135:
108:
1793:
401:
The collar bears a number of large arms, each of which includes a row of tentacles along one side. The number of arms varies between species, with anything from one to nine pairs. The tentacles are covered in cilia and aid in filtering food from the water. The trunk includes a simple tubular gut, and
457:. Despite the close relationship between the two groups, the larva does not resemble that of the acorn worms; they are "planula-like", and do not feed (lecithotrophic). Eventually, the larva settles onto the substrate and metamorphoses to an adult. Alternatively, they also reproduce
1529:
378:, a collar, and a trunk. The proboscis is wide and flattened at the tip, and in most species contains glands that secrete a tube of organic material in which the pterobranch spends its adult life. The animals are mostly colonial, with several
1136:
1615:
Slater, Ben J; Willman, Sebastian; Budd, Graham E; Peel, John S (2017). "Widespread preservation of small carbonaceous fossils (SCFs) in the early
Cambrian of North Greenland".
1682:"The enigmatic mitochondrial genome of Rhabdopleura compacta(Pterobranchia) reveals insights into selection of an efficient tRNA system and supports monophyly of Ambulacraria"
1975:
2001:
1813:
1949:
1988:
1808:
1166:
Mitchell, C. E.; Melchin, M. J.; Cameron, C. B.; Maletz, J. R. (2012). "Phylogenetic analysis reveals that
Rhabdopleura is an extant graptolite".
1253:
1150:
932:
1280:
2060:
834:
1826:
1993:
1495:
Sato, A; Bishop JDD and
Holland PWH (2008). "Developmental biology of pterobranch hemichordates: history and perspectives".
1739:
Li, Yuanning; Kocot, Kevin M.; Tassia, Michael G.; Cannon, Johanna T.; Bernt, Matthias; Halanych, Kenneth M. (2019-01-01).
1105:
Sato, A; Rickards RB; Holland PWH (2008). "The origins of graptolites and other pterobranchs: a journey from 'Polyzoa'".
1821:
134:
1910:
1897:
1680:
Perseke, Marleen; Hetmank, Joerg; Bernt, Matthias; Stadler, Peter F; Schlegel, Martin; Bernhard, Detlef (2011-05-20).
491:
2006:
382:
living together in a cluster of tubes. In some species, the individual zooids within the colony are connected by
116:
1574:
Hou, X. G.; Aldridge, R. J.; Siveter, D. J.; Siveter, D. J.; Williams, M.; Zalasiewicz, J.; Ma, X. Y. (2011).
392:
is unusual in lacking the tubes typical of other pterobranchs, living as a naked zooid on corals. Recently,
2088:
1837:
1645:
KM. (1995). "The
Phylogenetic Position of the Pterobranch Hemichordates Based on 18S rDNA Sequence Data".
1915:
2037:
1822:
Cameron, Christopher B. (2016). A comprehensive list of extant hemichordate species with links to images
781:
439:
317:
398:
has been regarded as a questionable species by Tassia et al. (2016) and is no longer considered valid.
358:, and phylogenetic analysis suggests that the pterobranchs are living members of the graptolite clade.
1270:
2016:
1936:
1884:
1309:
796:
738:
576:
458:
445:
2065:
482:
344:
1875:
1464:
Lester, SM (1986). "Ultrastructure of adult gonads and development and structure of the larva of
1415:
1376:
211:
129:
2042:
2024:
1923:
1770:
1721:
1703:
1662:
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1512:
1337:
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1221:
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1142:
507:
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2029:
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1711:
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1554:
1504:
1477:
1446:
1407:
1368:
1327:
1317:
1211:
1175:
1114:
30:
1980:
288:. On the other hand, there are several hundred extinct genera, some of which date from the
803:
Table of alternative codons in pterobranchs and comparison with the standard genetic code
334:
289:
239:
107:
510:
sequences indicated that pterobranchs are closely related to enteropneust hemichordates.
1313:
1765:
1740:
1716:
1681:
1481:
1450:
1332:
1297:
1132:
729:
671:
661:
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539:
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487:
197:
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living on the ocean floor, often in relatively deep waters. Like their relatives, the
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65:
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1928:
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Tassia, MG; Cannon, JT; Konikoff, CE; Shenkar, N; Halanych, KM; Swalla, BJ (2016).
792:
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40:
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Loduca, S. T.; Caron, J. B.; Schiffbauer, J. D.; Xiao, S.; Kramer, A. (2015).
747:
702:
693:
589:
371:
355:
352:
85:
50:
1860:
1707:
1698:
1543:"A reexamination of Yuknessia from the Cambrian of British Columbia and Utah"
1225:
1216:
1199:
1200:"The classification of the Pterobranchia (Cephalodiscida and Graptolithina)"
476:
450:
375:
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146:
90:
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1138:
Life: A Natural
History of the First Four Billion Years of Life on Earth
1559:
1542:
1411:
1372:
453:, with the fertilised egg hatching to produce a free-swimming ciliated
419:
267:
95:
70:
1967:
1508:
1628:
1355:
Stebbing, ARD (1970). "Aspects of the reproduction and life cycle of
1248:. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 1026–1027.
