957:). This fact is in his view "a solid piece of evidence" against the claims by ancient alien enthusiasts that hold Pumapunku as a best example of extraterrestrial technology, based in part on the idea that the form and design of the monumental complex of Pumapunku has no local precursors. The buildings at Chiripa (which are similar to buildings of Pumapunku) were identified as "storage bins" because impressions of baskets and remains of food were found. Vranich notes that generations of amateur, fringe and pseudo-archeologist claimed that the "apparent geometric perfection of Tiwanaku architecture" is a result of extraterrestrial intervention or a lost super civilization instead attributing the ruins to the inhabitants of the Titicaca basin. In the 2019 issue of
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544:. Its layout is not square in plan, but rather T-shaped. To sustain the weight of these massive structures, Tiwanaku architects were meticulous in creating foundations, often fitting stones directly to bedrock or digging precise trenches and carefully filling them with layered sedimentary stones to support large stone blocks. Modern engineers argue that base of Pumapunku was constructed using a technique called layering and depositing. By alternating layers of sand from the interior and layers of composite from the exterior, the fills overlap at the joints, grading the contact points to create a sturdy base.
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into several blocks, both believed to be hallmarks of
Tiahuanaco-style architecture. A variant of this argument is that Tiahuanacoid elements were brought to Ollantaytambo by stonemasons from Lake Titicaca. The only question here is why stonesmasons from Lake Titicaca should have remembered anything Tiahaunacoid when for several centuries nothing like it had been built. If anything remembers me of Tiahuanaco it is the T-shaped sockets and the regularly coursed masonry of strongly altered andesite. Many T-shaped sockets are indeed found at Tiahuanaco in particular at the site of Puma Punku .
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largely ineffective against hard andesite). She succeeded in carving a half-cross-shaped design about eight inches across, achieving the same high precision shown by the Puma Punku carvings. One element that she was unable to work out how to replicate was the accurately flat surface of the inside of the carving, and the researchers were struck by the ubiquity of such surfaces in the
Tiahuanaco carvings. The process took 40 hours, although some of this was time taken in trial and error - the researchers estimated that it would take an experienced person about 25 hours.
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structures. For example it has been shown that the much-admired carved block known as the "Escritorio del Inca" is an accurate and reduced-scale model of full-scale architecture. Some of these "model stones" like "little
Pumapunku" are not isolated stones but, rather, seem to fit in the context of other stones and stone fragments. According to Protzen and Nair the fact that many of these "model stones" were executed in multiple exemplars bespeaks mass production.
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322:. This structure consists of a stone terrace 6.8 by 38.7 metres (22 by 127 feet) in dimension. This terrace is paved with multiple enormous stone blocks. It contains the largest stone slab in the Pumapunku and Tiwanaku Site, measuring 7.8 metres (26 feet) long, 5.2 metres (17 feet) wide and averages 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) thick. Based on the
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a possible layer of mortar. One common engineering technique involves cutting the top of the lower stone at a certain angle, and placing another stone on top of it which was cut at the same angle. The precision with which these angles create flush joints is indicative of sophisticated knowledge of stone-cutting and a thorough understanding of
603:-shaped cramps were cast in place. In sharp contrast, the cramps used at the Akapana canal were fashioned by the cold hammering of copper-arsenic-nickel bronze ingots. The unique copper-arsenic-nickel bronze alloy is also found in metal artifacts within the region between Tiwanaku and San Pedro de Atacama during the late
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At least five gateways (and several blind miniature gateways) were once (or were intended to be) integrated into the
Pumapunku monumental complex. The foundation platform of Pumapunku supported as many as eight andesite gateways. The fragments of five andesite gateways with similar characteristics to
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An argument persists that the Wall of the six monoliths and the vanished structures from which the blocks have been recycled predate the Incas and were work of the earlier
Tiahuanaco culture. Support for the argument is found in the step motif carved on the fourth monolith and the T-shape sockets cut
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In assembling the walls of
Pumapunku, each stone interlocked with the surrounding stones. The blocks were fit together like a puzzle, forming load-bearing joints. Jean-Pierre Protzen and Stella Nair identified a 1 to 1.5 millimeters thick thin coat of whiteish material covering some of the stones as
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At its peak, Pumapunku is thought to have been "unimaginably wondrous," adorned with polished metal plaques, brightly colored ceramic and fabric ornamentation, and visited by costumed citizens, elaborately dressed priests, and elites decked in exotic jewelry. Current understanding of this complex is
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Apparently, this culture dissolved abruptly some time around AD 1000, and researchers can only guess the reasons. A likely scenario involves rapid onset extended drought. Unable to produce the massive crop yields necessary for their large population, the
Tiwanaku apparently scattered into the local
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was part of Puma Punku. According to Alan Kolata the terraced platform mound depicted on the gateway of the sun is actually a stylized depiction of
Pumapunku. The backside of the gateway of the sun has patterns which can be found on the stone slabs and gates of Pumapunku. Therefore some assume that
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once were guarding the entrance to
Pumapunku. Chachapumas usually were placed on andesite pedestals on either side of the entrance. These sculptures show fearsome traits of predatory animals, they crouch or kneel while clutching a human head in one hand and an axe in the other. Some authors believe
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Nair subsequently experimented with replicating a small section of a carving using a variety of possible stone tools, including blades, flakes and thin chisels made of stones including flint, agate, jasper, obsidian, hydrated obsidian, greywacke, quartzite, and hematite. (Bronze tools proved to be
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Some of the so-called "H-blocks" which were interconnected (or intended to interconnect) with other andesite blocks forming blind miniature gateways. What the gateways looked like is depicted in the monolith called "Escritorio del Inca", which is an accurate and reduced-scale model of a full-scale
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According to
Protzen and Nair, no tools have been excavated that were used in the construction of Tiwanaku, or if they have they have not been identified as tools. According to the art historian Jessica Joyce Christie, the experiments of Jean-Pierre Protzen and Stella Nair showed that the Tiwanaku
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to obtain the smooth finishes, the perfectly planar faces and exact interior and exterior right angles on the finely dressed stones, they resorted to techniques unknown to the Incas and to us at this time. The sharp and precise 90° interior angles observed on various decorative motifs most likely
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Pumapunku holds several miniature gates that are perfect replicas of once standing full-size gateways. In addition to these miniature gateways, likely, at least five gateways (and several blind miniature gateways) were once (or were intended to be) integrated into the Pumapunku monumental complex.
