Penguin - Knowledge (XXG)

1780: 146: 132: 1557: 1588:. The afterfeathers are downy plumes that attach directly to the main feathers and were once believed to account for the bird's ability to conserve heat when under water; the plumules are small down feathers that attach directly to the skin, and are much more dense in penguins than other birds; lastly the filoplumes are small (less than 1 cm long) naked shafts that end in a splay of fibers— filoplumes were believed to give flying birds a sense of where their plumage was and whether or not it needed preening, so their presence in penguins may seem inconsistent, but penguins also preen extensively. 1461:, which live in the North Pacific and North Atlantic, developed similar characteristics to survive in the Arctic and sub-Arctic environments. Like the penguins, puffins have a white chest, black back and short stubby wings providing excellent swimming ability in icy water. But, unlike penguins, puffins can fly, as flightless birds would not survive alongside land-based predators such as polar bears and foxes; there are no such predators in the Antarctic. Their similarities indicate that similar environments, although at great distances, can result in similar evolutionary developments, i.e. 162: 627: 1170:, 19 high-coverage genomes that, together with two previously published genomes, encompass all extant penguin species have been sequenced. The origin of the Spheniscinae lies probably in the latest Paleogene and, geographically, it must have been much the same as the general area in which the order evolved: the oceans between the Australia-New Zealand region and the Antarctic. Presumably diverging from other penguins around 40 mya, it seems that the Spheniscinae were for quite some time limited to their ancestral area, as the well-researched deposits of the 1687: 1372: 924: 176: 199: 1483: 1596:

penguins, even those that live in warmer climates, have a counter-current heat exchanger called the humeral plexus. The flippers of penguins have at least three branches of the axillary artery, which allows cold blood to be heated by blood that has already been warmed and limits heat loss from the flippers. This system allows penguins to efficiently use their body heat and explains why such small animals can survive in the extreme cold.

8259: 8283: 1627: 4156:; Mirarab, S.; Aberer, A. J.; Li, B.; Houde, P.; Li, C.; Ho, S. Y. W.; Faircloth, B. C.; Nabholz, B.; Howard, J. T.; Suh, A.; Weber, C. C.; Da Fonseca, R. R.; Li, J.; Zhang, F.; Li, H.; Zhou, L.; Narula, N.; Liu, L.; Ganapathy, G.; Boussau, B.; Bayzid, M. S.; Zavidovych, V.; Subramanian, S.; Gabaldon, T.; Capella-Gutierrez, S.; Huerta-Cepas, J.; Rekepalli, B.; Munch, K.; et al. (2014). 2283: 2305: 1474: 8295: 394: 8271: 1826:

and 16% of the weight of a penguin egg, presumably to reduce the effects of dehydration and to minimize the risk of breakage in an adverse nesting environment. The yolk, too, is large and comprises 22–31% of the egg. Some yolk often remains when a chick is born, and is thought to help sustain the chick if the parents are delayed in returning with food.

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usually dive deep; they catch their prey near the surface in dives that normally last only one or two minutes. Larger penguins can dive deep in case of need. Emperor penguins are the world's deepest-diving birds. They can dive to depths of approximately 550 meters (1,800 feet) while searching for food.

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When emperor penguin mothers lose a chick, they sometimes attempt to "steal" another mother's chick, usually unsuccessfully as other females in the vicinity assist the defending mother in keeping her chick. In some species, such as emperor and king penguins, the chicks assemble in large groups called

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Penguin eggs are smaller than any other bird species when compared proportionally to the weight of the parent birds; at 52 g (2 oz), the little penguin egg is 4.7% of its mothers' weight, and the 450 g (1 lb) emperor penguin egg is 2.3%. The relatively thick shell forms between 10

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Penguins for the most part breed in large colonies, the exceptions being the yellow-eyed and Fiordland species; these colonies may range in size from as few as 100 pairs for gentoo penguins to several hundred thousand in the case of king, macaroni and chinstrap penguins. Living in colonies results in

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The emperor penguin has the largest body mass of all penguins, which further reduces relative surface area and heat loss. They also are able to control blood flow to their extremities, reducing the amount of blood that gets cold, but still keeping the extremities from freezing. In the extreme cold of

