2492:) represent, in principle, the phonemes of the language being written. This is most obviously the case when the alphabet was invented with a particular language in mind; for example, the Latin alphabet was devised for Classical Latin, and therefore the Latin of that period enjoyed a near one-to-one correspondence between phonemes and graphemes in most cases, though the devisers of the alphabet chose not to represent the phonemic effect of vowel length. However, because changes in the spoken language are often not accompanied by changes in the established
566:
992:
974:
983:
965:
4486:
4223:
2135:, the number of distinct phonemes will generally be smaller than the number of identifiably different sounds. Different languages vary considerably in the number of phonemes they have in their systems (although apparent variation may sometimes result from the different approaches taken by the linguists doing the analysis). The total phonemic inventory in languages varies from as few as 9–11 in
2455:(1935) stated "Such a definition is invalid because (1) we have no right to guess about the linguistic workings of an inaccessible 'mind', and (2) we can secure no advantage from such guesses. The linguistic processes of the 'mind' as such are quite simply unobservable; and introspection about linguistic processes is notoriously a fire in a wooden stove." This approach was opposed to that of
1643:
36:
2459:, who gave an important role to native speakers' intuitions about where a particular sound or group of sounds fitted into a pattern. Using English as an example, Sapir argued that, despite the superficial appearance that this sound belongs to a group of three nasal consonant phonemes (/m/, /n/ and /ŋ/), native speakers feel that the velar nasal is really the sequence /. The theory of
2349:(1934), in his article "The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions of phonetic systems" stated "given the sounds of a language, there are usually more than one possible way of reducing them to a set of phonemes, and these different systems or solutions are not simply correct or incorrect, but may be regarded only as being good or bad for various purposes". The linguist
1908:). The nasals are therefore not contrastive in these environments, and according to some theorists this makes it inappropriate to assign the nasal phones heard here to any one of the phonemes (even though, in this case, the phonetic evidence is unambiguous). Instead they may analyze these phonemes as belonging to a single archiphoneme, written something like
934:, one is a verb and is stressed on the second syllable, the other is a noun and stressed on the first syllable (without changing any of the individual sounds). The position of the stress distinguishes the words and so a full phonemic specification would include indication of the position of the stress:
2426:
in the spelling. It is also possible to treat
English long vowels and diphthongs as combinations of two vowel phonemes, with long vowels treated as a sequence of two short vowels, so that 'palm' would be represented as /paam/. English can thus be said to have around seven vowel phonemes, or even six
2336:
During the development of phoneme theory in the mid-20th century, phonologists were concerned not only with the procedures and principles involved in producing a phonemic analysis of the sounds of a given language, but also with the reality or uniqueness of the phonemic solution. These were central
887:
can serve as a near minimal pair. The reason why this is still acceptable proof of phonemehood is that there is nothing about the additional difference (/r/ vs. /l/) that can be expected to somehow condition a voicing difference for a single underlying postalveolar fricative. One can, however, find
777:
However, the absence of minimal pairs for a given pair of phones does not always mean that they belong to the same phoneme: they may be so dissimilar phonetically that it is unlikely for speakers to perceive them as the same sound. For example, English has no minimal pair for the sounds (as in
1811:
pattern is followed). In some cases even this may not provide an unambiguous answer. A description using the approach of underspecification would not attempt to assign to a specific phoneme in some or all of these cases, although it might be assigned to an archiphoneme, written something like
2361:
states that "English has a particularly large number of vowel phonemes" and that "there are 20 vowel phonemes in
Received Pronunciation, 14–16 in General American and 20–21 in Australian English". Although these figures are often quoted as fact, they actually reflect just one of many possible
796:
could be used to argue for their being allophones of the same phoneme. However, they are so dissimilar phonetically that they are considered separate phonemes. A case like this shows that sometimes it is the systemic distinctions and not the lexical context which are decisive in establishing
659:, transcribed for the aspirated form and for the unaspirated one. These different sounds are nonetheless considered to belong to the same phoneme, because if a speaker used one instead of the other, the meaning of the word would not change: using the aspirated form in
1990:, for example) would reveal which phoneme the flap represents, once it is known which morpheme is being used. However, other theorists would prefer not to make such a determination, and simply assign the flap in both cases to a single archiphoneme, written (for example)
553:, ordinary letters may be used to denote phonemes, although this approach is often imperfect, as pronunciations naturally shift in a language over time, rendering previous spelling systems outdated or no longer closely representative of the sounds of the language (see
800:
Phonologists have sometimes had recourse to "near minimal pairs" to show that speakers of the language perceive two sounds as significantly different even if no exact minimal pair exists in the lexicon. It is challenging to find a minimal pair to distinguish
English
687:. In some languages, however, and are perceived by native speakers as significantly different sounds, and substituting one for the other can change the meaning of a word. In those languages, therefore, the two sounds represent different phonemes. For example, in
2438:
position was that the analysis should be made purely on the basis of the sound elements and their distribution, with no reference to extraneous factors such as grammar, morphology or the intuitions of the native speaker; this position is strongly associated with
3628:
Bross, Fabian. 2015. "Chereme", in In: Hall, T. A. Pompino-Marschall, B. (ed.): Dictionaries of
Linguistics and Communication Science (Wörterbücher zur Sprach- und Kommunikationswissenschaft, WSK). Volume: Phonetics and Phonology. Berlin, New York: Mouton de
1763:
where some phonemes are not contrastive in certain environments. Some phonologists prefer not to specify a unique phoneme in such cases, since to do so would mean providing redundant or even arbitrary information – instead they use the technique of
2353:
referred to this argument within linguistics as "God's Truth" (i.e. the stance that a given language has an intrinsic structure to be discovered) vs. "hocus-pocus" (i.e. the stance that any proposed, coherent structure is as good as any other).
477:
realizations of those phonemes—each phoneme with its various allophones—constitute the surface form that is actually uttered and heard. Allophones each have technically different articulations inside particular words or particular
384:), yet they comprise a single phoneme in some other languages, such as Spanish, in which and for instance are merely interpreted by Spanish speakers as regional or dialect-specific ways of pronouncing the same word (
538:
1214:, the one actually heard at a given occurrence of that phoneme may be dependent on the phonetic environment (surrounding sounds). Allophones that normally cannot appear in the same environment are said to be in
737:
for the two alternative phones in question (in this case, and ). The existence of minimal pairs is a common test to decide whether two phones represent different phonemes or are allophones of the same phoneme.
2563:) that further complicate the correspondence of letters to phonemes, although they need not affect the ability to predict the pronunciation from the spelling and vice versa, provided the rules are consistent.
663:
might sound odd, but the word would still be recognized. By contrast, some other sounds would cause a change in meaning if substituted: for example, substitution of the sound would produce the different word
2623:. Just as with spoken languages, when features are combined, they create phonemes. As in spoken languages, sign languages have minimal pairs which differ in only one phoneme. For instance, the ASL signs for
347:
2723:
to describe sign languages as true and full languages. Once a controversial idea, the position is now universally accepted in linguistics. Stokoe's terminology, however, has been largely abandoned.
530:; however, American speakers perceive or "hear" all of these sounds (usually with no conscious effort) as merely being allophones of a single phoneme: the one traditionally represented in the IPA as
634:
363:
2362:
analyses, and later in the
English Phonology article an alternative analysis is suggested in which some diphthongs and long vowels may be interpreted as comprising a short vowel linked to either
486:
distinctions. Alternatively, at least one of those articulations could be feasibly used in all such words with these words still being recognized as such by users of the language. An example in
615:
2692:, as the basic unit of signed communication, is functionally and psychologically equivalent to the phonemes of oral languages, and has been replaced by that term in the academic literature.