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The largest of Pumapunku's stone blocks is 7.81 metres (25.6 feet) long, 5.17 metres (17.0 feet) wide, averages 1.07 metres (3 feet 6 inches) thick, and is estimated to weigh about 131 tonnes (144 short tons). The second largest stone block found within the complex is 7.90 metres (25.9
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The Pumapunku is a terraced earthen mound faced with blocks. It is 167.4 metres (549 feet) wide along its north–south axis and 116.7 metres (383 feet) long along its east–west axis. On the northeast and southeast corners of the Pumapunku, it has 20-metre (66-foot) wide projections extending 27.6
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There also exist miniature gateways at Pumapunku which are perfect replicas of once standing monumental full-sized gateways. When reducing the full-sized monumental architecture to miniature architecture the Tiahuanacans applied a specific formula. There also exist replicas of larger monumental
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theories on lost continents and extraterrestrial interventions. Thousands of websites and references which refer to pseudoscientific theories of alien and Atlantis enthusiasts exist. The archeologist Jeb J. Card notes that Pumapunku is a fixture of books and television programs on alternative
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is characterized by accurately cut rectilinear blocks of such uniformity, they could be interchanged for one another while maintaining a level surface and even joints. Although similar, the blocks do not have the same dimensions. The precise cuts suggest the possibility of pre-fabrication and
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There are at least two monoliths associated with the Pumapunku platform mound. One of these monoliths is the Pumapunku monolith (or Pumapunku stela). It was discovered west of the Pumapunku campus and first documented in photographs in 1876. There is evidence that like in the case of Akapana
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At Pumapunku and other areals of Tiwanaku such as Kantatayita doubly curved lintels with complicated surfaces were found. Jean-Pierre Protzen and Stella Nair point out that the "steep parabolic curve" of the doubly curved lintels (like the one of the Kantatayita lintel) would be difficult to
365:. The geophysical data collected from these surveys and excavations indicate the presence of numerous man-made structures in the area between the Pumapunku and Kalasasaya complexes. These structures include the wall foundations of buildings and compounds, water conduits, pool-like features,
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However, according to Protzen, in Ollantaytambo only T-shaped sockets are found, whereas in Tiwanaku cramp sockets of a wide range of shapes — L, T, double-T or ‡, U, Y, Z — and dimensions are found. Similarities between Ollantaytambo and Tiwanaku were also noticed by
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roughly 10 kilometres (6.2 miles) away. Smaller andesite blocks for stone facing and carvings came from quarries within the Copacabana Peninsula about 90 kilometres (56 miles) away from and across Lake Titicaca from the Pumapunku and the rest of the Tiwanaku Site.
502:. Some of the stones are in an unfinished state, showing some of the techniques used to shape them. The architectural historians Jean-Pierre and Stella Nair who conducted the first professional field study on the stones of Tiwanaku/Pumapunku conclude:
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functioned as spiritual and ritual centers for the Tiwanaku. This area might be the center of the Andean world, attracting pilgrims from far away to marvel in its beauty. These structures transformed the local landscape; Pumapunku was integrated with
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he roof of the hall, on the outside, looks like straw, although it is of stone. Because the Indians cover their houses with straw, and for this to look like the others , they dressed the stone and incised it so that it would appear like a cover of
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from organic material from the deepest and oldest layer of mound-fill forming the Pumapunku. This layer was deposited during the first of three construction epochs, and dates the initial construction of the Pumapunku to AD 536–600 (1510 ±25
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sifted and layered soils (mound), andesite (superstructure), sandstone (foundation and internal channels), ternary Cu–As–Ni bronze alloy (cramps), mortar of lime and sand with ground-up malachite (turquoise green plaster floor), clay (red
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and red sandstone. Pumapunku's core consists of clay, while the fill under parts of its edge consists of river sand and cobbles instead of clay. Excavations documented "three major building epochs plus repairs and re-modeling".
