201: 5195: 5193: 5186: 5180: 5179: 5176:Nervous tissue 5174: 5172: 5171: 5164: 5157: 5149: 5140: 5139: 5136: 5135: 5133: 5132: 5127: 5122: 5116: 5114: 5108: 5107: 5105: 5104: 5099: 5097:Cranial nerves 5094: 5089: 5083: 5081: 5072: 5066: 5065: 5063: 5062: 5061: 5060: 5055: 5054: 5053: 5048: 5047: 5046: 5041: 5026: 5021: 5020: 5019: 5014: 5009: 4994: 4989: 4983: 4981: 4975: 4974: 4971:Nervous system 4969: 4967: 4966: 4959: 4952: 4944: 4938: 4937: 4932: 4929:Nervous System 4921: 4906: 4905: 4899: 4898: 4894:Nervous system 4887: 4886: 4884: 4883:External links 4881: 4880: 4879: 4873:Nervous system 4868: 4865: 4863: 4862: 4811: 4804: 4784: 4777: 4755: 4748: 4725: 4688: 4639: 4602:(1): R13–R18. 4582: 4525: 4503: 4478: 4451:(1): 975–980. 4431: 4410:(3): 275–281. 4390: 4356: 4336: 4279: 4229: 4222: 4202: 4195: 4175: 4168: 4148: 4141: 4121: 4114: 4091: 4084: 4062: 4055: 4037: 3994: 3987: 3969: 3962: 3944: 3924: 3913:(4): 115–133. 3897: 3890: 3869: 3820: 3769: 3725: 3718: 3694: 3667:(6): 284–289. 3650: 3607: 3600: 3580: 3573: 3553: 3546: 3521: 3486: 3479: 3456: 3449: 3425: 3418: 3392: 3383: 3376: 3358: 3351: 3330: 3271: 3212: 3206: 3199: 3179: 3170: 3163: 3137: 3120: 3077: 3056:(5): 465–477. 3036: 2985: 2946: 2905: 2898: 2872: 2851:(5): 712–723. 2831: 2804:(3): 249–260. 2788: 2771: 2756: 2749: 2727: 2720: 2707:Gray's Anatomy 2696: 2689: 2666: 2639:(5): 532–541. 2623: 2569: 2562: 2537: 2513: 2492:(1): 137–147. 2469: 2462: 2435: 2373: 2357: 2348: 2341: 2323: 2316: 2285: 2234: 2219: 2162: 2155: 2136: 2134: 2131: 2130: 2129: 2124: 2119: 2114: 2108: 2107: 2091: 2088: 2075:drugs such as 1995:Main article: 1992: 1989: 1884: 1883: 1873: 1820:of the motile 1775: 1772: 1763:theory of mind 1721:Main article: 1718: 1717:Mirror neurons 1715: 1686: 1683: 1664:motor planning 1572: 1569: 1529:René Descartes 1496: 1493: 1411: 1404: 1401:Synaptic cleft 1399: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1377: 1370: 1361: 1354: 1348: 1347: 1346: 1345: 1319:synaptic cleft 1312:, packed with 1290:axon terminals 1282:amacrine cells 1245: 1242: 1227: 1224: 1200:Mauthner cells 1177: 1174: 1130: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1009: 1006: 998:hermaphrodites 970:Photoreceptors 918: 915: 846: 843: 808: 805: 785: 782: 777:Main article: 774: 771: 702:cranial cavity 681:(CNS) and the 637: 634: 593: 590: 558: 551: 546: 541: 534: 529: 524: 519: 514: 509: 503: 502: 501: 500: 498: 495: 482: 479: 436:Torsten Wiesel 432:David H. Hubel 387: 384: 240:nervous tissue 229:cranial nerves 200:sensory nerves 174:(CNS) and the 144:highly complex 140:nervous system 130: 129: 120: 114: 113: 108: 102: 101: 96: 90: 89: 84: 78: 77: 72: 66: 65: 61: 60: 56: 55: 52: 44: 43: 42:Nervous system 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6823: 6812: 6809: 6808: 6806: 6791: 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6762: 6760: 6758: 6754: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6722: 6721: 6718: 6714: 6711: 6709: 6706: 6704: 6701: 6699: 6696: 6694: 6691: 6690: 6689: 6686: 6685: 6683: 6681: 6677: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6647: 6645: 6643: 6639: 6631: 6628: 6626: 6625:Biliary tract 6623: 6621: 6618: 6617: 6616: 6615: 6611: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6583: 6582: 6579: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6556: 6555: 6552: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6535: 6533: 6530: 6529: 6528: 6525: 6524: 6522: 6520: 6516: 6508: 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6494: 6493: 6490: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6472: 6471: 6468: 6467: 6465: 6463: 6459: 6451: 6448: 6447: 6446: 6443: 6439: 6436: 6435: 6434: 6431: 6430: 6428: 6426: 6422: 6418: 6410: 6409:Mammary gland 6407: 6406: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6391: 6389: 6387: 6383: 6377: 6374: 6372: 6369: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6356: 6355: 6352: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6334: 6333: 6332: 6330: 6328: 6324: 6312: 6309: 6308: 6307: 6304: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6291: 