383:
156:
34:
1831:
1954:
1798:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
454:
379:
348:
300:
259:
403:
1835:
1941:
347:
studies have suggested that pterobranchs belong to the same
1741:"Mitogenomics Reveals a Novel Genetic Code in Hemichordata"
431:
Development of pterobranchs have been studied only in
374:, their body is divided into three parts: an anterior
1433:
Lester, SM (1988). "Settlement and metamorphosis of
1844:
242:of small worm-shaped animals. They belong to the
299:in 1877. It contained, at that time, the single
406:projects upwards, lying dorsal to the collar.
266:. There are about 25 known living pterobranch
8:
1827:Swalla Billie J. (2007). Class Pterobranchia
1817:(11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
329:was published in 1887, it became clear that
295:The class Pterobranchia was established by
1832:
106:
20:
1764:
1715:
1697:
1591:
1558:
1331:
1321:
1215:
1193:
1191:
1189:
1060:
801:
418:have a single pair of gill slits in the
1097:
333:, the second genus now included in the
1576:"An Early Cambrian Hemichordate Zooid"
1298:"The Global Diversity of Hemichordata"
1647:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
1141:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p.
474:The earliest pterobranchs, including
312:was at first regarded as an aberrant
7:
2017:2b8b8947-4ab1-45fd-8ba2-41fad772a268
1239:
1237:
1235:
234:, members of which are often called
697:Kozlowski 1928 sensu Kozlowski 1949
582:
557:
532:
522:
461:by budding to create a new colony.
1482:10.1111/j.1463-6395.1988.tb00906.x
1451:10.1111/j.1463-6395.1988.tb00907.x
760:Maletz, Carlucci and Mitchell 2009
733:Fowler 1892 sensu Beklemishev 1951
724:Kozlowski 1938 sensu Kozlowsk 1949
258:out of the water with the help of
254:. Pterobranchia feed by filtering
14:
386:. The single member in the genus
366:Pterobranchs are small worm-like
1791:
1437:(Hemichordata: Pterobranchia)".
1394:Dilly, PN (1973). "The larva of
1180:10.1111/j.1502-3931.2012.00319.x
1119:10.1111/j.1502-3931.2008.00123.x
222:Lapworth sensu Beklemishev, 1951
133:
486:, are known from mid-Cambrian
1:
933:Cephalodiscidae mitochondrial
449:). Both of these species are
1745:Genome Biology and Evolution
1323:10.1371/journal.pone.0162564
1530:Hemichordate Nervous System
835:Pterobranchia mitochondrial
516:Phylogeny of Pterobranchia
402:is curved over so that the
270:in three genera, which are
2105:
1244:Barnes, Robert D. (1982).
492:small carbonaceous fossils
337:, had affinities with the
1593:10.1016/j.cub.2011.03.005
1039:
1009:
979:
949:
936:
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911:
881:
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821:
793:alternative genetic codes
779:The two pterobranch taxa
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194:
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130:Scientific classification
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114:
105:
23:
1699:10.1186/1471-2148-11-134
1686:BMC Evolutionary Biology
1217:10.3140/bull.geosci.1465
1086:Termination: stop codon
117:Cephalodiscus nigrescens
1814:Encyclopædia Britannica
1547:Journal of Paleontology
1272:Graptolite Paleobiology
1204:Bulletin of Geosciences
1069:biochemical properties
1659:10.1006/mpev.1995.1007
666:Fowler 1892 stat. nov.
16:Class of hemichordates
2038:Paleobiology Database
1396:Rhabdopleura compacta
1357:Rhabdopleura compacta
1269:Maletz, Jörg (2017).
1198:Maletz, Jörg (2014).
829:Standard translation
782:Rhabdopleura compacta
742:Mitchell et al., 2013
440:Rhabdopleura compacta
1466:Rhabdopleura normani
1435:Rhabdopleura normani
1246:Invertebrate Zoology
797:mitochondrial genome
446:Rhabdopleura normani
443:) and from Bermuda (
120:(collected from the
1314:2016PLoSO..1162564T
1275:. Wiley-Blackwell.
804:
494:are known from the
345:Electron microscope
1757:10.1093/gbe/evy254
1560:10.1017/jpa.2014.7
1412:10.1007/BF00347923
1373:10.1007/BF00346908
1133:Fortey, Richard A.
802:
2076:
2075:
2025:Open Tree of Life
1838:Taxon identifiers
1509:10.1002/dvg.20395
1398:(Hemichordata)".