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appears to be the basalmost divergence among living penguins. They have bright yellow-orange neck, breast, and bill patches; incubate by placing their eggs on their feet, and when they hatch the chicks are almost naked. This genus has a distribution centred on the Antarctic coasts and barely extends

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Li, C.; Zhang, Y.; Li, J.; Kong, L.; Hu, H.; Pan, H.; Xu, L.; Deng, Y.; Li, Q.; Jin, L.; Yu, H.; Chen, Y.; Liu, B.; Yang, L.; Liu, S.; Zhang, Y.; Lang, Y.; Xia, J.; He, W.; Shi, Q.; Subramanian, S.; Millar, C. D.; Meader, S.; Rands, C. M.; Fujita, M. K.; Greenwold, M. J.; Castoe, T. A.; Pollock, D.

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Penguins either waddle on their feet or slide on their bellies across the snow while using their feet to propel and steer themselves, a movement called "tobogganing", which conserves energy while moving quickly. They also jump with both feet together if they want to move more quickly or cross steep

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where larger-bodied populations live at higher latitudes than smaller-bodied populations. There is some disagreement about this and several other authors have noted that there are fossil penguin species that contradict this hypothesis and that ocean currents and upwellings are likely to have had a

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some 35 million years later. With habitat on the Antarctic coasts declining, by the Priabonian more hospitable conditions for most penguins existed in the Subantarctic regions rather than in Antarctica itself. Notably, the cold Antarctic Circumpolar Current also started as a continuous circumpolar

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Gentoo penguins are the fastest underwater birds in the world. They are capable of reaching speeds up to 36 km (about 22 miles) per hour while searching for food or escaping from predators. They are also able to dive to depths of 170–200 meters (about 560–660 feet). The small penguins do not

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Calculations of the heat loss and retention ability of marine endotherms suggest that most extant penguins are too small to survive in such cold environments. In 2007, Thomas and Fordyce wrote about the "heterothermic loophole" that penguins utilize in order to survive in Antarctica. All extant

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Geier, Thom; Jensen, Jeff; Jordan, Tina; Lyons, Margaret; Markovitz, Adam; Nashawaty, Chris; Pastorek, Whitney; Rice, Lynette; Rottenberg, Josh; Schwartz, Missy; Slezak, Michael; Snierson, Dan; Stack, Tim; Stroup, Kate; Tucker, Ken; Vary, Adam B.; Vozick-Levinson, Simon; Ward, Kate,

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The birds currently known as penguins were discovered later and were so named by sailors because of their physical resemblance to the great auk. Despite this resemblance, however, they are not auks, and are not closely related to the great auk. They do not belong in the genus

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the Antarctic winter, the females are at sea fishing for food, leaving the males to brave the weather by themselves. They often huddle together to keep warm and rotate positions to make sure that each penguin gets a turn in the centre of the heat pack.

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lineage, or whether gigantism was evolved independently in a restricted Palaeeudyptinae and the Anthropornithinae – whether they were considered valid, or whether there was a wide size range present in the Palaeeudyptinae as delimited (i.e., including

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were flightless, with short wings adapted for deep diving. They swam on the surface using mainly their feet, but the wings were – as opposed to most other diving birds (both living and extinct) – already adapting to underwater locomotion.

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Penguin wings have the same general bone structure as flighted birds, but the bones are shorter and stouter to allow them to serve as fins. 1). Humerus 2). Sesamoid Bone 3). Radius 4). Ulna 5). Radial Carpal bone 6). Carpometacarpus 7).

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has a maximum feather density of about nine feathers per square centimeter which is actually much lower than other birds that live in antarctic environments. However, they have been identified as having at least four different

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and consequently would have to be included in that order, or that the plotopterids were not as close to other pelecaniforms as generally assumed, which would necessitate splitting the traditional Pelecaniformes into three.

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Sphenisciformes, i.e., including any flying basal "proto-penguins" to be discovered eventually. Given that neither the relationships of the penguin subfamilies to each other nor the placement of the penguins in the avian

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Spheniscidae to what here is referred to as Spheniscinae. Furthermore, they restrict the phylogenetic taxon Sphenisciformes to flightless taxa, and establish the phylogenetic taxon Pansphenisciformes as equivalent to the

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to South America and eventually beyond. Despite this, there is no fossil evidence to support the idea of crown radiation from the Antarctic continent in the Paleogene, although DNA study favors such a radiation.