549:
characters. However, descriptions of particular languages may use different conventional symbols to represent the phonemes of those languages. For languages whose writing systems employ the
469:) of spoken sound variations that are nevertheless perceived as a single basic unit of sound by the ordinary native speakers of a given language. While phonemes are considered an abstract
1444:
restrictions on which sequences of phonemes are possible and in which environments certain phonemes can occur. Phonemes that are significantly limited by such restrictions may be called
1563:, wherever it occurs, must unambiguously be assigned to one and only one phoneme. In other words, the mapping between phones and phonemes is required to be many-to-one rather than
1739:
Phonemes that are contrastive in certain environments may not be contrastive in all environments. In the environments where they do not contrast, the contrast is said to be
2345:: "There is only one accurate phonemic analysis for a given set of data", while others believed that different analyses, equally valid, could be made for the same data.
1290:
in its current sense, employing the word in his article "The phonetic structure of the
Sechuana Language". The concept of the phoneme was then elaborated in the works of
797:
phonemes. This implies that the phoneme should be defined as the smallest phonological unit which is contrastive at a lexical level or distinctive at a systemic level.
2210:
are close to average. Across all languages, the average number of consonant phonemes per language is about 22, while the average number of vowel phonemes is about 8.
2170:
has 14 vowel qualities, 12 of which may occur long or short, making 26 oral vowels, plus six nasalized vowels, long and short, making a total of 38 vowels; while
946:, word stress cannot have this function (its position is generally predictable) and so it is not phonemic (and therefore not usually indicated in dictionaries).
573:
A phoneme is a sound or a group of different sounds perceived to have the same function by speakers of the language or dialect in question. An example is the
269:
alone distinguish certain words from others, they are each examples of phonemes of the
English language. Specifically they are consonant phonemes, along with
2645:'s research, while still considered seminal, has been found not to characterize American Sign Language or other sign languages sufficiently. For instance,
461:
There are many views as to exactly what phonemes are and how a given language should be analyzed in phonemic terms. Generally, a phoneme is regarded as an
1352:
phonemes in oral language and many phonemes in sign languages. Features could be characterized in different ways: Jakobson and colleagues defined them in
3276:
2857:
Depending on the ability of the typesetter, this may be written vertically, an o over an a with a horizontal line (like a fraction) without the braces.
1218:. In other cases, the choice of allophone may be dependent on the individual speaker or other unpredictable factors. Such allophones are said to be in
4382:
1011:
2508:), the correspondence between spelling and pronunciation in a given language may be highly distorted; this is the case with English, for example.
2463:
which emerged in the 1960s explicitly rejected the structuralist approach to phonology and favoured the mentalistic or cognitive view of Sapir.
4257:
770:(ASL), also have minimal pairs, differing only in (exactly) one of the signs' parameters: handshape, movement, location, palm orientation, and
3867:
3773:
3755:
3737:
3716:
3234:
3990:
2447:
claimed that it is possible to discover the phonemes of a language purely by examining the distribution of phonetic segments. Referring to
2373:
1010:
4463:
4397:
4185:
4180:
1982:
theory of linguistics, if a speaker applies such flapping consistently, morphological evidence (the pronunciation of the related forms
3959:
3566:
3205:
1726:
611:. Although most native speakers do not notice this, in most English dialects, the "c/k" sounds in these words are not identical: in
119:
1958:
Another example from
English, but this time involving complete phonetic convergence as in the Russian example, is the flapping of
4533:
4322:
3646:. Studies in linguistics: Occasional papers (No. 8). Dept. of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Buffalo. Archived from
774:
or marker. A minimal pair may exist in the signed language if the basic sign stays the same, but one of the parameters changes.
2997:
Jones, D. (1917), The phonetic structure of the
Sechuana language, Transactions of the Philological Society 1917-20, pp. 99–106
2974:
A Greek-English
Lexicon. revised and augmented throughout by Sir Henry Stuart Jones. with the assistance of. Roderick McKenzie.
2773:
1134:
258:
160:
142:
2649:
are not included in Stokoe's classification. More sophisticated models of sign language phonology have since been proposed by
4195:
2907:
1664:
57:
2382:
and Smith (1951), where all long vowels and diphthongs ("complex nuclei") are made up of a short vowel combined with either
3640:
1511:
1386:
By analogy with the phoneme, linguists have proposed other sorts of underlying objects, giving them names with the suffix
1244:
763:; since the words have different meanings, English-speakers must be conscious of the distinction between the two sounds.
3691:
1314:. Some structuralists (though not Sapir) rejected the idea of a cognitive or psycholinguistic function for the phoneme.
2057:
is a theoretical unit at a deeper level of abstraction than traditional phonemes, and is taken to be a unit from which
4473:
4387:
2768:
2611:
1707:
1556:
100:
2635:
differ minimally with respect to location while handshape and movement are identical; location is thus contrastive.
1679:
72:
4513:
4250:
3558:
2743:
2616:
2365:
1792:
1283:
1215:
793:
515:
1653:
46:
4508:
2738:
2512:
1913:
1748:
1267:
470:
829:, yet it seems uncontroversial to claim that the two consonants are distinct phonemes. The two words 'pressure'
402:
to transcribe more precise pronunciation details, including allophones; they describe this basic distinction as
4210:
4205:
3983:
2601:
2581:
2452:
1804:
1686:
1660:
1199:
79:
53:
3617:
Phonological categories in Sign Language of the Netherlands. The role of phonetic implementation and iconicity
3288:
1935:. Archiphonemes are often notated with a capital letter within double virgules or pipes, as with the examples
205:
that is perceptually regarded by the speakers of a language as a single basic sound—a smallest possible
4427:
4362:
4357:
4337:
4200:
1348:, such features being the true minimal constituents of language. Features overlap each other in time, as do
1255:
565:
4468:
4432:
4402:
4367:
4108:
2673:
2576:
2552:
2548:
2540:
2448:
2435:
2428:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2325:
2321:
2309:
2305:
2297:
2293:
2285:
2281:
2269:
2261:
2253:
2249:
2105:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1991:
1963:
1959:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1921:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1857:
1849:
1842:
1835:
1828:
1817:
1813:
1800:
1796:
1780:
1776:
1623:
1619:
1595:
1591:
1587:
1568:
1533:
1528:
occur only before a vowel, never at the end of a syllable (except in interpretations in which a word like
1525:
1521:
1515:
1504:
1492:
1486:
1455:
1357:
1318:
1235:
939:
935:
767:
760:
756:
708:
704:
684:
673:
578:
531:
495:
435:
431:
427:
381:
377:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
274:
270:
266:
262:
254:
250:
249:
have the exact same sequence of sounds, except for being different in their final consonant sounds: thus,
156:
152:
138:
2230:
1693:
277:
is a vowel phoneme. The spelling of English does not strictly conform to its phonemes, so that the words
86:
4372:
4352:
4342:
4243:
4175:
4113:
2520:
2516:
2398:
for rhotic accents), each comprising two phonemes. The transcription for the vowel normally transcribed
1303:
901:
339:
2848:
There is allophonic variation of this tone. It may be realized in different ways, depending on context.
1271:
1582:
An example of the problems arising from the biuniqueness requirement is provided by the phenomenon of
388:: the Spanish word for "bread"). Such spoken variations of a single phoneme are known by linguists as
4518:
4442:
4332:
4103:
2793:
2733:
2720:
2479:
2460:
2371:
2363:
2222:
1784:
913:
479:
353:
337:
3186:
1675:
1383:. Though not all scholars working on such languages use these terms, they are by no means obsolete.
68:
4347:
4190:
4023:
3976:
2803:
2700:
in language, is thus equivalent to phonology. The terms are not in use anymore. Instead, the terms
2511:
The correspondence between symbols and phonemes in alphabetic writing systems is not necessarily a
2094:
1345:
1333:. As a theoretical concept or model, though, it has been supplemented and even replaced by others.