6290: 6287: 6283: 6280: 6278: 6275: 6274: 6273: 6270: 6269: 6267: 6265: 6261: 6255: 6252: 6248: 6245: 6243: 6240: 6238: 6235: 6234: 6233: 6230: 6229: 6227: 6225: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6212: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6188: 6186: 6184: 6180: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6163:Fibrous joint 6161: 6160: 6158: 6156: 6152: 6146: 6143: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6096: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6053: 6050: 6047: 6044: 6042: 6039: 6038: 6037: 6034: 6033: 6031: 6029: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6008: 6007:Human systems 6001: 5996: 5994: 5989: 5987: 5982: 5981: 5978: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5908: 5906: 5904: 5900: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5877: 5874: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5863: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5853: 5850: 5849: 5847: 5845: 5841: 5838: 5834: 5822: 5821:γ motorneuron 5819: 5817: 5816:β motorneuron 5814: 5812: 5811:α motorneuron 5809: 5808: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5787: 5784: 5783: 5781: 5779: 5774: 5770: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5738: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5713: 5711: 5709: 5704: 5700: 5692: 5689: 5688: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5663: 5661: 5657: 5645: 5641: 5638: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5628: 5627: 5626: 5625: 5623: 5621: 5617: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5587: 5585: 5583: 5579: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5567: 5565: 5561: 5558: 5554: 5551: 5549: 5544: 5540: 5530: 5527: 5523: 5520: 5518: 5515: 5513: 5510: 5508: 5505: 5504: 5503: 5499: 5496: 5495: 5493: 5491: 5487: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5463: 5459: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5433: 5430: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5417: 5416: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5398: 5397: 5394: 5390: 5387: 5385: 5382: 5380: 5377: 5376: 5375: 5372: 5371: 5369: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5356: 5342: 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5325: 5322: 5321: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5311: 5309: 5307: 5303: 5297: 5294: 5292: 5289: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5272: 5269: 5268: 5266: 5264: 5260: 5257: 5253: 5247: 5244: 5242: 5239: 5235: 5232: 5230: 5227: 5225: 5222: 5220: 5217: 5215: 5212: 5210: 5207: 5206: 5205: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5196: 5194: 5190: 5187: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5170: 5165: 5163: 5158: 5156: 5151: 5150: 5147: 5131: 5128: 5126: 5123: 5121: 5118: 5117: 5115: 5113: 5109: 5103: 5100: 5098: 5095: 5093: 5090: 5088: 5087:Sensory nerve 5085: 5084: 5082: 5080: 5076: 5073: 5071: 5067: 5059: 5058:Limbic system 5056: 5052: 5049: 5045: 5042: 5040: 5037: 5036: 5035: 5032: 5031: 5030: 5027: 5025: 5022: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5005: 5004: 5003: 5000: 4999: 4998: 4995: 4993: 4990: 4988: 4985: 4984: 4982: 4980: 4976: 4972: 4965: 4960: 4958: 4953: 4951: 4946: 4945: 4942: 4936: 4933: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4919: 4915: 4911: 4910: 4904: 4901: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4882: 4878: 4874: 4871: 4870: 4866: 4858: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4815: 4812: 4807: 4801: 4797: 4796: 4788: 4785: 4780: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4759: 4756: 4751: 4745: 4741: 4740: 4732: 4730: 4726: 4710: 4706: 4699: 4692: 4689: 4684: 4680: 4675: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4643: 4640: 4635: 4631: 4626: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4597: 4593: 4586: 4583: 4578: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4561: 4556: 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MIT Press. 