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Virtual reconstruction of one of the four buildings of the Pumapunku monumental structure by Alexei Vranich. The reconstruction revealed that these kind of buildings are elaborate versions of buildings that were excavated by
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feet) long, 2.50 metres (8 feet 2 inches) wide, and averages 1.86 metres (6 feet 1 inch) thick. Its weight is estimated to be 85.21 tonnes (93.93 short tons). Both of these stone blocks are part of the
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stonework, the stonework was probably constructed sometime after AD 536–600. The excavation trenches of Vranich show the clay, sand, and gravel fill of the Pumapunku complex were laid directly on the sterile middle
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as mysteries. The archeologist Alexei Vranich counters the ancient alien enthusiasts that well-preserved local precursors regarding the monumental complex of Pumapunku are now known (some monumental structures at
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all have rounded interior angles typical of the pounding technique . The construction tools of the Tiahuanacans, with perhaps the possible exception of hammerstones, remain essentially unknown and have yet to be
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The Tiwanaku civilization and the use of these enclosures and platform mounds appears to peak from AD 700 to 1000, by which point, the city core and surrounding area could house 400,000 residents. An extensive
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After the area was mapped with a drone in 2016, the results showed the site has a size of seventeen hectares of which only two hectares are unearthed. There are two additional platforms still underground.
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of ancient Tiwanaku. Several conflicting theories attempt to imagine the ways this labor force transported the stones, although these theories remain speculative. Two common proposals involve the use of
627:). According to StĂĽbel and Uhle the cramp sockets of Olympia and the Erechtheum in Athens are of the same shape as the ones of Tiwanaku. They call it "strikingly consistent choice of technical means" ("
249:. The Pumapunku complex is a collection of plazas and ramps centered on the Pumapunku platform mound. Today only the ruins of the monumental complex on top of the Puma Punku platform mound remain.
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and chemical analyses of samples from individual stones and known quarry sites, archaeologists concluded these and other red sandstone blocks were transported up a steep incline from a quarry near
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were not made with hammerstones. No matter how fine the hammerstone's point, it could never produce the crisp right interior angles seen on Tiahuanaco stonework. Comparable cuts in
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that the Chachapumas demanded a "sacrifice" of humans when entering the monumental structures. Some authors believe, because of certain markings on stones found at Puma Punku, the
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stones. At the west entrance of Pumapunku Totora-reed stones were found. Early visitors who saw standing architecture at Tiwanaku reported about stones which resemble "straw":
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artisans may have possessed additional tools other than hammerstones which facilitated the creation of exact geometric cuts and forms and of which archeology has no record.
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Tiwanaku engineers also developed a civic infrastructure at this complex, constructing functional irrigation systems, hydraulic mechanisms, and leak-proof sewage lines.
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at Tiwanaku. These cramps hold the blocks comprising the walls and bottom of stone-lined canals to drain sunken courts. In the south canal of the Pumapunku, the
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The front-facing figure of the gateway of the sun; most experts believe that the gateway of the sun once was integrated in the monumental structure of Pumapunku
906:, corn, and other various crops. During their peak centuries, the Tiwanaku culture dominated the Lake Titicaca basin as well as portions of Bolivia and Chile.
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found in Tiwanaku culture from Northern Chile, including babies as young as one year of age, demonstrating the importance of these substances to the Tiwanaku.
689:
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Vranich, Alexei; Levine, Abigail R. (2013). "A Radiocarbon Chronology of the Pumapunku Complex and a Reassessment of the Development of Tiwanaku, Bolivia".
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1799:
An introduction to mining and quarrying in the ancient Andes: sociopolitical, economic and symbolic dimensions." Mining and Quarrying in the Ancient Andes.
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mountain. The spiritual significance and the sense of wonder might be amplified into a "mind-altering and life-changing experience" through the use of
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256:, which is believed to be "Pumapunku's twin". Among the place names in Tiwanaku, only the names "Akapana" and "Pumapunku" have historical relevance.
334:(144 short tons). The remarkable aspects of the sandstone slabs, including their size and smooth surfaces have drawn comments for several centuries.
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Protzen, Jean-Pierre; Nair, Stella (1997). "Who taught the Inca stonemasons their skills? A comparison of Tiahuanaco and Inca cut-stone masonry".
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the monumental structures (e. g. the Wall of the six monoliths) were the work of the earlier Tiwanaku culture and have been reused by the
369:, terraces, residential compounds, and widespread gravel pavements, all of which are buried and hidden beneath the modern ground surface.