1359:(Hemichordata)".
1255:978-0-03-056747-6
1152:978-0-375-40119-0
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31:Cambrian Stage 3
27:Temporal range:
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739:Eugraptolithina
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577:Eugraptolithina
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437:from Plymouth (
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290:Cambrian Period
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1470:Acta Zoologica
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1400:Marine Biology
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1209:
1205:
1201:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1159:
1154:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1139:
1134:
1128:
1125:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1101:
1098:
1092:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1063:
1062:
1049:
1047:
1034:
1029:
1028:
1019:
1017:
1004:
999:
998:
989:
987:
974:
969:
968:
959:
957:
944:
939:
934:
930:
921:
919:
906:
901:
900:
891:
889:
876:
871:
870:
861:
859:
846:
841:
836:
832:
828:
826:
818:
815:
810:
807:
806:
800:
798:
794:
790:
789:
788:Cephalodiscus
784:
783:
774:
769:
758:
754:
749:
745:
744:
740:
736:
731:
727:
722:
719:Order ?†
718:
713:
710:Order ?†
709:
704:
701:Order ?†
700:
695:
692:Order ?†
691:
690:
686:
685:
684:Graptolithina
680:
673:
669:
668:
664:
663:
658:
657:
656:
652:
651:Pterobranchia
638:
637:
629:
628:
620:
619:
611:
610:
607:
606:
600:
599:
596:
595:
592:
591:
585:
584:
578:
575:
574:
571:
570:
567:
566:
560:
559:
553:
552:Graptolithina
550:
549:
546:
545:
542:
541:
535:
534:
528:
527:Pterobranchia
525:
524:
520:
519:
515:
514:
511:
509:
501:
499:
497:
493:
489:
485:
484:
483:Galeaplumosus
479:
478:
469:
464:
462:
460:
456:
452:
448:
447:
442:
441:
436:
435:
429:
427:
426:
421:
417:
416:
411:
410:
409:Cephalodiscus
405:
399:
397:
396:
391:
390:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
361:
359:
357:
354:
350:
346:
342:
340:
339:Enteropneusta
336:
332:
331:Cephalodiscus
328:
327:
326:Cephalodiscus
322:
320:
315:
311:
307:
306:
302:
298:
297:Ray Lankester
293:
291:
287:
286:
281:
280:
279:Cephalodiscus
275:
274:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
250:tubes on the
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
232:Pterobranchia
219:
218:
216:
213:
209:
204:
203:Graptolithina
201:
199:
196:
195:
193:
188:
183:
178:
177:Pterobranchia
175:
172:
171:
168:
165:
162:
161:
158:
155:
152:
151:
148:
145:
142:
141:
136:
131:
127:
123:
119:
118:
113:
109:
104:
97:
92:
87:
82:
77:
72:
67:
62:
57:
52:
47:
42:
36:
32:
24:Pterobranchia
22:
19:
1845:
1812:
1751:(1): 29–40.
1748:
1744:
1734:
1689:
1685:
1675:
1653:(1): 72–76.
1650:
1646:
1637:
1620:
1616:
1610:
1586:(7): 612–6.
1583:
1579:
1569:
1550:
1546:
1536:
1525:
1500:
1496:
1490:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1459:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1428:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1389:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1350:
1305:
1301:
1291:
1271:
1264:
1245:
1207:
1203:
1171:
1167:
1161:
1137:
1127:
1110:
1106:
1100:
1064:
822:Translation
811:Translation
808:Genetic code
786:
780:
778:
775:Genetic code
757:Graptoloidea
682:
660:
650:
648:
605:Graptoloidea
603:
588:
563:
538:
526:
505:
488:Lagerstätten
481:
475:
473:
470:Paleontology
444:
438:
434:Rhabdopleura
432:
430:
425:Rhabdopleura
423:
413:
407:
400:
393:
387:
365:
343:
330:
324:
318:
310:Rhabdopleura
309:
305:Rhabdopleura
303:
294:
283:
277:
273:Rhabdopleura
271:
262:attached to
244:Hemichordata
236:pterobranchs
235:
231:
230:
176:
167:Hemichordata
115:
18:
1963:iNaturalist
1870:Wikispecies
1066:Amino acids
712:Dithecoidea
706:Bulman 1970
675:Fowler 1892
422:, although
372:acorn worms
356:graptolites
252:ocean floor
122:Weddell Sea
1692:(1): 134.
1093:References
1051:STOP = Ter
1021:STOP = Ter
923:STOP = Ter
748:Dendroidea
715:Obut, 1960
703:Crustoidea
694:Camaroidea
688:Bronn 1849
590:Dendroidea
490:. Earlier
428:has none.
319:Challenger
1708:1471-2148
1553:: 82–95.