4048: 4041: 4038: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4013: 4009: 4005: 3998: 3995: 3990: 3984: 3981:. Blackwell. 3980: 3973: 3970: 3965: 3959: 3955: 3948: 3945: 3940: 3939: 3931: 3929: 3925: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3901: 3898: 3893: 3887: 3884:. MIT Press. 3883: 3876: 3874: 3870: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3848: 3843: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3824: 3821: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3773: 3770: 3765: 3761: 3756: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3732: 3730: 3726: 3721: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3706: 3698: 3695: 3690: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3654: 3651: 3646: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3611: 3608: 3603: 3597: 3593: 3592: 3584: 3581: 3576: 3570: 3566: 3565: 3557: 3554: 3549: 3543: 3539: 3538: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3522: 3517: 3513: 3509: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3490: 3487: 3482: 3476: 3472: 3471: 3463: 3461: 3457: 3452: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3437: 3429: 3426: 3421: 3415: 3411: 3406: 3405: 3396: 3393: 3390:Stein, p. 112 3387: 3384: 3379: 3373: 3369: 3362: 3359: 3354: 3348: 3344: 3337: 3335: 3331: 3326: 3322: 3317: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3299: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3275: 3272: 3267: 3263: 3258: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3240: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3216: 3213: 3210: 3207: 3202: 3196: 3192: 3191: 3183: 3180: 3174: 3171: 3166: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3141: 3138: 3133: 3127: 3125: 3121: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3093:(1): 57–103. 3092: 3088: 3081: 3078: 3073: 3069: 3064: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3040: 3037: 3032: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2989: 2986: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2950: 2947: 2942: 2938: 2933: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2909: 2906: 2901: 2895: 2891: 2886: 2885: 2876: 2873: 2868: 2864: 2859: 2854: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2835: 2832: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2799: 2792: 2789: 2786: 2785: 2780: 2775: 2772: 2767: 2760: 2757: 2752: 2746: 2741: 2740: 2731: 2728: 2723: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2708: 2700: 2697: 2692: 2686: 2682: 2681: 2673: 2671: 2667: 2662: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2627: 2624: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2576: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2559: 2555: 2554: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2538: 2526: 2525: 2517: 2514: 2509: 2505: 2500: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2483: 2476: 2474: 2470: 2465: 2463:0-03-025982-7 2459: 2455: 2451: 2450: 2442: 2440: 2436: 2431: 2427: 2422: 2417: 2412: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2380: 2378: 2374: 2371: 2367: 2361: 2358: 2352: 2349: 2344: 2338: 2334: 2327: 2324: 2319: 2313: 2309: 2308: 2300: 2298: 2296: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2286: 2281: 2277: 2272: 2267: 2262: 2257: 2253: 2249: 2245: 2238: 2235: 2230: 2223: 2220: 2215: 2211: 2206: 2201: 2197: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2166: 2163: 2158: 2152: 2148: 2141: 2138: 2132: 2128: 2125: 2123: 2120: 2118: 2115: 2113: 2110: 2109: 2105: 2094: 2089: 2087: 2085: 2080: 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2037: 2032: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2009: 2004: 1998: 1990: 1988: 1986: 1982: 1978: 1974: 1973:neurotrophins 1970: 1966: 1961: 1959: 1958: 1953: 1948: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1917: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1902:neural groove 1899: 1895: 1891: 1878: 1874: 1868: 1864: 1863: 1860: 1858: 1854: 1850: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1833: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1785: 