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Slack, Kerryn E.; Jones, Craig M.; Ando, Tatsuro; Harrison, G.L. "Abby"; Fordyce, R. Ewan; Arnason, Ulfur; Penny, David (2006). "Early Penguin Fossils, plus Mitochondrial Genomes, Calibrate Avian Evolution".

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Penguins form monogamous pairs for a breeding season, though the rate the same pair recouples varies drastically. Most penguins lay two eggs in a clutch, although the two largest species, the emperor and the

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in 1982. Set in Antarctica, the player controls a penguin character who must navigate mazes of ice cubes. The player is rewarded with cut-scenes of animated penguins marching, dancing, saluting and playing

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penguins. Isabellinism is different from albinism. Isabelline penguins tend to live shorter lives than normal penguins, as they are not well-camouflaged against the deep and are often passed over as mates.

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have evolved to become flippers, useless for flight in the air. In the water, however, penguins are astonishingly agile. Penguins' swimming looks very similar to birds' flight in the air. Within the smooth

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Meyer-Rochow V.B. (2015). "Examples of four incompletely resolved aspects of the biology of penguins elated to digestive and reproductive physiology, vision and locomotion". In Jenkins Owen P. (ed.).

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Pan, Hailin; Cole, Theresa L.; Bi, Xupeng; Fang, Miaoquan; Zhou, Chengran; Yang, Zhengtao; Ksepka, Daniel T.; Hart, Tom; Bouzat, Juan L.; Argilla, Lisa S.; Bertelsen, Mads F. (September 1, 2019).

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contains species with a fairly simple black-and-white head pattern; their distribution is intermediate, centred on Antarctic coasts but extending somewhat northwards from there. In external

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or the nearby offshore islands. They are preyed upon by other birds like skuas, especially in eggs and as fledglings. Other birds like petrels, sheathbills, and gulls also eat the chicks.

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In June 2011, an emperor penguin came ashore on New Zealand's Peka Peka Beach, 3,200 kilometres (2,000 mi) off course on its journey to Antarctica. Nicknamed Happy Feet, after the

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was already much like today in volume and extent. The emergence of most of today's Subantarctic penguin species almost certainly was caused by this sequence of Neogene climate shifts.

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colouration and the former genus has a conspicuous banded head pattern; they are unique among living penguins by nesting in burrows. This group probably radiated eastwards with the

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The majority of living penguin species have declining populations. According to the IUCN Red List, their conservation statuses range from Least Concern through to Endangered.

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seems to have diverged during the Bartonian, but the range expansion and radiation that led to the present-day diversity probably did not occur until much later; around the

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Hackett, S. J.; Kimball, R. T.; Reddy, S.; Bowie, R. C. K.; Braun, E. L.; Braun, M. J. (2008). "A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their Evolutionary History".

1779: 8517: 1334:, a sharp drop in global average temperature from 14 to 12 mya, and similar abrupt cooling events followed at 8 mya and 4 mya; by the end of the Tortonian, the 1549:. Their eyes are adapted for underwater vision and are their primary means of locating prey and avoiding predators; in air it has been suggested that they are 4831: 2899: 1530:) has difficulty distinguishing between a white penguin belly and the reflective water surface. The dark plumage on their backs camouflages them from above. 1315:. The emergence of the Subantarctic lineage at the end of the Bartonian corresponds with the onset of the slow period of cooling that eventually led to the 1057:

was probably the heaviest, weighing 80 kilograms (180 lb) or more. Both were found on New Zealand, the former also in the Antarctic farther eastwards.

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that flows around these islands. Also, though the climate of the Arctic and Antarctic regions is similar, there are no penguins found in the Arctic.

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a high level of social interaction between birds, which has led to a large repertoire of visual as well as vocal displays in all penguin species.

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Bertelli, S.; Giannini, N. P. (2005). "A phylogeny of extant penguins (Aves: Sphenisciformes) combining morphology and mitochondrial sequences".