1406:: 69–86.
1226:1214-1119
1174:: 34–56.
1072:nonpolar
819:RNA codon
816:DNA codon
795:in their
681:Subclass
659:Subclass
477:Yuknessia
465:Evolution
459:asexually
451:dioecious
376:proboscis
264:tentacles
182:Lankester
153:Kingdom:
147:Eukaryota
2083:Category
1855:Wikidata
1775:30476024
1726:21599892
1643:Halanych
1602:21439828
1517:18798243
1420:86563917
1381:84014156
1342:27701429
1302:PLOS ONE
1135:(1998).
770:Genomics
721:Tuboidea
502:Taxonomy
415:Atubaria
395:Atubaria
389:Atubaria
314:polyzoon
285:Atubaria
256:plankton
248:secreted
212:Synonyms
163:Phylum:
157:Animalia
143:Domain:
2053:1731181
1861:Q874843
1802::
1766:6319601
1717:3121625
1667:7620637
1617:Geology
1497:Genesis
1333:5049775
1310:Bibcode
1168:Lethaia
1107:Lethaia
1081:acidic
755:Order †
746:Order †
737:Clade †
420:pharynx
384:stolons
362:Biology
353:extinct
351:as the
268:species
238:, is a
190:Orders
173:Class:
2050:uBio:
2030:841340
2014:NZOR:
1994:158642
1968:152120
1916:494606
1796:
1773:
1763:
1724:
1714:
1706:
1665:
1600:
1515:
1418:
1379:
1340:
1330:
1279:
1252:
1224:
1149:
1078:basic
1075:polar
728:Order
670:Order
649:Class
380:zooids
321:report
282:, and
35:Recent
2061:WoRMS
2043:33521
2007:33627
1976:IRMNG
1929:62274
1416:S2CID
1377:S2CID
813:table
455:larva
349:clade
335:order
301:genus
260:cilia
240:class
2066:1819
2002:NCBI
1989:ITIS
1981:1446
1950:GBIF
1942:8855
1911:BOLD
1771:PMID
1722:PMID
1704:ISSN
1663:PMID
1598:PMID
1513:PMID
1338:PMID
1277:ISBN
1250:ISBN
1222:ISSN
1147:ISBN
791:use
785:and
480:and
412:and
404:anus
184:1877
41:PreꞒ
1955:278
1937:EoL
1924:CoL
1898:AFD
1885:ADW
1811:".
1761:PMC
1753:doi
1712:PMC
1694:doi
1655:doi
1625:doi
1588:doi
1555:doi
1505:doi
1478:doi
1468:".
1447:doi
1408:doi
1369:doi
1328:PMC
1318:doi
1212:doi
1176:doi
1143:129
1115:doi
1054:(*)
1044:(Y)
1041:Tyr
1036:UAA
1031:TAA
1024:(*)
1014:(W)
1011:Trp
1006:UGA
1001:TGA
994:(R)
991:Arg
984:(K)
981:Lys
976:AGG
971:AGG
964:(R)
961:Arg
954:(S)
951:Ser
946:AGA
941:AGA
926:(*)
916:(W)
913:Trp
908:UGA
903:TGA
896:(R)
893:Arg
886:(K)
883:Lys
878:AGG
873:AGG
866:(R)
863:Arg
856:(S)
853:Ser
848:AGA
843:AGA
323:on
2085::
2063::
2040::
2027::
2004::
1991::
1978::
1965::
1952::
1939::
1926::
1913::
1900::
1887::
1872::
1857::
1769:.
1759:.
1749:11
1747:.
1743:.
1720:.
1710:.
1702:.
1690:11
1688:.
1684:.
1661:.
1649:.
1621:46
1619:.
1596:.
1584:21
1582:.
1578:.
1551:89
1549:.
1545:.
1511:.
1501:46
1499:.
1474:69
1472:.
1443:69
1441:.
1414:.
1404:18
1402:.
1375:.
1363:.
1336:.
1326:.
1316:.
1306:11
1304:.
1300:.
1234:^
1220:.
1208:89
1206:.
1202:.
1188:^
1172:46
1170:.
1145:.
1111:41
1109:.
937:33
839:24
799:.
498:.
341:.
308:.
292:.
276:,
124:)
91:Pg
1777:.
1755::
1728:.
1696::
1669:.
1657::
1651:4
1631:.
1627::
1604:.
1590::
1563:.
1557::
1519:.
1507::
1484:.
1480::
1453:.
1449::
1422:.
1410::
1383:.
1371::
1365:5
1344:.
1320::
1312::
1285:.
1258:.
1228:.
1214::
1182:.
1178::
1155:.
1121:.
1117::
96:N
86:K
81:J
76:T
71:P
66:C
61:D
56:S
51:O
46:Ꞓ
33:–
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