1781: 1773: 1771: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1739: 1734: 1730: 1729:mirror neuron 1724: 1723:Mirror neuron 1716: 1714: 1712: 1708: 1703: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1684: 1682: 1679: 1675: 1674:visual system 1671: 1667: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1656:memory recall 1653: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1636:basal ganglia 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1615: 1612: 1607: 1604: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1577: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1561: 1556: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1534: 1530: 1525: 1521: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1502: 1494: 1492: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1481:reward system 1478: 1477:NMDA receptor 1474: 1470: 1466: 1465:memory traces 1461: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1446: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1415: 1407: 1402: 1397: 1396:Axon terminal 1392: 1387: 1382: 1375: 1368: 1359: 1352: 1344: 1342: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1328:acetylcholine 1324: 1320: 1315: 1311: 1306: 1302: 1297: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1259: 1255: 1250: 1243: 1241: 1237: 1234: 1225: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1208: 1206: 1201: 1196: 1194: 1190: 1189: 1183: 1175: 1170: 1165: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1134: 1127: 1118: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1104: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1089:compound eyes 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1066: 1065:tritocerebrum 1062: 1061:deutocerebrum 1058: 1057:protocerebrum 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1014: 1007: 1005: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 982: 978: 973: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 947: 943: 939: 932: 928: 923: 916: 914: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 894:hemichordates 891: 887: 886:deuterostomes 883: 879: 874: 866: 862: 860: 851: 844: 842: 840: 836: 832: 828: 823: 821: 817: 813: 806: 804: 802: 798: 794: 790: 783: 780: 772: 770: 768: 767:basal ganglia 764: 760: 755: 751: 747: 742: 740: 736: 731: 727: 723: 717: 715: 711: 707: 703: 699: 695: 691: 686: 684: 680: 676: 669: 665: 660: 652: 647: 643: 635: 633: 630: 626: 625:Schwann cells 622: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 598: 591: 589: 586: 585:motor neurons 582: 577: 575: 571: 567: 554: 553:Myelin sheath 549: 544: 543:Axon terminal 539: 532: 527: 522: 517: 512: 507: 496: 494: 492: 488: 480: 478: 476: 472: 468: 464: 459: 457: 453: 449: 443: 441: 437: 433: 429: 425: 424:Andrew Huxley 421: 417: 413: 409: 403: 401: 397: 393: 385: 383: 381: 377: 373: 369: 364: 360: 354: 352: 348: 344: 340: 336: 332: 328: 324: 320: 316: 312: 308: 304: 300: 295: 293: 289: 285: 282:, and larger 281: 277: 273: 269: 265: 261: 257: 253: 249: 245: 241: 236: 234: 233:spinal nerves 230: 226: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 185: 181: 177: 173: 169: 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 145: 141: 137: 125: 119: 115: 112: 109: 107: 103: 100: 97: 95: 91: 88: 85: 83: 79: 76: 73: 71: 67: 62: 57: 50: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 6612: 6580: 6553: 6326: 6305: 6288: 6271: 6231: 5856:Gap junction 5778:Motor neuron 5572:Axon hillock 5548:nerve fibers 5502:Schwann cell 5412: 5395: 5373: 5291:Medium spiny 5204:White matter 5192:Tissue Types 5102:Spinal nerve 5034:Diencephalon 4970: 4893: 4877:Scholarpedia 4831:(11): e284. 4828: 4824: 4814: 4794: 4787: 4768: 4764: 4758: 4738: 4716:. Retrieved 4709:the original 4704: 4691: 4656: 4652: 4642: 4599: 4595: 4585: 4542: 4538: 4528: 4511: 4506: 4495:the original 4481: 4448: 4444: 4434: 4407: 4403: 4393: 4376: 4372: 4349: 4328:the original 4299: 4295: 4282: 4249: 4245: 4232: 4212: 4205: 4185: 4178: 4158: 4151: 4131: 4124: 4104: 4073: 4065: 4046: 4040: 4007: 4003: 3997: 3978: 3972: 3953: 3947: 3937: 3910: 3906: 3900: 3881: 3837: 3833: 3823: 3782: 3778: 3772: 3745: 3741: 3704: 3697: 3664: 3660: 3653: 3620: 3616: 3610: 3590: 3583: 3563: 3556: 3536: 3499: 3495: 3489: 3469: 3435: 3428: 3403: 3395: 3386: 3367: 3361: 3342: 3288: 3284: 3274: 3232:(17): 2248. 