523:
455:
395:
4485:
4222:
2949:
2195:
2171:
569:
A simplified procedure for determining whether two sounds represent the same or different phonemes
4528:
4523:
4489:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4392:
4327:
4226:
4059:
3937:
3909:
3839:
3513:
3333:
3151:
3143:
2818:
2440:
2218:
2207:
2066:
1979:
1928:
1765:
1465:, occurs only at the end of a syllable, never at the beginning (in many other languages, such as
1376:
1353:
1311:
1291:
909:
688:
550:
355:
2206:
uses a rather large set of 13 to 21 vowel phonemes, including diphthongs, although its 22 to 26
2144:
2136:
2061:
are built up. A morphophoneme within a morpheme can be expressed in different ways in different
2434:
In the same period there was disagreement about the correct basis for a phonemic analysis. The
2256:. Relatively few languages lack any of these consonants, although it does happen: for example,
2174:
achieves 31 pure vowels, not counting its additional variation by vowel length, by varying the
4447:
4123:
3955:
3881:
3863:
3847:
3838:(72), Le Maître Phonétique, supplement (reprinted in E. Fudge (ed) Phonology, Penguin): 1–20,
3819:
3803:
3787:
3769:
3751:
3733:
3712:
3696:
3641:"Sign Language Structure: An Outline of the Visual Communication Systems of the American Deaf"
3572:
3562:
3230:
3201:
2941:
2788:
2467:
2358:
2317:
2265:
2159:
1560:
1500:
1466:
1364:'s system is a purely articulatory system apart from the use of the acoustic term 'sibilant'.
1222:, but allophones are still selected in a specific phonetic context, not the other way around.
1186:
1164:
1158:
1152:
1146:
1140:
655:
466:
202:
3604:
Phonological representation of the sign: linearity and nonlinearity in American Sign Language
3444:
4377:
4128:
4079:
3929:
3901:
3505:
3419:
3323:
3193:
3135:
2560:
2555:. There may also exist spelling/pronunciation rules (such as those for the pronunciation of
2379:
2350:
2313:
2277:
2242:
2203:
2191:
2183:
2140:
1544:
below, particularly the example of the occurrence of the three English nasals before stops.
1540:
Some phonotactic restrictions can alternatively be analyzed as cases of neutralization. See
1474:
1470:
953:
861:
832:
818:
804:
771:
672:, and that sound must therefore be considered to represent a different phoneme (the phoneme
574:
487:
175:
2357:
Different analyses of the English vowel system may be used to illustrate this. The article
4422:
2883:
2783:
2638:
2625:
2536:
2501:
2301:
2273:
2214:
2199:
2187:
2163:
2048:
1824:
1788:
1496:
1482:
1361:
943:
399:
3250:
2631:
2081:
can be considered to be a single morphophoneme, which might be transcribed (for example)
1254:, "sound made, utterance, thing spoken, speech, language") was reportedly first used by
4275:
3387:
Chao, Yuen Ren (1934). "The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions of phonetic systems".
3181:
2763:
2716:
2650:
2642:
2572:
2155:
1853:
1495:
occurs only at the beginning of a syllable, never at the end (a few languages, such as
1349:
1337:
1219:
991:
973:
905:
2712:) are used to stress the linguistic similarities between signed and spoken languages.
2035:, other than its historical development, and it might be less ambiguously transcribed
1743:. In these positions it may become less clear which phoneme a given phone represents.
982:
964:
930:
is encountered in languages such as English. For example, there are two words spelled
888:
true minimal pairs for /ʃ/ and /ʒ/ if less common words are considered. For example, '
4502:
4154:
3725:
3546:
3438:
3337:
3223:
3155:
2878:
2758:
2685:
2654:
2646:
2444:
2346:
2289:
2238:
2167:
2128:
1932:
1756:
1700:
1599:
1478:
1299:
1295:
921:
699:
693:
507:
214:
213:
from another. All languages contains phonemes (or the spatial-gestural equivalent in
93:
3467:
4266:
4013:
3686:
3682:
2808:
2778:
2456:
2342:
2234:
2124:
1576:
1572:
1564:
1441:
1431:
1407:
1341:
1326:
1322:
1307:
889:
733:
499:
2899:
1864:
boundary between them), only one of the nasals is possible in any given position:
1807:
factors (such as which of the vowels occurs in other forms of the words, or which
1009:
4298:
3647:
2493:
1642:
1263:
1028:
462:
226:
35:
2946:
Some notes on phonemes and allophones in synchronic and diachronic descriptions
2813:
4314:
4283:
3999:
3550:
3328:
3311:
3197:
3139:
2748:
2641:
are no longer used by researchers to describe the phonemes of sign languages;
1808:
924:), which, in many languages, change the meaning of words and so are phonemic.
680:
336:
Sounds that are perceived as phonemes vary by languages and dialects, so that
1831:. In word-final position these all contrast, as shown by the minimal triplet
426:, can be represented phonemically and are written between slashes (including
4303:
4138:
4044:
3823:
3816:
Phonology in Relation to Phonetics, in Malmberg, B. (ed) Manual of Phonetics
3576:
2798:
2681:
2591:
2338:
2233:
have six to nine tones (depending on how they are counted), and the Kam-Sui
2226:
2179:
2175:
2132:
2062:
1787:
syllables, but in unstressed syllables the contrast is lost, since both are
1411:
1403:
1330:
1211:
483:
390:
230:
218:
206:
3851:
3807:
3791:
3126:
Dinnsen, Daniel (1985). "A Re-Examination of Phonological Neutralization".
3885:
3700:
2515:. A phoneme might be represented by a combination of two or more letters (
4437:
4288:
4159:
4094:
4069:
4054:
2823:
2620:
2505:
2489:
2485:
2058:
1861:
1752:
1583:
1437:
1398:
1392:
1368:
917:
645:
626:
474:
148:
3843:
2015:
956:
in which a given syllable can have five different tonal pronunciations:
4293:
4133:
4018:
3830:
Jones, Daniel (1957), "The History and Meaning of the Term 'Phoneme'",
3147:
2753:
2497:
1998:
1667: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
542:
24:
20:
3941:
3913:
3517:
261:(IPA), a writing system that can be used to represent phonemes. Since
4084:
4064:
3192:. Vol. 1. Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 315–317.
2828:
2257:
1943:
given above. Other ways the second of these has been notated include
1598:(in the appropriate environments) to be realized with the phone (an
1380:
1092:
703:, meaning "riddles". Icelandic, therefore, has two separate phonemes
1772:
is an object sometimes used to represent an underspecified phoneme.
1518:
can occur immediately only before a vowel, never before a consonant.
1329:, and remains central to many accounts of the development of modern
1198:. Languages such as English do not have phonemic tone, but they use
3933:
3905:
3509:
3423:
1816:, which reflects the two neutralized phonemes in this position, or
368:
are separate phonemes in English since they distinguish words like
19:
This article is about the speech unit. For the JavaME library, see
4118:
4049:
2543:). Also a single letter may represent two phonemes, as in English
2151:
1795:). In order to assign such an instance of to one of the phonemes
1050:
564:
546:
222:
2123:
All known languages use only a small subset of the many possible
1823:
A somewhat different example is found in English, with the three
1451:
In English, examples of such restrictions include the following:
4028:
755:
illustrates that in English, and belong to separate phonemes,
554:
458:
allophone of /p/ (i.e., pronounced with an extra burst of air).
210:
4239:
4235:
3972:
1775:
An example of neutralization is provided by the Russian vowels
1286:
became the first linguist in the western world to use the term
1636:
1602:). For example, the same flap sound may be heard in the words
1567:. The notion of biuniqueness was controversial among some pre-
1440:
to be built of any arbitrary sequences of phonemes. There are
1001:
879:
876:
850:
821:
190:
29:
3968:
3355:. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
3351:
Moran, Steven; McCloy, Daniel; Wright, Richard, eds. (2014).
2571:
Sign language phonemes are bundles of articulation features.