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Construction of Puma Punku is believed to have begun after AD 536. Pumapunku was the most important construction in Tiwanaku, other than
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limited due to its age, the lack of a written record, and the current deteriorated state of the structures due to treasure hunting,
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an alignment of plazas and ramps centered on a man-made terraced platform mound with a sunken court and monumental complex on top
984:"nested square" symbol inside one "H-block". Identical "nested square" symbols can be found on stone stelas in the museum at
944:. According to Card, Atlantis and aliens enthusiasts point to the fine-cut masonry and the location of Pumapunku in the high
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468:. On finished blocks, each blind hole houses a tiny T-cramp socket, proving that the blocks should be mated with others.
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criticizes that ancient alien theorists have called the Aymara "stone age people" who could not have built Pumapunku.
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1678:: In Honour of Hans-Gert Bachmann and Robert Maddin, edited by T. Rehren, A. Hauptmann, and J. D. Muhly, pp. 77-92.
914:, then disappeared shortly thereafter. Apparently, Puma Punku was abandoned before its builders could complete it.
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Robinson, Eugene (1990). 'In Bolivia, Great Excavations; Tiwanaku Digs Unearthing New History of the New World',
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C14, calibrated date). Since the radiocarbon date came from the deepest and oldest layer of mound-fill under the
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According to some theories, the Pumapunku complex and surrounding monumental structures like Akapana,
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traditions. According to trdions, Tiwanaku is believed to be the site where the world was created. In
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Technology and Archaeology Workshop. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C.
595:-shaped cramps were also used on a section of canal found at the base of the terraced platform mound
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1327:"Reconstructing ancient architecture at Tiwanaku, Bolivia: the potential and promise of 3D printing"
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El bronce arsenical y el Horizonte Medio. En ArqueologĂa, antropologĂa e historia en los Andes.
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Die Ruinenstätte von Tiahuanaco im Hochlande des alten Peru: eine kulturegeschichtliche Studie
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Ornamental stone with I-cramp sockets which suggests that more stones were added to this block
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which literally means 'Gate of the Puma') is a 6th-century T-shaped and strategically aligned
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Mining and Quarrying in the Ancient Andes: Sociopolitical, Economic, and Symbolic Dimensions.
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Interpreting the meaning of ritual spaces: the temple complex of Pumapunku, Tiwanaku, Bolivia
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Protzen, Jean-Pierre; Nair, Stella (2002). "The Gateways of Tiwanaku. Symbols or passages?".
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591:-shaped architectural cramps, composed of a unique copper-arsenic-nickel bronze alloy. These
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Lechtman, H.N., 1998, 'Architectural cramps at Tiwanaku: copper-arsenic-nickel bronze.' In
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plants. Examinations of hair samples exhibit remnants of psychoactive substances in many
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cultural deposits within the area of the Tiwanaku Site adjacent to the Pumapunku complex.
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When the Spanish arrived at Tiwanaku there was still standing architecture at Pumapunku.
1267:"The construction and reconstruction of ritual space at Tiwanaku, Bolivia (AD 500–1000)"
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Protzen, Jean-Pierre; Nair, Stella (2000). "On Reconstructing Tiwanaku Architecture".
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reports that one Gateway and one "window" was still standing on one of the platforms.
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gateways. The fragments of five andesite gateways with similar characteristics to the
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1209:. Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia. Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia.
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extending more than 30 square miles (80 km) to support cultivation of potatoes,
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sediments. These excavation trenches also demonstrated the lack of any pre-Andean
286:, a terraced platform mound that is faced with stone, and a walled eastern court.
1917:, accessed on April 11, 2021; Fig. 3 shows the Pumapunku monolith; Picture note:
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Detail of stone with precisely cut straight line and tooled holes within the line
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1936:
The Suñawa Monolith and a Genre of Extended-Arm Sculptures at Tiwanaku, Bolivia.
1900:
The Suñawa Monolith and a Genre of Extended-Arm Sculptures at Tiwanaku, Bolivia.
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Urban Structure at Tiwanaku: Geophysical Investigations in the Andean Altiplano.
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Isbell, William H. (2004). "Palaces and Politics in the Andean Middle Horizon".
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294:, stone mining for building stone and railroad ballast, and natural weathering.
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The Pumapunku complex consists of an unwalled western court, a central unwalled
1302:. Monographs. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press at UCLA. pp. 127–146.
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replicate for modern stonemasons ("would tax any stonemason's skills today").
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T-shaped sockets at Ollantaytambo that are similar to those found at Pumapunku
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Archaeologists dispute whether the transport of these stones was by the large
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states that in the past it often has been argued that among the buildings at
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and monumental structure on top. It is part of the Pumapunku complex, at the
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1982:
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631:") which they think is due to "similar patterns in human way of thinking" ("
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Visual History – Online-Nachschlagewerk für die historische Bildforschung:
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One gateway at Pumapunku with similar iconography to the Gateway of the Sun
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Historische Fotobestände aus Südamerika im Archiv für Geographie (Leipzig)
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Acerca de la procedencia del material lĂtico de los monumentos de Tiwanaku
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The other stonework and facing of the Pumapunku consists of a mixture of
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Pumapunku was a large earthen platform mound with three levels of stone
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1040:-cramp sockets which suggests that more stones were added to this block
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around 600–900. Within Peru, T-shaped sockets can also be found at the
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1082:. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. pp. 191–246.