6190: 1098:, Antarctica, for example, around 10 known species of penguins ranging in size from medium to large apparently coexisted some 35 mya during the 1264:(Late Oligocene), starting approximately 28 mya. While the two genera separated during this time, the present-day diversity is the result of a 2316:

Penguins have no special fear of humans and will often approach groups of people. This is probably because penguins have no land predators in

6350: 6288: 5395: 5370: 4890: 4365: 3940: 3485: 3108: 3074: 1658: 582:): on average, adults are about 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) tall and weigh 35 kg (77 lb). The smallest penguin species is the 1178:

have not yielded Paleogene fossils of the subfamily. Also, the earliest spheniscine lineages are those with the most southern distribution.

6304: 6100: 6070: 2965: 6386: 4242:"Two Antarctic penguin genomes reveal insights into their evolutionary history and molecular changes related to the Antarctic environment" 571:

which they catch with their bills and swallow whole while swimming. A penguin has a spiny tongue and powerful jaws to grip slippery prey.

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Jouventin, P; Aubin, T; Lengagne, T (1999). "Finding a parent in a king penguin colony: The acoustic system of individual recognition".

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a layer of air is preserved, ensuring buoyancy. The air layer also helps insulate the birds in cold waters. On land, penguins use their

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Penguins have a thick layer of insulating feathers that keeps them warm in water (heat loss in water is much greater than in air). The

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remains unknown and not well-resolved by molecular or morphological analyses. The latter tend to be confounded by the strong adaptive

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if possible, it is becoming accepted that there were at least two major extinct lineages. One or two closely related ones occurred in

8634: 6256: 4965: 4858: 3460: 3422: 3323: 2909: 1331: 6130: 2709: 8576: 6361: 5424: 4106:"Tertiary plotopterids (Aves, Plotopteridae) and a novel hypothesis on the phylogenetic relationships of penguins (Spheniscidae)" 1050: 969:, these areas were at that time less than 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) apart rather than 4,000 kilometres (2,500 mi). The 6227: 6160: 5165: 5095:"Paleogene equatorial penguins challenge the proposed relationship between biogeography, diversity, and Cenozoic climate change" 3842: 1320:

flow only around 30 mya, on the one hand forcing the Antarctic cooling, and on the other facilitating the eastward expansion of

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Penguins generally only lay one brood; the exception is the little penguin, which can raise two or three broods in a season.

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Although almost all penguin species are native to the Southern Hemisphere, they are not found only in cold climates, such as

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Inside this group, penguin relationships are far less clear. Depending on the analysis and dataset, a close relationship to

8504: 2628:, is also described as hailing from the Falklands. Opus was a comical, "existentialist" penguin character in the cartoons 2545: 2328:, but dogs have long since been banned from Antarctica. Instead, adult penguins are at risk at sea from predators such as 1442:) may actually be a sister group of the penguins and those penguins may have ultimately shared a common ancestor with the 1257: 1142:, which includes smaller and stout-legged forms, had already arisen in southernmost South America by that time. The early 6030: 1807:

displays are those intended to confront or drive off, or alternately appease and avoid conflict with, other individuals.

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was originally used for that bird centuries ago. They are only distantly related to the penguins, but are an example of

709: 2846: 626: 198: 8400: 8377: 7156: 6661: 6656: 6380: 4941: 3159: 1977: 1932: 1109: 970: 3131: 650:. When European explorers discovered what are today known as penguins in the Southern Hemisphere, they noticed their 3766:"High flight costs, but low dive costs, in auks support the biomechanical hypothesis for flightlessness in penguins" 3446: 749:, which means 'fat' or 'oil'. Support for this etymology can be found in the alternative Germanic word for penguin, 6938: 4993:

Ashton, K. (2002). "Patterns of within-species body size variation of birds: strong evidence for Bergmann's rule".

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Perhaps one in 50,000 penguins (of most species) are born with brown rather than black plumage. These are called

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filters excess salt from the bloodstream. The salt is excreted in a concentrated fluid from the nasal passages.

161: 8629: 7179: 7161: 2992:"State-dependent climate sensitivity in past warm climates and its implications for future climate projections" 2656: 870: 839: 603: 375: 336: 285: 20: 2660: 2464: 1815:, lay only one. With the exception of the emperor penguin, where the male does it all, all penguins share the 923: 574:

They spend about half of their lives on land and the other half in the sea. The largest living species is the

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penguin species were enormous: as tall or heavy as an adult human. There was a great diversity of species in

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and another two more basal genera with more ambiguous relationships. To help resolve the evolution of this

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preyed upon penguins while they were allowed in Antarctica during the age of early human exploration as

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A 2014 analysis of whole genomes of 48 representative bird species has concluded that penguins are the

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Elliott, K. H.; Ricklefs, R. E.; Gaston, A. J.; Hatch, S. A.; Speakman, J. R.; Davoren, G. K. (2013).