649:, it is unaspirated. The words, therefore, contain different
225:
phonemes. Phonemes are primarily studied under the branch of
3555:
Linguistics of American Sign Language : an introduction
1755:
representations (surface forms). The term was introduced by
1629:
For further discussion of such cases, see the next section.
1007:
3312:"On the underlying representation of contour tones in Wobe"
3032:
3030:
1249:
1194:
The tone "phonemes" in such languages are sometimes called
873:
844:
434:, etc.), while nuances of exactly how a speaker pronounces
289:, regardless of spelling, all share the consonant phonemes
184:
3878:
Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of Human Behavior
3116:, 1968, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston (pp. 170–202)
2504:
on orthography, and the use of foreign spellings for some
1344:) proposed that phonemes may be further decomposable into
1258:
in 1873, but it referred only to a speech sound. The term
847:
807:
2575:
was the first scholar to describe the phonemic system of
2248:
The most common vowel system consists of the five vowels
438:
are phonetic and written between brackets, like for the
3920:
Twaddell, W.F. (March 1935). "On Defining the Phoneme".
2245:, has been claimed to have 14, though this is disputed.
1626:
in the second. This appears to contradict biuniqueness.
3005:
3003:
2023:. That is, there is no particular reason to transcribe
904:
phonemes such as vowels and consonants, there are also
3653:
on 23 November 2021 – via Save Our Deaf Schools.
2488:
writing systems. In such systems the written symbols (
2378:. The fullest exposition of this approach is found in
1927:
This latter type of analysis is often associated with
1360:
basis, though retaining some acoustic features, while
3946:(reprinted in Joos, M. Readings in Linguistics, 1957)
3352:
2237:
has nine to 15 tones by the same measure. One of the
1541:
187:
181:
3663:
Seegmiller, 2006. "Stokoe, William (1919–2000)", in
3496:
Sapir, Edward (1925). "Sound patterns in language".
870:
867:
841:
838:
147:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
4456:
4312:
4273:
4168:
4147:
4093:
4037:
4006:
1422:respectively) to applications outside linguistics.
864:
835:
473:for sound segments within words, the corresponding
297:, differing only by their internal vowel phonemes:
193:
178:
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
3466:
3222:
3185:
2948:, in “Linguistik online”, 129/5, 2024, pp. 39–51,
2198:, on the other hand, has somewhere around 77, and
1023:Minimal set for phonemic tone in Mandarin Chinese
1006:with each of the primary tones in Standard Chinese
731:(above) that differ only in one phone is called a
555:§ Correspondence between letters and phonemes
3443:. American Council of Learned Societies. p.
3072:
2069:rules). For example, the English plural morpheme
1618:, although it is intended to realize the phoneme
1274:during 1875–1895. The term used by these two was
697:, meaning "cheerful", but is the first sound of
313:is the notation for a sequence of four phonemes,
1966:in some American English (described above under
1371:has been used to indicate contrastive length or
792:), and the fact that they can be shown to be in
161:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
1367:In the description of some languages, the term
726:
720:
3892:Swadesh, M. (1934), "The Phonemic Principle",
2341:. Some writers took the position expressed by
1791:to the same sound, usually (for details, see
1379:are phonemic, the tone phonemes may be called
1356:terms, Chomsky and Halle used a predominantly
1298:(during the years 1926–1935), and in those of
4251:
3984:
3412:International Journal of American Linguistics
3060:
1202:for functions such as emphasis and attitude.
1125:
1118:
1111:
1104:
1097:
1083:
1076:
1069:
1062:
1055:
502:(or a similar glottalized sound) in the word
8:
3110:Linguistic universals and linguistic change.
3036:
2684:and phoneme previously used in the study of
2484:Phonemes are considered to be the basis for
2422:, or /ar/ in a rhotic accent if there is an
2013:, as suggested by the alternative spellings
1571:linguists and was prominently challenged by
892:' and 'confusion' are a valid minimal pair.
3764:Gimson, A.C. (2008), Cruttenden, A. (ed.),
3591:A prosodic model of sign language phonology
3048:
2474:Correspondence between letters and phonemes
679:The above shows that in English, and are
4258:
4244:
4236:
3991:
3977:
3969:
3928:(1). Linguistic Society of America: 5–62.
3798:Jakobson, R.; Fant, G.; Halle, M. (1952),
3709:An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology
2900:"Minimal pairs in sign language phonology"
2119:Numbers of phonemes in different languages
1747:is a phenomenon in which a segment of the
1436:Languages do not generally allow words or
942:for the noun. In other languages, such as
741:To take another example, the minimal pair
545:exist to represent IPA symbols using only
490:is that the sound spelled with the symbol
482:, yet these differences do not create any
3327:
3084:
2427:if schwa were treated as an allophone of
1727:Learn how and when to remove this message
916:, syllable boundaries and other forms of
217:), and all spoken languages include both
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
3665:Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics
3009:
2639:Stokoe's terminology and notation system
2332:The non-uniqueness of phonemic solutions
2089:, and which is realized phonemically as
1021:
23:. For the collection of phenotypes, see
3168:
2870:
2841:
1410:, who also generalized the concepts of
561:Assignment of speech sounds to phonemes
3748:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language
3730:The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language
3619:. PhD dissertation, Leiden University.
3483:
3275:Bearth, Thomas; Link, Christa (1980).
3021:
2972:Liddell, H.G. & Scott, R. (1940).
2468:English phonology#Controversial issues
2466:These topics are discussed further in
1163:
1157:
1151:
1145:
1139:
644:
625:
410:. Thus, the pronunciation patterns of
398:in the IPA to transcribe phonemes but
209:unit—that helps distinguish one
3406:Householder, F.W. (1952). "Review of
3377:, University of Michigan Press, p. 64
3112:In: E. Bach & R.T. Harms (eds.),
2985:
2960:
2928:
2910:from the original on 14 February 2017
2496:(as well as other reasons, including
1978:might both be pronounced . Under the
1278:, the basic unit of what they called
1266:was developed by the Polish linguist
7:
3229:. Pantheon Books. pp. 178–179.
3096:
2150:The number of phonemically distinct
1783:. These phonemes are contrasting in
1665:adding citations to reliable sources
1406:. The latter term was first used by
1317:Later, it was used and redefined in
329:, that together constitute the word
151:. For the distinction between ,
58:adding citations to reliable sources
4464:International scientific vocabulary
4186:International scientific vocabulary
4181:English lexicology and lexicography
3533:Current Issues in Linguistic Theory
1579:in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
1375:of phonemes. In languages in which
908:features of pronunciation (such as
3557:(3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.:
2585:(elements of location, from Latin
1820:, reflecting its unmerged values.
1126:
1119:
1112:
1105:
1098:
14:
3784:Methods in Structural Linguistics
3408:Methods in structural linguistics
2715:The terms were coined in 1960 by
2609:). Some researchers also discern
2524:
2252:. The most common consonants are
1967:
1559:phonemics. It means that a given
1210:When a phoneme has more than one
630:, the sound is aspirated, but in
4484:
4221:
3814:Jakobson, R.; Halle, M. (1968),
3800:Preliminaries to Speech Analysis
1641:
1633:Neutralization and archiphonemes
1542:Neutralization and archiphonemes
990:
981:
972:
963:
860:
831:
817:
803:
581:, which occurs in words such as
174:
34:
3440:An Outline of English Structure
3188:Handbook of Amazonian Languages
3114:Universals in linguistic theory
3073:Jakobson, Fant & Halle 1952
2774:International Phonetic Alphabet
2539:(both representing the phoneme
2065:of that morpheme (according to
1997:Further mergers in English are
1652:needs additional citations for
952:are found in languages such as
259:International Phonetic Alphabet
143:International Phonetic Alphabet
45:needs additional citations for
4383:Language-for-specific-purposes
4196:Lexicographic information cost
3954:, Cambridge University Press,
3707:Clark, J.; Yallop, C. (1995),
3437:Trager, G.; Smith, H. (1951).
3316:Studies in African Linguistics
3281:Studies in African Linguistics
2884:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
1803:, it is necessary to consider
1751:is not realized in any of its
537:For computer-typing purposes,
1:
3310:Singler, John Victor (1984).
3255:www.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de
3225:Don't Sleep, there are Snakes
2131:can produce, and, because of
1402:. These are sometimes called
3786:, Chicago University Press,
3766:The Pronunciation of English
3692:The Sound Pattern of English
3465:Bloomfield, Leonard (1933).
3287:(2): 147–207. Archived from
2579:. He identified the bundles
2500:differences, the effects of
2451:definitions of the phoneme,
2162:. At the other extreme, the
2154:can be as low as two, as in
1555:is a requirement of classic
1250:
1226:Background and related ideas
1002:
4474:List of online dictionaries
3750:(3rd ed.), Cambridge,
3732:(2nd ed.), Cambridge,
3711:(2nd ed.), Blackwell,
3639:Stokoe, William C. (1960).
3615:Kooij, Els van der (2002).
3221:Everett, Daniel L. (2008).
2769:Initial-stress-derived noun
2073:appearing in words such as
1759:(1968), and contrasts with
1489:can appear word-initially).
309:, respectively. Similarly,
4550:
3559:Gallaudet University Press
2744:Complementary distribution
2677:
2477:
2431:or of other short vowels.
2190:each have just seven, and
2046:
1922://lɪNp//,//lɪNt//,//lɪNk//
1914:underlying representations
1793:vowel reduction in Russian
1429:
1426:Restrictions on occurrence
1239:
1216:complementary distribution
1206:Distribution of allophones
794:complementary distribution
766:Signed languages, such as
18:
4482:
4219:
3862:(5th ed.), Thomson,
3329:10.32473/sal.v15i1.107520
3277:"The tone puzzle of Wobe"
3198:10.1515/9783110850819.200
3184:(1 July 1986). "Pirahã".
3140:10.1017/s0022226700010276
3061:Jakobson & Halle 1968
2739:Alternation (linguistics)
2513:one-to-one correspondence
1761:contextual neutralization
1749:underlying representation
1268:Jan Baudouin de Courtenay
1170:
1133:
1091:
1084:
1077:
1070:
1063:
1056:
1049:
1027:
691:, is the first sound of
480:environments within words
471:underlying representation
454:, which in English is an
4211:Specialized lexicography
3768:(7th ed.), Hodder,
3589:Brentari, Diane (1998).
3037:Chomsky & Halle 1968
2976:Oxford: Clarendon Press.
2680:"hand") are synonyms of
2213:Some languages, such as
2186:and the Papuan language
1590:. This may cause either
1336:Some linguists (such as
201:) is any set of similar
4534:Linguistics terminology
4201:Linguistic prescription
3746:Crystal, David (2010),
3602:Sandler, Wendy (1989).
3251:"UPSID Nr. of segments"
3049:Clark & Yallop 1995
1745:Absolute neutralization
1256:A. Dufriche-Desgenettes
896:Suprasegmental phonemes
139:phonetic transcriptions
16:Basic unit of phonology
4469:List of lexicographers
4109:Hypernymy and hyponymy
3858:Ladefoged, P. (2006),
3531:Chomsky, Noam (1964).
3410:by Zellig S. Harris".
3128:Journal of Linguistics
2615:(orientation), facial
2108:in other cases (as in
1860:(provided there is no
1622:in the first word and
1588:North American English
1319:generative linguistics
1015:
768:American Sign Language
727:
721:
698:
692:
570:
136:This article contains
4398:Monolingual learner's
4176:Controlled vocabulary
4114:Meronymy and holonymy
3860:A Course in Phonetics
2657:, and Van der Kooij.
2595:(the handshape, from
2143:to as many as 141 in
1304:Ferdinand de Saussure
1014:
719:A pair of words like
568:
526:alveolar plosive in
237:Examples and notation
3950:Wells, J.C. (1982),
3832:Le Maître Phonétique
2794:Phonemic orthography
2734:Alphabetic principle
2721:Gallaudet University
2480:Phonemic orthography
2461:generative phonology
2095:voiceless consonants
1852:. However, before a
1661:improve this article
683:of a single phoneme
54:improve this article
4438:Spelling dictionary
4348:Defining vocabulary
4191:Lexicographic error
3876:Pike, K.L. (1967),
3782:Harris, Z. (1951),
3291:on 24 February 2021
3087:, pp. 268–276.
2804:Phonological change
2710:distinctive feature
2647:non-manual features
2533:⟨sch⟩
2254:/p/,/t/,/k/,/m/,/n/
2250:/i/,/e/,/a/,/o/,/u/
2229:and several of the
2217:, have no phonemic
1512:non-rhotic dialects
1446:restricted phonemes
1321:, most famously by
1024:
920:, nasalization and
4490:Linguistics portal
4323:Advanced learner's
4227:Linguistics portal
3952:Accents of English
3695:, Harper and Row,
3373:Pike, K.L. (1947)
3182:Everett, Daniel L.
2887:. Merriam-Webster.
2696:, as the study of
2605:(the motion, from
2529:⟨sh⟩
2441:Leonard Bloomfield
2067:morphophonological
1980:generative grammar
1970:). Here the words
1929:Nikolai Trubetzkoy
1766:underspecification
1507:syllable-finally).
1414:description (from
1312:Leonard Bloomfield
1294:and others of the
1292:Nikolai Trubetzkoy
1272:Mikołaj Kruszewski
1022:
1016:
571:
551:phonemic principle
241:The English words
4514:Reading (process)
4496:
4495:
4233:
4232:
4124:Lexical semantics
3869:978-1-4282-3126-9
3818:, North-Holland,
3775:978-0-340-95877-3
3757:978-0-521-73650-3
3739:978-0-521-55967-6
3718:978-0-631-19452-1
3236:978-0-375-42502-8
2942:Fausto Cercignani
2567:In sign languages
2557:⟨c⟩
2545:⟨x⟩
2424:⟨r⟩
2402:would instead be
2359:English phonology
2351:F. W. Householder
2266:standard Hawaiian
2231:Kam–Sui languages
1737:
1736:
1729:
1711:
1248:
1192:
1191:
1187:question particle
1012:
467:equivalence class
130:
129:
122:
104:
4541:
4509:Learning to read
4488:
4388:Machine-readable
4260:
4253:
4246:
4237:
4225:
4129:Semantic network
3993:
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3353:"PHOIBLE Online"
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2012:
2008:
2004:
1993:
1965:
1961:
1954:
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1946:
1942:
1938:
1923:
1918:limp, lint, link
1912:, and state the
1911:
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1621:
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1494:
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1457:
1270:and his student
1253:
1243:
1241:
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1005:
994:
985:
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967:
954:Mandarin Chinese
941:
937:
886:
885:
882:
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533:
516:alveolar plosive
488:American English
446:versus for the
437:
433:
429:
394:. Linguists use
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379:
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3675:Further reading
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2862:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2847:
2843:
2838:
2833:
2784:Morphophonology
2729:
2663:
2569:
2556:
2544:
2532:
2528:
2502:morphophonology
2482:
2476:
2423:
2334:
2127:that the human
2121:
2051:
2049:Morphophonology
2045:
2031:rather than as
1733:
1722:
1716:
1713:
1670:
1668:
1658:
1646:
1635:
1550:
1532:is analyzed as
1434:
1428:
1280:psychophonetics
1228:
1208:
1020:
1019:
1018:
1017:
1008:
997:
996:
995:
987:
986:
978:
977:
969:
968:
928:Phonemic stress
898:
863:
859:
858:and 'pleasure'
834:
830:
820:
816:
806:
802:
717:
635:
633:
632:
631:
616:
614:
613:
612:
563:
400:square brackets
362:
361:
360:
346:
345:
344:
239:
177:
173:
166:
165:
164:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4547:
4545:
4537:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4501:
4500:
4494:
4493:
4483:
4480:
4479:
4477:
4476:
4471:
4466:
4460:
4458:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4319:
4317:
4310:
4309:
4307:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4291:
4286:
4280:
4278:
4271:
4270:
4265:
4263:
4262:
4255:
4248:
4240:
4231:
4230:
4220:
4217:
4216:
4214:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4178:
4172:
4170:
4166:
4165:
4163:
4162:
4157:
4151:
4149:
4145:
4144:
4142:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4100:
4098:
4091:
4090:
4088:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4041:
4039:
4035:
4034:
4032:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4016:
4010:
4008:
4004:
4003:
3998:
3996:
3995:
3988:
3981:
3973:
3966:
3965:
3960:
3947:
3934:10.2307/522070
3917:
3906:10.2307/409603
3900:(2): 117–129,
3889:
3873:
3868:
3855:
3827:
3811:
3795:
3779:
3774:
3761:
3756:
3743:
3738:
3726:Crystal, David
3722:
3717:
3704:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3670:
3669:
3656:
3631:
3621:
3608:
3595:
3582:
3567:
3547:Clayton, Valli
3538:
3523:
3510:10.2307/409004
3488:
3476:
3457:
3429:
3424:10.1086/464181
3398:
3379:
3366:
3343:
3302:
3267:
3242:
3235:
3213:
3206:
3173:
3171:, p. 173.
3161:
3118:
3108:Kiparsky, P.,
3101:
3089:
3085:Ladefoged 2006
3077:
3065:
3053:
3041:
3026:
3014:
2999:
2990:
2978:
2965:
2953:
2933:
2921:
2890:
2869:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2850:
2840:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2764:Free variation
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2717:William Stokoe
2686:sign languages
2662:
2659:
2643:William Stokoe
2568:
2565:
2531:in English or
2478:Main article:
2475:
2472:
2333:
2330:
2194:has only six.
2120:
2117:
2047:Main article:
2044:
2043:Morphophonemes
2041:
2009:conflate with
1735:
1734:
1649:
1647:
1640:
1634:
1631:
1549:
1546:
1538:
1537:
1519:
1508:
1490:
1430:Main article:
1427:
1424:
1350:suprasegmental
1338:Roman Jakobson
1300:structuralists
1227:
1224:
1220:free variation
1207:
1204:
1190:
1189:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1172:
1168:
1167:
1161:
1155:
1149:
1143:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1123:
1116:
1109:
1102:
1095:
1089:
1088:
1081:
1074:
1067:
1060:
1053:
1047:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1031:
999:
998:
989:
988:
980:
979:
971:
970:
962:
961:
960:
959:
958:
950:Phonemic tones
938:for the verb,
906:suprasegmental
897:
894:
785:) and (as in
716:
713:
646:[skɪl]
627:[kʰɪt]
562:
559:
238:
235:
215:sign languages
159:⟩, see
135:
134:
133:
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4546:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4510:
4507:
4506:
4504:
4491:
4487:
4481:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4465:
4462:
4461:
4459:
4455:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4311:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4281:
4279:
4277:
4272:
4268:
4261:
4256:
4254:
4249:
4247:
4242:
4241:
4238:
4228:
4224:
4218:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4182:
4179:
4177:
4174:
4173:
4171:
4167:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4155:Function word
4153:
4152:
4150:
4146:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4092:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4042:
4040:
4036:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4022:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4012:
4011:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3994:
3989:
3987:
3982:
3980:
3975:
3974:
3971:
3963:
3961:0-521-29719-2
3957:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3918:
3915:
3911:
3907:
3903:
3899:
3895:
3890:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3874:
3871:
3865:
3861:
3856:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3828:
3825:
3821:
3817:
3812:
3809:
3805:
3801:
3796:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3780:
3777:
3771:
3767:
3762:
3759:
3753:
3749:
3744:
3741:
3735:
3731:
3727:
3723:
3720:
3714:
3710:
3705:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3693:
3688:
3687:Halle, Morris
3684:
3683:Chomsky, Noam
3680:
3679:
3674:
3666:
3660:
3657:
3649:
3642:
3635:
3632:
3625:
3622:
3618:
3612:
3609:
3605:
3599:
3596:
3592:
3586:
3583:
3578:
3574:
3570:
3568:9781563680977
3564:
3560:
3556:
3552:
3548:
3542:
3539:
3534:
3527:
3524:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3504:(37): 37–51.
3503:
3499:
3492:
3489:
3485:
3480:
3477:
3473:. Henry Holt.
3471:
3470:
3461:
3458:
3446:
3442:
3441:
3433:
3430:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3409:
3402:
3399:
3394:
3390:
3383:
3380:
3376:
3370:
3367:
3354:
3347:
3344:
3339:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3306:
3303:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3271:
3268:
3256:
3252:
3246:
3243:
3238:
3232:
3227:
3226:
3217:
3214:
3209:
3207:9783110102574
3203:
3199:
3195:
3190:
3189:
3183:
3177:
3174:
3170:
3165:
3162:
3157:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3134:(2): 265–79.
3133:
3129:
3122:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3105:
3102:
3098:
3093:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3078:
3074:
3069:
3066:
3062:
3057:
3054:
3050:
3045:
3042:
3038:
3033:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3018:
3015:
3011:
3010:Twaddell 1935
3006:
3004:
3000:
2994:
2991:
2987:
2982:
2979:
2975:
2969:
2966:
2963:, p. 48.
2962:
2957:
2954:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2937:
2934:
2931:, p. 44.
2930:
2925:
2922:
2909:
2905:
2904:handspeak.com
2901:
2894:
2891:
2886:
2885:
2880:
2874:
2871:
2864:
2854:
2851:
2845:
2842:
2835:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2759:Emic and etic
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2731:
2726:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2713:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2675:
2674:Ancient Greek
2671:
2667:
2660:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2634:
2633:
2628:
2627:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2594:
2593:
2588:
2584:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2566:
2564:
2562:
2547:representing
2538:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2509:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2491:
2487:
2481:
2473:
2471:
2469:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2445:Zellig Harris
2442:
2437:
2436:structuralist
2432:
2381:
2375:
2367:
2360:
2355:
2352:
2348:
2347:Yuen Ren Chao
2344:
2340:
2331:
2329:
2319:
2315:
2303:
2300:, colloquial
2296:and a simple
2291:
2279:
2275:
2267:
2259:
2246:
2244:
2240:
2239:Kru languages
2236:
2235:Dong language
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2211:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2178:. As regards
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2148:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2129:speech organs
2126:
2118:
2116:
2114:
2113:
2103:
2102:
2096:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2055:morphophoneme
2050:
2042:
2040:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2017:
2000:
1995:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1956:
1934:
1933:Prague school
1930:
1925:
1919:
1915:
1895:
1863:
1855:
1848:
1841:
1834:
1826:
1821:
1810:
1806:
1805:morphological
1794:
1790:
1786:
1773:
1771:
1767:
1762:
1758:
1757:Paul Kiparsky
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1731:
1728:
1720:
1709:
1706:
1702:
1699:
1695:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1681:
1678: –
1677:
1673:
1672:Find sources:
1666:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1650:This section
1648:
1644:
1639:
1638:
1632:
1630:
1627:
1617:
1615:
1609:
1607:
1601:
1600:alveolar flap
1589:
1585:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1557:structuralist
1554:
1547:
1545:
1543:
1531:
1520:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1498:
1491:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1463:
1454:
1453:
1452:
1449:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1433:
1425:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1412:emic and etic
1409:
1405:
1401:
1400:
1395:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1365:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1334:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1315:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1296:Prague School
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1246:
1237:
1236:Ancient Greek
1233:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1197:
1188:
1185:
1182:
1179:
1176:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1121:
1117:
1114:
1110:
1107:
1103:
1100:
1096:
1094:
1090:
1082:
1075:
1068:
1061:
1054:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1004:
1000:The syllable
993:
984:
975:
966:
957:
955:
951:
947:
945:
933:
929:
925:
923:
922:vowel harmony
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
895:
893:
891:
884:
855:
826:
812:
798:
795:
791:
790:
784:
782:
775:
773:
769:
764:
754:
752:
747:
745:
739:
736:
735:
729:
723:
715:Minimal pairs
714:
712:
702:
701:
696:
695:
690:
682:
677:
671:
669:
662:
658:
657:
652:
651:speech sounds
647:
640:
638:
628:
621:
619:
610:
608:
602:
600:
594:
592:
587:
585:
576:
567:
560:
558:
556:
552:
548:
544:
540:
535:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
508:alveolar flap
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
476:
472:
468:
465:of a set (or
464:
459:
457:
453:
449:
445:
441:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
392:
387:
375:
371:
364:
357:
348:
341:
334:
332:
288:
284:
280:
260:
248:
244:
236:
234:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
203:speech sounds
198:
171:
162:
150:
146:
144:
140:
132:
124:
121:
113:
102:
99:
95:
92:
88:
85:
81:
78:
74:
71: –
70:
66:
65:Find sources:
59:
55:
49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
26:
22:
4428:Single-field
4363:Etymological
4358:Encyclopedic
4338:Biographical
4315:dictionaries
4267:Lexicography
4074:
4014:Lexical item
3951:
3925:
3921:
3897:
3893:
3877:
3859:
3835:
3831:
3815:
3799:
3783:
3765:
3747:
3729:
3708:
3690:
3664:
3659:
3648:the original
3634:
3624:
3616:
3611:
3603:
3598:
3593:. MIT Press.
3590:
3585:
3554:
3541:
3532:
3526:
3501:
3497:
3491:
3486:, p. 5.
3479:
3468:
3460:
3448:. Retrieved
3439:
3432:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3401:
3392:
3388:
3382:
3374:
3369:
3357:. Retrieved
3346:
3322:(1): 59–75.
3319:
3315:
3305:
3293:. Retrieved
3289:the original
3284:
3280:
3270:
3258:. Retrieved
3254:
3245:
3224:
3216:
3187:
3176:
3169:Crystal 2010
3164:
3131:
3127:
3121:
3113:
3109:
3104:
3092:
3080:
3068:
3056:
3044:
3017:
2993:
2981:
2973:
2968:
2956:
2945:
2936:
2924:
2912:. Retrieved
2903:
2893:
2882:
2873:
2853:
2844:
2809:Phonotactics
2779:Minimal pair
2714:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2669:
2665:
2664:
2637:
2630:
2624:
2610:
2606:
2600:
2596:
2590:
2586:
2580:
2570:
2510:
2483:
2465:
2457:Edward Sapir
2433:
2356:
2343:Kenneth Pike
2337:concerns of
2335:
2247:
2212:
2149:
2122:
2111:
2109:
2100:
2098:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2054:
2052:
2024:
2020:
2014:
1996:
1987:
1983:
1975:
1971:
1968:Biuniqueness
1957:
1926:
1917:
1893:
1846:
1839:
1832:
1822:
1809:inflectional
1774:
1770:archiphoneme
1769:
1760:
1744:
1740:
1738:
1723:
1714:
1704:
1697:
1690:
1683:
1671:
1659:Please help
1654:verification
1651:
1628:
1613:
1611:
1605:
1603:
1581:
1577:Noam Chomsky
1573:Morris Halle
1565:many-to-many
1553:Biuniqueness
1552:
1551:
1548:Biuniqueness
1539:
1529:
1461:
1459:
1450:
1445:
1435:
1432:Phonotactics
1419:
1415:
1408:Kenneth Pike
1397:
1391:
1387:
1385:
1372:
1366:
1358:articulatory
1342:Morris Halle
1335:
1327:Morris Halle
1323:Noam Chomsky
1316:
1308:Edward Sapir
1287:
1284:Daniel Jones
1279:
1275:
1259:
1231:
1229:
1209:
1195:
1193:
949:
948:
931:
927:
926:
899:
799:
788:
786:
780:
779:
776:
765:
750:
749:
743:
742:
740:
734:minimal pair
732:
718:
678:
667:
665:
660:
654:
650:
636:
617:
606:
604:
598:
596:
590:
589:
583:
582:
572:
536:
527:
519:
511:
503:
500:glottal stop
491:
460:
451:
447:
443:
439:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
389:
385:
373:
369:
335:
330:
286:
282:
278:
246:
242:
240:
169:
167:
155:and ⟨
137:
131:
116:
110:October 2020
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
4519:Orthography
4433:Specialized
4403:Multi-field
4368:Explanatory
4299:Phrase book
4007:Major terms
3551:Lucas, Ceil
3484:Harris 1951
3450:30 December
3051:, chpt. 11.
3022:Harris 1951
2914:13 February
2898:Handspeak.
2494:orthography
2449:mentalistic
2292:lacks both
2093:after most
1741:neutralized
1442:phonotactic
1264:abstraction
1029:Tone number
496:articulated
494:is usually
463:abstraction
227:linguistics
4503:Categories
4373:Historical
4353:Electronic
4343:Conceptual
4284:Dictionary
4206:Morphology
4000:Lexicology
3880:, Mouton,
3260:22 January
2986:Jones 1957
2961:Wells 1982
2929:Wells 1982
2865:References
2749:Diaphoneme
2617:expression
2597:designator
2486:alphabetic
2208:consonants
2182:phonemes,
2139:and 11 in
2063:allomorphs
1687:newspapers
1569:generative
1404:emic units
1390:, such as
1200:intonation
681:allophones
484:meaningful
391:allophones
80:newspapers
4529:Phonology
4524:Phonetics
4443:Sub-field
4333:Bilingual
4313:Types of
4304:Thesaurus
4274:Types of
4148:Functions
4139:Troponymy
4097:relations
3667:, 2nd ed.
3535:. Mouton.
3418:: 260–8.
3395:: 363–97.
3375:Phonemics
3359:5 January
3338:170335215
3295:5 January
3156:145227467
3097:Pike 1967
2879:"phoneme"
2799:Phonology
2702:phonology
2694:Cherology
2682:phonology
2666:Cherology
2607:signation
2506:loanwords
2490:graphemes
2418:would be
2410:would be
2339:phonology
2227:Cantonese
2180:consonant
2176:phonation
2166:language
2133:allophony
2104:) and as
2059:morphemes
2037://ˈsBɪn//
1827:phonemes
1676:"Phoneme"
1438:syllables
1362:Ladefoged
1331:phonology
1245:romanized
1230:The term
1212:allophone
940:/ˈɪnvaɪt/
936:/ɪnˈvaɪt/
902:segmental
890:Confucian
689:Icelandic
524:aspirated
522:, and an
456:aspirated
231:phonology
229:known as
219:consonant
69:"Phoneme"
4289:Glossary
4160:Headword
4104:Antonymy
4095:Semantic
4070:Morpheme
4055:Grapheme
4038:Elements
3922:Language
3894:Language
3844:44705495
3824:13223685
3728:(1997),
3689:(1968),
3629:Gruyter.
3606:. Foris.
3577:57352333
3553:(2000).
3498:Language
3469:Language
2908:Archived
2824:Triphone
2727:See also
2698:cheremes
2651:Brentari
2621:mouthing
2527:), like
2521:trigraph
2453:Twaddell
2318:Quileute
2312:, while
2225:, while
2202:81. The
2160:Arrernte
2005:, where
1999:plosives
1892:, as in
1862:morpheme
1856:such as
1785:stressed
1753:phonetic
1717:May 2019
1584:flapping
1503:, allow
1501:Romanian
1483:Setswana
1458:, as in
1420:phonetic
1416:phonemic
1399:grapheme
1393:morpheme
1373:duration
1369:chroneme
1354:acoustic
1346:features
918:juncture
900:Besides
577:phoneme
557:below).
541:such as
475:phonetic
408:phonetic
404:phonemic
273:, while
207:phonetic
153:/ /
149:Help:IPA
4418:Rhyming
4413:Reverse
4408:Picture
4393:Medical
4328:Anagram
4294:Lexicon
4134:Synonym
4075:Phoneme
4045:Chereme
4019:Lexicon
3852:4550377
3808:6492928
3802:, MIT,
3792:2232282
3148:4175789
2754:Diphone
2706:phoneme
2690:chereme
2670:chereme
2661:Chereme
2655:Sandler
2599:), and
2561:Italian
2517:digraph
2498:dialect
2314:Rotokas
2278:Tlingit
2192:Rotokas
2184:Puinave
2141:Rotokas
2097:(as in
2033:/ˈsbɪn/
2029:/ˈspɪn/
2021:sghetti
2011:/b,d,ɡ/
2007:/p,t,k/
1976:bedding
1972:betting
1949:{m,n,ŋ}
1945:|m-n-ŋ|
1931:of the
1888:before
1876:before
1868:before
1858:/p,t,k/
1829:/m,n,ŋ/
1789:reduced
1701:scholar
1475:Tagalog
1471:Swahili
1381:tonemes
1288:phoneme
1260:phoneme
1251:phōnēma
1247::
1232:phonème
1196:tonemes
575:English
543:X-SAMPA
539:systems
498:with a
422:versus
414:versus
406:versus
396:slashes
380:versus
257:in the
253:versus
170:phoneme
141:in the
94:scholar
25:phenome
21:phoneME
4448:Visual
4169:Fields
4085:Sememe
4065:Lexeme
4050:Glyphs
3958:
3942:522070
3940:
3914:409603
3912:
3886:308042
3884:
3866:
3850:
3842:
3822:
3806:
3790:
3772:
3754:
3736:
3715:
3701:317361
3699:
3575:
3565:
3518:409004
3516:
3336:
3233:
3204:
3154:
3146:
2950:online
2829:Viseme
2819:Toneme
2814:Sphoṭa
2672:(from
2632:mother
2626:father
2587:tabula
2573:Stokoe
2537:German
2394:(plus
2380:Trager
2304:lacks
2302:Samoan
2274:Mohawk
2268:lacks
2260:lacks
2258:Arabic
2223:stress
2215:French
2188:Tauade
2152:vowels
2137:Pirahã
2125:sounds
2016:sketti
2001:after
1953://n*//
1920:to be
1906:/lɪŋk/
1902:/lɪnt/
1898:/lɪmp/
1884:, and
1703:
1696:
1689:
1682:
1674:
1497:Arabic
1481:, and
1310:, and
1276:fonema
1262:as an
1240:φώνημα
1234:(from
1174:mother
1171:Gloss
1093:Pinyin
944:French
932:invite
914:stress
656:phones
512:dating
331:pushed
325:, and
311:/pʊʃt/
305:, and
285:, and
157:
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
4457:Other
4378:Idiom
4119:Idiom
4060:Lemma
4024:Lexis
3938:JSTOR
3910:JSTOR
3840:JSTOR
3651:(PDF)
3644:(PDF)
3514:JSTOR
3334:S2CID
3152:S2CID
3144:JSTOR
2836:Notes
2789:Phone
2320:lack
2280:lack
2200:Ubykh
2164:Bantu
2156:Ubykh
2083://z//
1992://D//
1941://N//
1937://A//
1910://N//
1850:/sʌŋ/
1843:/sʌn/
1836:/sʌm/
1825:nasal
1818:{a|o}
1814://A//
1768:. An
1708:JSTOR
1694:books
1561:phone
1534:/bɔj/
1467:Māori
1377:tones
1302:like
1183:scold
1180:horse
1051:Hanzi
815:from
728:gátur
722:kátur
700:gátur
694:kátur
661:skill
653:, or
637:skill
547:ASCII
520:stick
514:, an
506:, an
418:, or
382:/sɪŋ/
378:/sɪn/
372:from
358:]
354:[
342:]
338:[
255:/sɛt/
251:/sɛl/
223:vowel
145:(IPA)
101:JSTOR
87:books
4423:Rime
4080:Seme
4029:Word
3956:ISBN
3882:OCLC
3864:ISBN
3848:OCLC
3820:OCLC
3804:OCLC
3788:OCLC
3770:ISBN
3752:ISBN
3734:ISBN
3713:ISBN
3697:OCLC
3573:OCLC
3563:ISBN
3452:2017
3393:IV.4
3361:2019
3297:2019
3262:2022
3231:ISBN
3202:ISBN
2940:See
2916:2017
2708:(or
2704:and
2688:. A
2678:χείρ
2668:and
2629:and
2553:/ks/
2549:/gz/
2525:etc.
2420:/ah/
2416:/ɑː/
2414:and
2412:/aw/
2408:/aʊ/
2404:/aj/
2400:/aɪ/
2324:and
2316:and
2308:and
2290:Hupa
2284:and
2276:and
2243:Wobé
2219:tone
2196:!Xóõ
2172:!Xóõ
2168:Ngwe
2158:and
2079:dogs
2077:and
2075:cats
2025:spin
2019:and
1986:and
1974:and
1962:and
1951:and
1939:and
1854:stop
1847:sung
1799:and
1779:and
1680:news
1610:and
1575:and
1524:and
1499:and
1479:Thai
1418:and
1396:and
1388:-eme
1340:and
1325:and
1177:hemp
912:and
910:tone
759:and
748:and
725:and
707:and
705:/kʰ/
444:spit
374:sing
352:and
293:and
287:gnat
279:knot
265:and
245:and
243:cell
221:and
211:word
73:news
3930:doi
3902:doi
3506:doi
3420:doi
3324:doi
3194:doi
3136:doi
2719:at
2619:or
2612:ori
2602:sig
2592:dez
2589:),
2582:tab
2577:ASL
2559:in
2551:or
2541:/ʃ/
2535:in
2429:/ʌ/
2396:/r/
2392:/h/
2390:or
2388:/w/
2384:/j/
2370:or
2326:/n/
2322:/m/
2310:/n/
2306:/t/
2298:/k/
2294:/p/
2286:/m/
2282:/p/
2270:/t/
2262:/p/
2221:or
2145:ǃXũ
2115:).
2110:dog
2106:/z/
2099:cat
2091:/s/
2087:|z|
2085:or
2027:as
2003:/s/
1988:bed
1984:bet
1964:/d/
1960:/t/
1916:of
1890:/k/
1886:/ŋ/
1882:/d/
1880:or
1878:/t/
1874:/n/
1870:/p/
1866:/m/
1840:sun
1833:sum
1801:/o/
1797:/a/
1781:/o/
1777:/a/
1663:by
1624:/d/
1620:/t/
1616:ing
1608:ing
1596:/d/
1594:or
1592:/t/
1586:in
1530:boy
1526:/j/
1522:/w/
1516:/ɹ/
1510:In
1505:/h/
1493:/h/
1487:/ŋ/
1456:/ŋ/
1135:IPA
761:/d/
757:/t/
709:/k/
685:/k/
676:).
674:/t/
670:ill
618:kit
579:/k/
532:/t/
528:tie
518:in
510:in
504:cat
452:pit
450:in
442:in
436:/p/
432:/b/
428:/p/
424:bat
420:pat
416:tab
412:tap
386:pan
370:sin
333:.
327:/t/
323:/ʃ/
319:/ʊ/
315:/p/
307:/æ/
303:/ʌ/
301:,
299:/ɒ/
295:/t/
291:/n/
283:nut
275:/ɛ/
271:/s/
267:/t/
263:/l/
247:set
56:by
4505::
3936:.
3926:11
3924:.
3908:,
3898:10
3896:,
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