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Nested structures which are typical for Pumapunku Style architecture
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On the left tiny fragment of a large Totora-reed stone at Pumapunku
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from which it was carved, this stone slab is estimated to weigh 131
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the gateway of the sun once formed the main entrance to Pumapunku.
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The Stones of Tiahuanaco: A Study of Architecture and Construction
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Large Totora-reed stones can be found in the museum at Tiwanaku.
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The foundation platform of Pumapunku supported as many as eight
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The roofs of the entrance to Pumapunku were most likely out of
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Comparison of the Tiwanaku cramp technique (left) with that in
1999:
Cambridge: Blackwell (1993), ISBN 1-55786-183-8, p. 148.
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1755:
1174:. Monographs. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press at UCLA.
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metres (91 feet) north and south from the rectangular mound.
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Interactive Archaeological Investigation at Pumapunku Temple
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Die Ruinenstätte von Tiahuanaco im Hochlande des alten Peru.
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Cramp technique at Tiwanaku (above) compared to the one in
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The area within the kilometer separating the Pumapunku and
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2206:"Reckoning with the Popular Uptake of Alien Archaeology"
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auffallend ĂĽbereinstimmenden Wahl der technischen Mittel
615:. The cramp technique can also be found at buildings of
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Buildings and structures in La Paz Department (Bolivia)
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Vol. 9. Cambridge University Press (2008), p. 135.
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1819:
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Noted by Andean specialist, W. H. Isbell, professor at
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Tiwanaku, the location of Pumapunku, is significant in
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cramp sockets in the foundation platforms of Pumapunku
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cramp sockets in the foundation platforms of Pumapunku
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Spooky archaeology: Myth and the science of the past.
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The architectural historian Jean-Pierre Protzen from
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The eastern edge of the Pumapunku is occupied by the
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2108:Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, UK. 362 pp.
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Springer Science & Business Media, 2012. p. 73.
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2314:Tourist attractions in La Paz Department (Bolivia)
2155:University of New Mexico Press, 2018, p. 123.
1132:Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians
1103:Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians
633:Gesetzmässigkeit der menschlichen Denkentwickelung
2083:The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization.
1997:The Tiwanaku: portrait of an Andean civilization.
1699:, edited by R. Varón and J. Flores, pp. 153–186.
1539:Williams, P. R., N. C. Couture and D. Blom, 2007
1528:Subsurface Imaging in Tiwanaku’s Monumental Core.
1162:Andean Archaeology II: Art, landscape and society
1543:In J. Wiseman and F. El-Baz, eds., pp. 423–441.
464:Unfinished (upside down) block of andesite with
2324:11th-century disestablishments in South America
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2098:
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2063:"Drugs Found in Hair of Ancient Andean Mummies"
279:, Puma Punku's name means "Gate of the Puma".
2266:"Skeptoid #202: The Non-Mystery of Puma Punku"
1717:sfn error: no target: CITEREFProtzenNair1993 (
1624:Memory landscapes of the Inka carved outcrops.
1558:"The secrets of Tiwanaku, revealed by a drone"
1372:. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
536:Demonstration of the building block technique
8:
19:
2319:6th-century establishments in South America
2036:
1873:
1861:
1849:
1837:
1810:
1785:
1773:
1761:
1731:
1712:
1662:
1635:
1610:
1585:
1514:
1487:
1170:Protzen, Jean-Pierre; Nair, Stella (2013).
713:Wall of the six monoliths at Ollantaytambo.
2052:National Geographic. Vol. 201, Iss. 6: 106
1526:Ernenweini, E. G., and M. L. Konns, 2007,
1245:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
25:
18:
1801:Springer, New York, NY, 2013, p. 71.
1342:
1472:
1300:Advances in Titicaca Basin Archaeology-2
456:An example of high-precision small holes
2191:
2164:
2139:
1919:Im Jahre 1877 umgeworfen und zerbrochen
1825:
1499:
1451:
1432:
1358:
974:
637:
2023:Nicholas Tripcevich, Kevin J. Vaughn:
1797:Kevin J. Vaughn, Nicholas Tripcevich:
1407:
1238:
1227:(in German). Breslau. pp. 25–28.
2257:– Archaeological Institute of America
2069:Oct. 22, 2008. Accessed Nov. 4, 2011.
1260:(Thesis). University of Pennsylvania.
481:skin ropes, and the use of ramps and
7:
1923:knocked over and broken in year 1877
1052:Detail of one of the andesite blocks
1012:Fragment of one gateway at Pumapunku
931:at the Chiripa site (550 BC–AD 100).
705:Possible connection to Ollantaytambo
2085:Wiley-Blackwell, New York. 256 pp.
1949:New Materialisms Ancient Urbanisms.
1626:Lexington Books (2015), p. 41.
898:was developed, including a complex
856:Cultural and spiritual significance
619:(e. g. at the temple of Khnum) and
1934:Anna Guengerich, John W. Janusek:
1898:Anna Guengerich, John W. Janusek:
719:University of California, Berkeley
587:Notable features at Pumapunku are
16:Terraced platform mound in Bolivia
14:
1967:. Denver, CO: Denver Art Museum.
1964:. Tiwanaku: Ancestors of the Inca
1650:. Tiwanaku: Ancestors of the Inca
2179:Tiwanaku: Ancestors of the Inca.
2129:. Denver, CO: Denver Art Museum.
2125:Young-Sánchez, Margaret (2004).
2011:Tiwanaku: Ancestors of the Inca.
1961:Young-Sanchez, Margaret (2004).
1947:Susan Alt, Timothy R. Pauketat:
1652:. Denver, CO: Denver Art Museum.
1648:Young-Sánchez, Margaret (2004).
1079:Palaces of the Ancient New World
1057:
1045:
1029:
1017:
1005:
993:
977:
688:
676:
664:
652:
640:
567:
556:
2289:Archaeological sites in Bolivia
2204:Rossi, Franco D. (2019-07-03).
2127:Tiwanaku: Ancestors of the Inca
1205:Sanginés, Carlos Ponce (1970).
918:Atlantis and aliens enthusiasts
245:Site near Tiwanacu, in western
2299:Indigenous topics of the Andes
1938:Ă‘awpa Pacha, 2020, p. 18.
1701:Instituto de Estudios Peruanos
1545:Remote Sensing in Archaeology.
1024:Ornamental stones at Pumapunku
31:View at the ruins of Pumapunku
1:
2222:10.1080/14655187.2021.1920795
1951:Routledge, 2019, p. 119.
1902:Ă‘awpa Pacha, 2020, p. 4.
1697:Homenaje a MarĂa Rostworowski
1165:. Springer. pp. 189–223.
349:complexes was surveyed using
48:3,850 m (12,631 ft)
1369:Encyclopedia of Anthropology
1271:Journal of Field Archaeology
168:Pumapunku Style architecture
1749:Breslau (1892), p. 37.
2345:
2304:Pre-Columbian architecture
1743:Alfons StĂĽbel, Max Uhle:
1283:10.1179/009346906791071990
940:archeology and especially
741:Heinrich Ubbelohde-Doering
2067:National Geographic News,
2048:Morell, Virginia (2002).
1344:10.1186/s40494-018-0231-0
210:Stone blocks at Pumapunku
24:
2176:Margaret Young-Sánchez:
2050:Empires Across the Andes
2008:Margaret Young-Sánchez:
1680:Deutsches Bergbau-Museum
1622:Jessica Joyce Christie:
1325:Vranich, Alexei (2018).
1265:Vranich, Alexei (2006).
1254:Vranich, Alexei (1999).
965:Johns Hopkins University
935:Pumapunku is subject of
351:ground-penetrating radar
137:(first European visitor)
2037:Protzen & Nair 2013
1874:Protzen & Nair 2002
1862:Protzen & Nair 2002
1850:Protzen & Nair 2002
1838:Protzen & Nair 2002
1811:Protzen & Nair 2002
1786:Protzen & Nair 2013
1774:Protzen & Nair 2013
1762:Protzen & Nair 2013
1732:Protzen & Nair 2013
1713:Protzen & Nair 1993
1663:Protzen & Nair 2013
1636:Protzen & Nair 2013
1611:Protzen & Nair 2013
1586:Protzen & Nair 1997
1515:Protzen & Nair 2000
1488:Protzen & Nair 2013
1366:Birx, H. James (2006).
363:magnetic susceptibility
359:electrical conductivity
2104:Janusek, J.W. (2008).
1691:Lechtman, H.N., 1997,
1036:Ornamental stone with
932:
850:
836:
809:
783:
736:
714:
537:
514:
469:
457:
428:
211:
1601:. Dec 11, 1990: d.01.
1378:10.4135/9781412952453
1233:10.11588/diglit.21775
963:, Franco D. Rossi of
925:
845:
834:
807:
791:Doubly curved lintels
780:
755:Gateways of Pumapunku
731:
712:
535:
504:
463:
455:
426:
383:Binghamton University
209:
192:16.56169°S 68.67993°W
142:Excavation dates
37:Alternative name
2081:Kolata, A.L. (1993)
1885:John Wayne Janusek:
813:sculptures known as
491:descriptive geometry
440:. Based on detailed
197:-16.56169; -68.67993
165:Architectural styles
88:at least 14 hectares
2182:(2004), p. 75.
2014:(2004), p. 37.
1676:Metallurgica Andina
1638:, pp. 154–174.
1599:The Washington Post
1547:Springer, New York.
1180:10.2307/j.ctvdmwwsq
782:architectural form.
760:Full-sized gateways
188: /
135:Pedro Cieza de LeĂłn
21:
2264:(April 20, 2010).
2210:Public Archaeology
1840:, p. 210-213.
1682:, Bochum, Germany.
960:Public Archaeology
933:
837:
810:
784:
773:Miniature gateways
767:Gateway of the Sun
715:
538:
470:
458:
429:
266:Gateway of the Sun
212:
2114:978-0-521-01662-9
2106:Ancient Tiwanaku,
2091:978-1-55786-183-2
2061:Choi, Charles Q.
1887:Ancient Tiwanaku.
929:Christine Hastorf
900:irrigation system
434:Plataforma LĂtica
320:Plataforma LĂtica
172:
171:
2336:
2329:Tiwanaku culture
2309:Ruins in Bolivia
2275:
2242:
2241:
2201:
2195:
2189:
2183:
2174:
2168:
2162:
2156:
2149:
2143:
2137:
2131:
2130:
2122:
2116:
2102:
2093:
2079:
2070:
2059:
2053:
2046:
2040:
2034:
2028:
2021:
2015:
2006:
2000:
1993:
1987:
1986:
1958:
1952:
1945:
1939:
1932:
1926:
1909:
1903:
1896:
1890:
1883:
1877:
1871:
1865:
1859:
1853:
1847:
1841:
1835:
1829:
1823:
1814:
1808:
1802:
1795:
1789:
1783:
1777:
1771:
1765:
1759:
1750:
1741:
1735:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1710:
1704:
1689:
1683:
1672:
1666:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1645:
1639:
1633:
1627:
1620:
1614:
1608:
1602:
1595:
1589:
1583:
1562:
1561:
1554:
1548:
1537:
1531:
1524:
1518:
1512:
1503:
1497:
1491:
1485:
1476:
1470:
1455:
1449:
1436:
1430:
1411:
1405:
1392:
1391:
1363:
1348:
1346:
1331:Heritage Science
1321:
1294:
1261:
1250:
1244:
1236:
1210:
1201:
1166:
1155:
1126:
1097:
1092:. Archived from
1061:
1049:
1039:
1033:
1021:
1009:
997:
981:
889:Peak and decline
692:
680:
668:
656:
644:
602:
594:
590:
571:
560:
389:was obtained by
387:radiocarbon date
324:specific gravity
203:
202:
200:
199:
198:
193:
189:
186:
185:
184:
181:
29:
22:
2344:
2343:
2339:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2334:
2333:
2279:
2278:
2260:
2251:
2246:
2245:
2203:
2202:
2198:
2190:
2186:
2175:
2171:
2163:
2159:
2150:
2146:
2138:
2134:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2103:
2096:
2080:
2073:
2060:
2056:
2047:
2043:
2035:
2031:
2022:
2018:
2007:
2003:
1994:
1990:
1975:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1946:
1942:
1933:
1929:
1910:
1906:
1897:
1893:
1884:
1880:
1872:
1868:
1860:
1856:
1848:
1844:
1836:
1832:
1824:
1817:
1809:
1805:
1796:
1792:
1784:
1780:
1772:
1768:
1760:
1753:
1742:
1738:
1730:
1726:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1690:
1686:
1673:
1669:
1661:
1657:
1647:
1646:
1642:
1634:
1630:
1621:
1617:
1609:
1605:
1596:
1592:
1584:
1565:
1556:
1555:
1551:
1538:
1534:
1525:
1521:
1513:
1506:
1498:
1494:
1486:
1479:
1471:
1458:
1450:
1439:
1431:
1414:
1406:
1395:
1388:
1365:
1364:
1360:
1355:
1324:
1310:
1297:
1264:
1253:
1237:
1215:StĂĽbel, Alphons
1213:
1204:
1190:
1169:
1158:
1129:
1100:
1090:
1075:
1072:
1065:
1062:
1053:
1050:
1041:
1037:
1034:
1025:
1022:
1013:
1010:
1001:
998:
989:
982:
973:
920:
912:mountain ranges
891:
858:
829:
820:Gate of the Sun
802:
793:
775:
762:
757:
707:
700:
693:
684:
681:
672:
669:
660:
657:
648:
645:
600:
592:
588:
585:
584:
583:
582:
574:
573:
572:
563:
562:
561:
550:
542:retaining walls
530:
500:mass production
483:inclined planes
421:
379:
312:
300:
196:
194:
190:
187:
182:
179:
177:
175:
174:
119:Tiwanaku empire
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2342:
2340:
2332:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2316:
2311:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2281:
2280:
2277:
2276:
2262:Dunning, Brian
2258:
2250:
2249:External links
2247:
2244:
2243:
2216:(3): 162–183.
2196:
2194:, p. 133.
2184:
2169:
2157:
2144:
2132:
2117:
2094:
2071:
2054:
2041:
2039:, p. 198.
2029:
2016:
2001:
1988:
1973:
1953:
1940:
1927:
1904:
1891:
1878:
1876:, p. 205.
1866:
1864:, p. 212.
1854:
1852:, p. 213.
1842:
1830:
1815:
1813:, p. 210.
1803:
1790:
1778:
1776:, p. 192.
1766:
1764:, p. 258.
1751:
1736:
1734:, p. 193.
1724:
1715:, p. 259.
1705:
1684:
1667:
1655:
1640:
1628:
1615:
1613:, p. 154.
1603:
1590:
1563:
1549:
1532:
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1504:
1492:
1490:, p. 151.
1477:
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1356:
1354:
1351:
1350:
1349:
1322:
1318:j.ctvdjrqk5.17
1308:
1295:
1277:(2): 121–136.
1262:
1251:
1211:
1202:
1188:
1167:
1156:
1144:10.2307/991648
1138:(3): 358–371.
1127:
1115:10.2307/991281
1109:(2): 146–167.
1098:
1096:on 2013-01-07.
1088:
1071:
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942:ancient aliens
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896:infrastructure
890:
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879:hallucinogenic
857:
854:
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745:Alphons StĂĽbel
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493:. Much of the
436:, and are red
420:
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413:Middle Horizon
391:Alexei Vranich
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235:platform mound
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2197:
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2188:
2185:
2181:
2180:
2173:
2170:
2167:, p. 15.
2166:
2161:
2158:
2154:
2151:Jeb J. Card:
2148:
2145:
2142:, p. 18.
2141:
2136:
2133:
2128:
2121:
2118:
2115:
2111:
2107:
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1995:Alan Kolata:
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1974:9780803249219
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1794:
1791:
1788:, p. 12.
1787:
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1688:
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1665:, p. 59.
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1473:Sanginés 1970
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723:Ollantaytambo
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623:(e.g. at the
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613:Ollantaytambo
610:
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64:Tiwanaku Site
63:
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55:
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47:
43:
39:
35:
28:
23:
2269:
2213:
2209:
2199:
2192:Vranich 2006
2187:
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2165:Vranich 2018
2160:
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2147:
2140:Vranich 2018
2135:
2126:
2120:
2105:
2082:
2066:
2057:
2049:
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2019:
2010:
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1996:
1991:
1963:
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1828:, p. 6.
1826:Vranich 2018
1806:
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1502:, p. 5.
1500:Vranich 2018
1495:
1452:Vranich 2006
1433:Vranich 1999
1368:
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1135:
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1094:the original
1078:
1070:Bibliography
959:
934:
908:
892:
859:
851:
846:
838:
811:
794:
785:
769:were found.
763:
737:
732:
716:
632:
628:
586:
539:
528:Architecture
523:
519:
515:
509:Inca masonry
505:
487:
471:
442:petrographic
433:
430:
380:
371:
355:magnetometry
344:
336:
319:
317:
313:
304:Bernabé Cobo
301:
288:
281:
270:
268:were found.
258:
251:
239:sunken court
218:
214:
213:
173:
160:Architecture
80:167.4 metres
72:116.7 metres
61:Part of
1408:Isbell 2004
1198:j.ctvdmwwsq
841:Totora-reed
815:Chachapumas
625:Erechtheion
512:discovered.
474:labor force
466:blind holes
419:Engineering
409:Pleistocene
326:of the red
310:Description
195: /
2283:Categories
1353:References
862:Kalasasaya
800:Sculptures
609:Qorikancha
367:revetments
357:, induced
347:Kalasasaya
219:Puma Punku
183:68°40′48″W
180:16°33′42″S
130:Discovered
125:Site notes
40:Puma Punku
2238:237124510
2230:1465-5187
1291:161279421
1241:cite book
1219:Uhle, Max
946:Altiplano
438:sandstone
404:sandstone
328:sandstone
284:esplanade
233:terraced
215:Pumapunku
152:Condition
20:Pumapunku
2271:Skeptoid
1983:55679655
1337:: 1–20.
1221:(1892).
875:Illimani
870:Kerikala
749:Max Uhle
400:andesite
339:andesite
262:andesite
243:Tiwanaku
231:man-made
133:1549 by
115:Cultures
98:Material
45:Altitude
1703:, Lima.
971:Gallery
955:Chiripa
883:mummies
699:(right)
597:Akapana
581:(below)
495:masonry
298:History
292:looting
254:Akapana
247:Bolivia
237:with a
227:Quechua
110:536–600
107:Founded
93:History
2236:
2228:
2112:
2089:
1981:
1971:
1384:
1316:
1306:
1289:
1196:
1186:
1152:991648
1150:
1123:991281
1121:
1086:
986:Pukara
951:Pukara
904:quinoa
868:, and
866:Putuni
848:straw.
697:Delphi
579:Delphi
361:, and
332:tonnes
277:Aymara
223:Aymara
155:Ruined
102:floor)
69:Length
2234:S2CID
1314:JSTOR
1287:S2CID
1194:JSTOR
1148:JSTOR
1119:JSTOR
827:Roofs
727:Incas
635:").
479:llama
77:Width
2226:ISSN
2110:ISBN
2087:ISBN
1979:OCLC
1969:ISBN
1719:help
1382:ISBN
1304:ISBN
1247:link
1184:ISBN
1084:ISBN
953:and
765:the
747:and
611:and
402:and
396:B.P.
385:, a
273:Inca
225:and
85:Area
53:Type
2218:doi
1695:in
1374:doi
1339:doi
1279:doi
1229:doi
1176:doi
1140:doi
1111:doi
377:Age
217:or
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