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The geographical and temporal pattern of spheniscine evolution corresponds closely to two episodes of

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duties. These incubation shifts can last days and even weeks as one member of the pair feeds at sea.

1676: 1672: 1615: 1462: 1284: 1211: 1197: 725:, on the basis that the name was originally applied to the great auk, either because it was found on 651: 540: 3703: 950:. Some seminal articles about the evolutionary history of penguins have been published since 2005. 7146: 7038: 6978: 6923: 6703: 6614: 6323: 2588: 2526: 2428: 2093: 1831: 1742:

has collapsed, with barely 200,000 remaining, according to a study published in Antarctic Science.

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Thomas, D.B.; Fordyce, R.E. (2012). "Biological plasticity in penguin heat-retention structures".

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In the mid-2000s, penguins became one of the most publicized species of animals that form lasting

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Breeding range of penguins, all species (aqua); some species have wider seasonal migration ranges

7929: 6993: 6953: 6918: 6579: 5060: 4787: 4698: 4616: 4600: 4553: 4492: 4375: 4079: 3986:"Multiple gene evidence for expansion of extant penguins out of Antarctica due to global cooling" 3659: 3592:"Multiple gene evidence for expansion of extant penguins out of Antarctica due to global cooling" 3534: 2819: 2767: 2642: 2550: 2505: 2469: 2231: 1667:. In fact, only a few species of penguin actually live so far south. Several species live in the 1600: 1147: 1091: 799: 715: 253: 193: 4356:

Buskey, Theresa (March 2001). "The Antarctic Polar Region". In Alan Christopherson, M.S. (ed.).

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of Procellariiformes, from which they diverged about 60 million years ago (95% CI, 56.8–62.7).

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saw the emergence of another morphotype in the same area, the similarly sized but more gracile

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in 1939. Penguins have also appeared in a number of cartoons and television dramas, including

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is presently resolved, this is confusing, so the established Linnean system is followed here.

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and Erika Brueggemann in 1990 and covering more than 100 short episodes. At the end of 2009,

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of the Northern Hemisphere, now extinct, was superficially similar to penguins, and the word

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of the Sphenisciformes; a sometimes perceived fairly close relationship between penguins and

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is almost certainly an error based on both groups' strong diving adaptations, which are

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Traditionally, most extinct species of penguins, giant or small, had been placed in the

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in New Zealand. While they were not as well-adapted to aquatic life as modern penguins,

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Sivak, J; Howland, H. C.; McGill-Harelstad, P (1987). "Vision of the Humboldt penguin (

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put it on its end-of-the-decade "best-of" list, saying, "Whether they were walking (

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Downhower, J.F.; Blumer, L.S. (1988). "Calculating just how small a whale can be".

4396: 4153: 4083: 3199: 3060: 2771: 2670: 2630: 2612: 2577: 2563: 2530: 2397: 2373: 2369: 2337: 1887: 1812: 1734:. Satellite images and photos released in 2018 show the population of 2 million in 1731: 1581: 1527: 1451: 1396: 1365: 1353: 1151: 1103: 1084: 1061: 943: 928: 843: 599: 5342: 5321: 5093:

Clarke, J. A.; Ksepka; Stucchi; Urbina; Giannini; Bertelli; Narváez; Boyd (2007).

4158:"Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds" 1130:, around 25 mya. Their decline and disappearance coincided with the spread of the 8418: 6015:. Natural Environment Research Council – British Antarctic Survey. Archived from 4292: 3899: 3240: 3064: 1375:

Humboldt penguins in an aquarium. The penguin is an accomplished swimmer, having

8509: 8465: 8349: 8092: 7939: 7745: 7724: 7713: 7678: 7545: 7535: 7493: 7384: 7251: 7053: 6878: 6873: 6805: 6790: 6758: 6484: 4897:

by Marcel Van Tuinen, Dave Brian Butvill, John A. W. Kirsch and S. Blair Hedges.