3229: 3225: 3215: 3209: 3189: 3182: 3173: 3150: 3140: 3090: 3086: 3080: 3053: 3049: 3039: 2998: 2994: 2988: 2963: 2959: 2949: 2922: 2918: 2908: 2883: 2875: 2848: 2844: 2834: 2801: 2797: 2791: 2782: 2774: 2765: 2759: 2738: 2730: 2705: 2699: 2679: 2636: 2632: 2626: 2585: 2581: 2552: 2529:, retrieved 2523: 2516: 2489: 2485: 2448: 2393: 2389: 2360: 2351: 2332: 2326: 2306: 2251: 2247: 2237: 2228: 2222: 2182:(1): 17–42. 2179: 2175: 2165: 2146: 2140: 2081: 2033: 2014: 1984: 1962: 1956: 1949: 1920: 1918: 1910:neural crest 1890:neural plate 1887: 1845:vegetal pole 1834: 1792:include the 1787: 1726: 1704: 1688: 1668: 1616: 1608: 1603:interneurons 1583: 1557: 1544: 1537: 1532: 1510:Walter Pitts 1498: 1462: 1447: 1419: 1356:Postsynaptic 1341:memory trace 1332:motor neuron 1298: 1275: 1238: 1229: 1209: 1197: 1192: 1186: 1181: 1179: 1162:nerve collar 1161: 1139: 1109:insect brain 1105: 1079:and certain 1019: 1001: 979: 974: 936: 930: 926: 875: 871: 856: 824: 816:comb jellies 810: 787: 750:white matter 743: 718: 698:spinal canal 687: 672: 668:white matter 595: 578: 563: 548:Schwann cell 526:Axon hillock 484: 460: 445: 405: 389: 380:Neuroscience 355: 296: 237: 196:motor nerves 139: 133: 99:A14.0.00.000 74: 36: 18:Nervousystem 6780:Parathyroid 6480:Nasopharynx 6342:Spinal cord 6277:Bone marrow 6046:Collar bone 5871:Active zone 5836:Termination 5686:Interneuron 5590:Telodendron 5498:Myelination 5480:Endoneurium 5475:Perineurium 5296:Interneuron 5286:Von Economo 5234:Decussation 5229:Nerve tract 5199:Grey matter 5120:Sympathetic 5092:Motor nerve 5044:Optic nerve 4992:Spinal cord 4252:: 169–192. 3941:. Scribner. 2960:Development 2396:(6): e506. 2036:ulnar nerve 1952:neuroblasts 1914:neurulation 1906:neural tube 1841:animal pole 1822:growth cone 1774:Development 1549:behaviorism 1381:transporter 1336:muscle cell 1150:commissures 1142:nerve cords 1029:crustaceans 946:nerve cords 890:echinoderms 882:protostomes 859:bilaterians 831:bilaterians 746:gray matter 694:spinal cord 675:vertebrates 664:gray matter 613:human brain 605:homeostasis 603:, maintain 597:Glial cells 592:Glial cells 491:glial cells 452:spinal cord 428:John Eccles 400:spinal cord 319:ctenophores 288:glial cells 212:sympathetic 184:spinal cord 146:part of an 64:Identifiers 6559:Oropharynx 6299:Lymph node 6232:peripheral 6078:Metatarsus 6073:Metacarpus 6052:Thigh bone 6048:(clavicle) 5941:Nociceptor 5681:Multipolar 5630:Nissl body 5507:Neurilemma 5470:Epineurium 5255:Cell Types 5017:Cerebellum 4718:14 January 3436:Psychology 2779:"ganglion" 2133:References 2069:idiopathic 2045:regenerate 2003:Psychiatry 2001:See also: 1985:Drosophila 1957:Drosophila 1654:analysis, 1652:perceptual 1644:cerebellum 1586:reflex arc 1553:psychology 1193:C. elegans 1188:C. elegans 1182:identified 1073:mouthparts 1023:, such as 1021:Arthropods 1008:Arthropods 1002:C. elegans 986:connectome 962:nerve ring 954:coordinate 950:transverse 944:have dual 942:earthworms 902:arthropods 878:superphyla 754:myelinated 710:dura mater 640:See also: 471:bilaterian 416:Otto Loewi 359:senescence 323:cnidarians 317:organisms 307:placozoans 6765:Pituitary 6614:accessory 6569:Esophagus 6289:secondary 6201:Diaphragm 6145:Cartilage 6093:Phalanges 5956:Hair cell 5490:Neuroglia 5452:Funiculus 5341:Microglia 5314:Astrocyte 5271:Pyramidal 5224:Lemniscus 5112:Autonomic 5029:Forebrain 5002:Hindbrain 4825:PLOS Biol 4596:Curr Biol 4353:. Kindle. 3307:1742-9994 3291:(1): 10. 3248:2076-2615 2927:CiteSeerX 2618:205044137 2196:1097-4199 2127:Sentience 2077:lidocaine 2017:meningeal 1997:Neurology 1991:Pathology 1965:bilateral 1810:migration 1806:stem cell 1692:attractor 1624:brainstem 1473:glutamate 1454:glutamate 1423:glutamate 1323:receptors 1154:esophagus 1101:pheromone 1097:olfaction 1051:. 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