4360:. LIFEPAC. 804 N. 2nd Ave. E., Rock Rapids, IA: Alpha Omegan Publications, Inc. 2348: 1795: 1727: 1550: 1361: 1223: 1207: 1183: 646:

first appears in literature at the end of the 16th century as a synonym for the

595: 305: 52: 5099:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4467:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2966:"Largest penguin ever discovered weighed a whopping 340 pounds, fossils reveal" 2379:

Penguins are widely considered endearing for their unusually upright, waddling

2304: 1545:

for birds; this is used by parents and chicks to locate one another in crowded

8209: 8071: 8010: 7989: 7821: 7805: 7740: 7685: 7657: 7589: 7554: 7432: 7280: 7115: 7090: 6848: 6605: 6510: 6318: 4933: 4330: 3956: 2559: 2500:), these oddly adorable birds took flight at the box office all decade long." 2422: 2410: 2388: 2344: 2317: 1763: 1707: 1664: 1515: 1388: 1322: 1253: 1238: 1200:, these apparently still resemble the common ancestor of the Spheniscinae, as 1192: 1099: 1017: 1005: 946:

history of Sphenisciformes is well-researched, many prehistoric forms are not

874: 611: 411: 370: 357: 344: 115: 97: 62: 3181:(in European Spanish) (22nd ed.). Real Academia Española. Archived from 3025: 2468:

is a children's book written by Richard and Florence Atwater; it was named a

8439: 8169: 8124: 7913: 7706: 7623: 7607: 7596: 7506: 7442: 7401: 7100: 6901: 6888: 6868: 6768: 6541: 5119: 4184: 3790: 3712: 3016: 2838: 2755: 2534: 2522: 2406: 2384: 1715: 1711: 1668: 1607: 1585: 1435: 1400: 1296: 1244: 1175: 1127: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1064: 1046: 1026: 1022: 978: 962: 939: 912: 803: 789: 647: 331: 210: 102: 46: 5138: 4783: 4596: 4549: 4541: 4277: 4258: 4210: 4075: 4019: 4001: 3917: 3809: 3720: 3625: 3607: 3388: 3369: 3154: 3043: 2763: 1679:, but this is only made possible by the cold, rich waters of the Antarctic 393: 4694: 4612: 4514: 4487: 3955:

It is likely that, during the Bartonian, there was a near-synchronous but

3127: 1473: 8340: 8334: 8137: 7867: 7842: 7788: 7699: 7671: 7561: 7525: 7517: 7499: 7394: 7379: 7363: 7110: 7073: 6906: 2515: 2325: 1408: 1288: 1280: 1265: 1261: 1113:). The oldest well-described giant penguin, the 5-foot (1.5 m)-tall 1034: 947: 932: 818:

in the mid-19th century. As confirmed by a 2004 genetic study, the genus

568: 318: 230: 92: 87: 72: 67: 57: 39: 8392: 4214: 1102:(Late Eocene). It is not known whether the palaeeudyptines constitute a 7900: 7779: 7664: 7630: 7568: 7389: 7243: 7235: 6928: 6800: 6785: 6775: 6474: 5357:

Reilly PN, Balmford P (1975). "A breeding study of the little penguin,

4192: 1723: 1500: 1439: 1412: 1384: 1348: 1227: 1215: 1143: 999: 658:

and named them after this bird, although they are not closely related.

607: 552: 544: 536: 107: 82: 6688: 8177: 8116: 7892: 7884: 7813: 7753: 7637: 7575: 7458: 7125: 7120: 6998: 4938:

Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals

4775: 4686: 4604: 4496: 4457:

Wever, E. G.; Herman, P. N.; Simmons, J. A.; Hertzler, D. R. (1969).

3530: 2537: 2414: 2392: 1735: 1703: 1458: 1295:

are the product of a later radiation, stretching from about the late

994: 615: 220: 35: 8470: 8457: 8311: 5826:

International), BirdLife International (BirdLife (August 16, 2018).

5733:

International), BirdLife International (BirdLife (October 1, 2016).

4748: 1576:

of feather: in addition to the traditional feather, the emperor has

8444: 5981:

International), BirdLife International (BirdLife (August 9, 2018).

5950:

International), BirdLife International (BirdLife (August 9, 2018).

5919:

International), BirdLife International (BirdLife (August 9, 2018).

5888:

International), BirdLife International (BirdLife (August 8, 2018).

5857: