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369:. Beginning in the 1970s, Carlos Ponce Sanginés proposed the site was first occupied around 1580 BC, the site's oldest radiocarbon date. This date is still seen in some publications and museums in Bolivia. Since the 1980s, researchers have recognized this date as unreliable, leading to the consensus that the site is no older than 200 or 300 BC. More recently, a statistical assessment of reliable radiocarbon dates estimates that the site was founded around AD 110 (50–170, 68% probability), a date supported by the lack of ceramic styles from earlier periods.
393:. The Wari and Tiwanaku civilizations shared the same iconography, referred to as the "Southern Andean Iconographic Series". The relationship between the two civilizations is presumed to be trade based or military based. The Wari aren't the only other civilization that Tiwanaku could have had contact with. Inca cities also contained similar types of architecture Infrastructure seen in Tiwanaku. From this it can be expected that the Inca took some inspiration from the city of Tiwanaku and other early civilizations in the Andean basin.
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637:, who are thought to be descendants of the Tiwanaku, have a complex belief system similar to the cosmology of several other Andean civilizations. They believe in the existence of three spaces: Arajpacha, the upper world; Akapacha, the middle or inner world; and Manqhaoacha, the lower world. Often associated with the cosmos and Milky Way, the upper world is considered to be where celestial beings live. The middle world is where all living things are, and the lower world is where life itself is inverted.
888:. The controversy was over allowing a team of untrained students to work on the site, even under professional supervision. It was so important that only certified professional archaeologists with documented funding were allowed access. The controversy was charged with nationalistic and political undertones. The Harvard field school lasted for three years, beginning in 2004 and ending in 2007. The project was not renewed in subsequent years, nor was permission sought to do so.
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significant landmarks in
Tiwanaku are the mountains and Lake Titicaca. The lake level of Lake Titicaca has fluctuated significantly over time. The spiritual importance and location of the lake contributed to the religious significance of Tiwanaku. In the Tiwanaku worldview, Lake Titicaca is the spiritual birthplace of their cosmic beliefs. According to Incan mythology, Lake Titicaca is the birthplace of
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redistribution. That is, the elites of the state controlled essentially all economic output but were expected to provide each commoner with all the resources needed to perform his or her function. Selected occupations include agriculturists, herders, pastoralists, etc. Such separation of occupations was accompanied by hierarchical stratification within the state.
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809:. Ephraim Squier called it "American Stonehenge". Before the reconstruction, it had more of a "Stonehenge"-like appearance as the filler stones between the large stone pillars were all looted. As noted, the Gateway of the Sun, now in the Kalasasaya, is believed to have been moved from its original location.
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to create an aerial picture of the site. Lidar, aerial photography, drones, and terrestrial laser scanning were all used in this process. Data concluded from this research includes topographical maps that show the principal structures at the site along with mapping of multiple structures in the Mollo
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When a topographical map of the site was created in 2016 by the use of a drone, a "set of hitherto unknown structures" was revealed. These structures spanned over 411 hectares, and included a stone temple and about one hundred circular or rectangular structures of vast dimensions, which were possibly
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was used in several pre-Columbian civilizations to appease a god in exchange for good fortune. Excavations of the
Akapana at Tiwanaku revealed the remains of sacrificial dedications of humans and camelids. Researchers speculate that the Akapana may also have been used as an astronomical observatory.
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Some authors believe that the elites of
Tiwanaku lived inside four walls that were surrounded by a moat. This theory is called "Tiwanaku moat theory". This moat, some believe, was to create the image of a sacred island. Inside the walls were many images devoted to human origin, which only the elites
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excavation that extends from the center of this structure to its eastern side. Material from the looter's excavation was dumped off the eastern side of the
Akapana. A staircase is present on its western side. Possible residential complexes might have occupied both the northeast and southeast corners
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In the 1960s, the
Bolivian government initiated an effort to restore the site and reconstruct part of it. The walls of the Kalasasaya are almost all reconstructed. The reconstruction was not sufficiently based on evidence. The reconstruction does not have as high quality of stonework as was present
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As the site has suffered from looting and amateur excavations since shortly after
Tiwanaku's fall, archeologists must attempt to interpret it with the understanding that materials have been jumbled and destroyed. This destruction continued during the Spanish conquest and colonial period, and during
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As the population grew, occupational niches developed, and people began to specialize in certain skills. There was an increase in artisans, who worked in pottery, jewelry, and textiles. Like the later Inca, the
Tiwanaku had few commercial or market institutions. Instead, the culture relied on elite
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Tiwanaku began its steady growth in the early centuries of the first millennium AD. From approximately 375 to 700 AD, this Andean city grew to significance. At its height, the city of
Tiwanaku spanned an area of roughly 4 square kilometers (1.5 square miles) and had a population greater than 10,000
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which is a standard measurement of about sixty centimeters. Another argument is for the
Pythagorean Ratio. This idea calls for right triangles at a ratio of five to four to three used in the gateways to measure all parts. Lastly, Protzen and Nair argue that Tiwanaku had a system set for individual
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Near the courtyard is the Semi-Subterranean Temple; a square sunken courtyard that is unique for its north-south rather than east-west axis. The walls are covered with tenon heads of many different styles, suggesting that the structure was reused for different purposes over time. It was built with
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The
Kalasasaya is a large courtyard more than 300 feet long, outlined by a high gateway. It is located to the north of the Akapana and west of the Semi-Subterranean Temple. Within the courtyard is where explorers found the Gateway of the Sun. Since the late 20th century, researchers have theorized
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spent nine days in Tiwanaku in 1876, creating a map of the site based on careful measurements. He also made sketches and created paper impressions of carvings and other architectural features. A book containing major photographic documentation was published in 1892 by engineer Georg von Grumbkow,
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are positioned to provide optimal views of the sunrise on the Equinox, Summer Solstice, and Winter Solstice. Although the symbolic and functional value of these monuments can only be speculated upon, the Tiwanaku were able to study and interpret the positions of the sun, moon, Milky Way and other
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The Akapana East was built on the eastern side of early Tiwanaku. Later it was considered a boundary between the ceremonial center and the urban area. It was made of a thick, prepared floor of sand and clay, which supported a group of buildings. Yellow and red clay was used in different areas for
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No standing buildings have survived at the modern site. Only public, non-domestic foundations remain, with poorly reconstructed walls. The ashlar blocks used in many of these structures were mass-produced in similar styles so that they could possibly be used for multiple purposes. Throughout the
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legends place Tiwanaku at the center of the universe, probably because of the importance of its geographical location. The Tiwanaku were highly aware of their natural surroundings and would use them and their understanding of astronomy as reference points in their architectural plans. The most
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Valley in Peru. Excavations at Omo settlements show signs of similar architecture characteristic of Tiwanaku, such as a temple and terraced mound. Evidence of similar types of cranial vault modification in burials between the Omo site and the main site of Tiwanaku is also being used for this
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The Pumapunku is a man-made platform built on an east-west axis like the Akapana. It is a T-shaped, terraced earthen platform mound faced with megalithic blocks. It is 167.36 m wide along its north-south axis and 116.7 m broad along its east-west axis and is 5 m tall. Identical 20-meter-wide
318:, and it is one of the largest sites in South America. Surface remains currently cover around 4 square kilometers and include decorated ceramics, monumental structures, and megalithic blocks. It has been conservatively estimated that the site was inhabited by 10,000 to 20,000 people in
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at the top, which - as is often the case with real spear throwers - has the shape of a bird („Der Stab in der rechten Hand der Figur bezeichnet durch den am oberen Ende sitzenden Haken, der — wie so oft bei wirklichen Speerschleudern — die Gestalt eines Vogels hat, deutlich die
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elements dependent on context and composition. This is shown in the construction of similar gateways ranging from diminutive to monumental size, proving that scaling factors did not affect proportion. With each added element, the individual pieces were shifted to fit together.
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Recently, the Department of Archaeology of Bolivia (DINAR, directed by Javier Escalante) has been conducting excavations on the terraced platform mound Akapana. The Proyecto Arqueologico Pumapunku-Akapana (Pumapunku-Akapana Archaeological Project, PAPA) run by the
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The unique carvings on the top of the Gate of the sun depict animals and other beings. Some have claimed that the symbolism represents a calendar system unique to the people of Tiwanaku, although there is no definitive evidence that this theory is correct.
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Scattered around the site of the Puma Punku are various types of cut stones. Due to the complexity of the stonework the site is often cited by conspiracy theorists to be a site of ancient alien intervention. These claims are entirely unsubstantiated.
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and snuff. Some speculate that this is a representation of Viracocha. However, it is also possible that this figure represents a deity that the Aymara refer to as “Tunuupa” who, like Viracocha, is associated with legends of creation and destruction.
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meaning "stone in the center", alluding to the belief that it lay at the center of the world. The name by which Tiwanaku was known to its inhabitants may have been lost as they had no written language. Heggarty and Beresford-Jones suggest that the
470:" and contains the largest stone block found in the Tiwanaku site. According to Ponce Sangines, the block is estimated to weigh 131 metric tonnes. The second-largest stone block found within the Pumapunku is estimated to be 85 metric tonnes.
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which gives great descriptions of the architecture and stonework seen at Tiwanaku. His work has played a huge role in creating potential reconstructions of what many of the structures look like, especially the puma punku.
529:, which typically have sockets for clamps to support later additions. These architectural examples, as well as the Akapana Gate, have unique detail and demonstrate high skill in stone-cutting. This reveals a knowledge of
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have shown evidence of a greater amount of aridity in the region around the time of collapse. A drought in the region would have affected local systems of agriculture and likely played a role in the collapse of Tiwanaku.
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Within many of the site's structures are impressive gateways; the ones of monumental scale are placed on artificial mounds, platforms, or sunken courts. One gateway shows the iconography of a front-facing figure in
589:. At such temples in ancient times, ceremonies were conducted to honor and pay gratitude to the gods and spirits. They were places of worship and rituals that helped unify Andean peoples through shared symbols and
447:, faced with a mixture of large and small stone blocks. The dirt comprising Akapana appears to have been excavated from the "moat" that surrounds the site. The largest stone block within the Akapana, made of
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projections extend 27.6 meters north and south from the northeast and southeast corners of the Pumapunku. Walled and unwalled courts and an esplanade are associated with this structure.
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19th century and the early 20th century. Other damage was committed by people quarrying stone for building and railroad construction, and target practice by military personnel.
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Kuntu area. Over 300 million data points were placed from these methods and have helped redefine main structures that have not fully been excavated such as the Puma Punku.
872:'s Summer School Program, conducted in the residential area outside the monumental core, has provoked controversy amongst local archaeologists. The program was directed by
435:"-shaped structure that is 257 m wide, 197 m broad at its maximum, and 16.5 m tall. At its center appears to have been a sunken court. This was nearly destroyed by a deep
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conducted research at Tiwanaku in the late 1900s from which he made descriptions of the City and its structure and culture in his book The Tiwanaku. He later published
709:. Ber’s expedition was cut short by the violent hostility of the local population, instigated by the Catholic parish priest, but von Grumbkow’s early pictures survive.
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Von Grumbkow had first visited Tiwanaku between the end of 1876 and the beginning of 1877, when he accompanied as a photographer the expedition of French adventurer
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In many Andean cultures, mountains are venerated and may be considered sacred objects. The site of Tiwanaku is located in the valley between two sacred mountains,
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Originally, the Akapana was thought to have been developed from a modified hill. Twenty-first-century studies have shown that it is an entirely man-made earthen
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The site appeared to have collapsed around 1000 AD, however the reasoning behind this is still open to debate. Recent studies by geologist Elliott Arnold of the
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A prominent feature of the Pumapunku is a large stone terrace; it is 6.75 by 38.72 meters in dimension and paved with large stone blocks. It is called the "
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pose. This iconography also is used on some oversized vessels, indicating an importance to the culture. The iconography of the Gateway of the Sun called
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burners and a ceremonial medallion from the lake floor. The artifacts are representative of the lavishness of the ceremonies and the Tiwanaku culture.
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walls of sandstone pillars and smaller blocks of Ashlar masonry. The largest stone block in the Kalasasaya is estimated to weigh 26.95 metric tons.
2302:, Paul S. Goldstein, and Ann D. Webster, "Artificial Cranial Deformation at the Omo M10 Site: A Tiwanaku Complex from the Moquegua Valley, Peru",
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The Bennett Monolith was found in the centre of the Semi-Subterranean Temple by American archeologist Wendell Clark Bennett. It is the largest
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Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland: Archaeological and Paleoecological Investigations of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 2: Urban and Rural Archaeology
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621:, who was responsible for creating the sun, moon, people, and the cosmos. In the Kalasasaya at Tiwanaku, carved atop a monolith known as the
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823:, accurate dating of the civilization's growth and influence, and evidence for a drought-based collapse of the Tiwanaku civilization.
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The Gateway of the Sun and others located at Pumapunku are not complete. They are missing part of a typical recessed frame known as a
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1956:
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Janusek, John (2003). "Vessels, Time, and Society: Toward a Ceramic Chronology in the Tiwanaku Heartland". In Kolata, Alan (ed.).
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spent time in the late 1900s as well at the site of Tiwanaku recording findings of the excavations going on. In 2008 he published
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Die Ruinenstätte von Tiahuanaco im Hochlande des alten Perú: Eine kulturgeschichtliche Studie auf Grund selbständiger Aufnahmen.
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would see. Commoners may have entered this structure only for ceremonial purposes since it was home to the holiest of shrines.
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what seems like aesthetic purposes. It was swept clean of all domestic refuse, signaling its great importance to the culture.
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Colloquium Verlag, 1959, p. 62: The staff in the figure's right hand clearly indicates the spear-thrower due to the
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861:, has been excavating in the area surrounding the terraced platform mound for the past few years, and also conducting
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Kojan, David; Angelo, Dante (2005), "Dominant narratives, social violence and the practice of Bolivian archaeology",
2407:——— (1992), "Tiwanaku: Ensayo sobre su cosmovisión" [Tiwanaku: essay on its cosmovision],
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Tiwanaku became a center of pre-Columbian religious ceremonies for both the general public and elites. For example,
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Many theories for the skill of Tiwanaku's architectural construction have been proposed. One is that they used a
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Kolata, Alan L (June 1991), "The Technology and Organization of Agricultural Production in the Tiwanaku State",
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Alan Kolata and his Bolivian counterpart, Oswaldo Rivera. Among their contributions are the rediscovery of the
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Goldstein, Paul, "Tiwanaku Temples and State Expansion: A Tiwanaku Sunken-Court Temple in Moduegua, Peru",
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exploring Lake Titicaca's Khoa reef discovered an ancient ceremonial site and lifted artifacts such as a
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Artificial Cranial Deformation at the Omo M10 Site: A Tiwanaku Complex from the Moquegua Valley, Peru
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697:, against Ber’s promise of donating the artifacts he will find, on behalf of Meiggs, to Washington's
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visited the ruins and later published maps and sketches completed during his visit. German geologist
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individuals. The growth of the city was due to its complex agropastoral economy, supported by trade.
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Modern, academically sound archaeological excavations were performed from 1978 through the 1990s by
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2383:——— (1990), "Tiahuanaco, Sacred Center of the Andes", in McFarren, Peter (ed.),
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Kolata, Alan L., "The Agricultural Foundations of the Tiwanaku State: A View from the Heartland",
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Vol. 75. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, University of California, Los Angeles 2013, p. 46.
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which described his findings on the architecture, agriculture and other aspects of Tiwanaku life.
605:, providing a view of the rotation of the Milky Way from the southern pole. Other structures like
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1977:
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maintained that the site was 11,000–17,000 years old based on comparisons to geological eras and
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1849:. New York: Copernicus Books/Springer Science + Business Media, in association with Praxis Pub.
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period of the site, certain buildings changed purposes, causing a mix of artifacts found today.
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The dating of the site has been significantly refined over the last century. From 1910 to 1945,
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Detailed study of Tiwanaku began on a small scale in the mid-nineteenth century. In the 1860s,
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Interpreting the Meaning of Ritual Spaces: The Temple Complex of Pumapunku, Tiwanaku, Bolivia
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428:, the Kantatallita, the Kheri Kala, and Putuni enclosures, and the Semi-Subterranean Temple.
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1696:"Religious Practices in the Andes and their Relevance to Political Struggle and Development"
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Heggarty, P.; Beresford-Jones, D. (2013). "Andes: linguistic history". In Ness, I. (ed.).
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A Taste of Tiwanaku: Daily Life in an Ancient Andean Urban Center as Seen through Cuisine
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2372:, Vol. 59, No. 3 (September 2000), pp. 358–71, Society of Architectural Historians.
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and spent much of his life studying the architecture of Tiwanaku. In 2013, he published
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The structures that have been excavated by researchers at Tiwanaku include the terraced
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Reinhard, Johan, "Chavin and Tiahuanaco: A New Look at Two Andean Ceremonial Centers."
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ever found in the Andean world (7,3 m tall); his body is covered with mythical figures.
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Tiwanaku Temples and State Expansion: A Tiwanaku Sunken-Court Temple in Moquegua, Peru
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Protzen, Jean-Pierre and Stella E. Nair, "On Reconstructing Tiwanaku Architecture",
2328:, Vol. 51, No. 4 (October 1986), pp. 748–762, Society for American Archaeology.
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celestial bodies well enough to give them a significant role in their architecture.
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1052:"A Bayesian Re-Assessment of the Earliest Radiocarbon Dates from Tiwanaku, Bolivia"
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which described more aspects of Tiwanaku culture such as astrology and mythology.
455:. Tenon stone blocks in the form of puma and human heads stud the upper terraces.
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Protzen, J.-P., and S. E. Nair, 2000, "On Reconstructing Tiwanaku Architecture":
1998:
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Between 2005 and 2007 various types of aerial surveillance methods were used by
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533:. The regularity of elements suggests they are part of a system of proportions.
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2306:, Vol. 6, No. 2 (June, 1995) pp. 145–64, Society for American Archaeology.
2295:, Vol. 4, No. 1 (March 1993), pp. 22–47, Society for American Archaeology.
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Mysteries and discoveries of archaeoastronomy : from Giza to Easter Island
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Robotic exploration of a newly discovered tunnel inside Akapana, June 13, 2006
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Jesuit chronicler of Peru Bernabé Cobo reported that Tiwanaku's name once was
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Acerca De La Procedencia Del Material Lítico De Los Monumentos De Tiwanaku.
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Tihuanacu cuna del hombre americano (edición bilingüe inglés-castellano)
1999:"Un Communard parmi les américanistes : biographie de Théodore Ber"
1406:
Marsh, Erik (2012). "The Founding of Tiwanaku: Evidence from Kk'araña".
1331:. Vol. I–II. Translated by James F. Sheaver. New York: JJ Augustin.
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Remains of the original Kalasasaya walls show high quality of stonework
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1649:"Sacred Mountains: An Ethno-Archaeological Study of High Andean Ruins"
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Identity and Power in the Ancient Andes: Tiwanaku Cities through Time
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315:
252:
2613:"Archaeological Research on the Tiwanaku polity in Peru and Bolivia"
2174:"Makeover may lose Bolivian pyramid its world heritage site listing"
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1620:, Smith, Michael E. (2004), "The Archaeology of Ancient Economies,"
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2042:
The Stones of Tiahuanaco: A Study of Architecture and Construction.
2003:
Bérose-Encyclopédie internationale des histoires de l'anthropologie
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Browman, David (1980). "Tiwanaku expansion and economic patterns".
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Exploring Ancient Skies: An Encyclopedic Survey of Archaeoastronomy
572:; the belt shows sprouting plants that are often mistaken for crabs
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2503:"Tiwanaku: Spiritual and Political Centre of the Tiwanaku Culture"
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899:. The restoration had consisted of facing the platform mound with
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1489:, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection Washington, D.C.
2192:"Pyramid may lose World Heritage status after renovation fiasco"
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903:, although researchers had not established this as appropriate.
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In former years, an archaeological field school offered through
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Amateur archaeological reconstructed Walls around the Kalasasaya
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511:
213:
Tiwanaku: Spiritual and Political Centre of the Tiwanaku Culture
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2057:. UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, Los Angeles, 2013, p. 4
686:, this was the first in-depth scientific account of the ruins.
2214:"Archaeologists discover 'exceptional' site at Lake Titicaca"
1191:
Frommers 500 Places to See Before They Disappear (500 Places)
805:
in Tiwanaku. Early visitors compared Kalasasaya to Englands
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1595:
Volume 2. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2004
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Archaeologists such as Paul Goldstein have argued that the
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It was constructed so that it was aligned with the peak of
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in 1877. The vertical scale is exaggerated in this drawing.
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The people of Tiwanaku held a tight relationship with the
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10.1659/0276-4741(2006)26[336:RPITAA]2.0.CO;2
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Tihuanacu e islas del Sol y de la Luna (Titicaca y Koati)
1159:
Kelley, David H.; Milone, Eugene F. (November 19, 2004).
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Jean-Pierre Protzen was an architecture professor of the
1928:"Cosmovision of the Aymara people in Chile for trekkers"
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Buildings and structures in La Paz Department (Bolivia)
1609:
The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians,
1541:
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1231:"Profile: Fabricio R. Santos - The Genographic project"
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Spiritual and Political Centre of the Tiwanaku Culture
2370:
The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians
1565:
Browman, D. L., 1981, "New light on Andean Tiwanaku,"
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is most likely to have been the language of Tiwanaku.
2281:, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, c. 1994.
1578:
Coe, Michael, Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson, 1986,
1533:, Doctoral Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
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in S. T. Evans and J. Pillsbury, eds., pp. 191-246.
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1346:. La Paz: Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia.
494:that this was not the gateway's original location.
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2769:Tourist attractions in La Paz Department (Bolivia)
1800:"Monumental Perceptions of the Tiwanaku Landscape"
1481:Palaces and Politics in the Andean Middle Horizon.
830:ranged outside of the altiplano area and into the
1745:"Making Place: Humans as Dedications in Tiwanaku"
333:while searching for the southern Inca capital of
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1559:
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1380:. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian. pp. 30–89.
1132:The Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization
2340:(2), Society for American Archaeology: 99–125,
1910:Wesen und Ordnung der altperuanischen Kulturen.
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1501:
1499:
1497:
1495:
2246:"The secrets of Tiwanaku, revealed by a drone"
1743:Blom, Deborah E.; Janusek, John Wayne (2004).
1523:
1521:
1475:
1473:
1471:
1395:. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
713:Pictures of archaeological excavations in 1903
2640:
1507:Ponce Sanginés, C. and G. M. Terrazas, 1970,
1269:. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 401–409.
1013:List of World Heritage Sites in South America
292:
8:
1447:. Canada: St. Remy Press. pp. 158–160.
1045:
1043:
891:In 2009 state-sponsored restoration work on
766:layer, later shown to be entirely artificial
37:
2549:, Archaeological Institute of America, 2004
853:, administered by the Bolivian government.
2647:
2633:
2625:
2397:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2121:, Harvard University, 2005, archived from
2027:Hiersemann, Leipzig 1892, Part II, p. 46 (
1982:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1312:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
1267:The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration
43:
36:
2588:"Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) Site Bibliography"
1811:
1806:. University Press of Colorado: 181–212.
1711:
1075:
510:can be seen on several stone sculptures,
2567:Center for Advanced Spatial Technologies
2486:, Agua en Bolivia, CGIAB, archived from
2053:Alexei Vranich, Charles Stanish (eds.):
1513:Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia
1122:
1120:
1118:
846:Today Tiwanaku has been designated as a
400:
1039:
784:Contemporary excavation and restoration
762:Akapana (1903); first thought to be an
716:
30:For the contemporary municipality, see
2562:"Geophysics and Geomatics at Tiwanaku"
2390:
2084:"Buenos Negocios, ¿Buena Arqueologia?"
1975:
1889:"Tiwanaku and Lake Titikaka – Bolivia"
1804:Political Landscapes of Capital Cities
1305:
661:Heads in the Semi-Subterranean Temple.
2423:Art of the Andes: from Chavin to Inca
2207:
2205:
1694:Bonilla, Heraclio (1 November 2006).
1329:Tihuanacu, the Cradle of American Man
625:, is a front-facing figure holding a
257:
247:
232:
224:
216:
208:
199:
7:
2526:, Archæology student, archived from
971:University of California at Berkeley
1344:Tiwanaku: Espacio, Tiempo y Cultura
895:was halted due to a complaint from
876:, of Harvard, who was an expert on
693:, financed by American businessman
508:Southern Andean Iconographic Series
409:of Tiwanaku, (Photography of 1903).
2759:Former populated places in Bolivia
2313:Cambridge University Press (2008)
2266:Princeton University Press (1994)
2040:Jean-Pierre Protzen, Stella Nair:
1188:Hughes, Holly (October 20, 2008).
703:American Museum of Natural History
25:
2678:Noel Kempff Mercado National Park
2172:Carroll, Rory (20 October 2009).
1700:Mountain Research and Development
1653:Mountain Research and Development
750:Gate of the Sun, Rear View (1903)
682:With commentary by archaeologist
2744:1st-millennium BC establishments
2721:
1486:Palaces of the Ancient New World
771:
755:
743:
731:
719:
329:in 1549 by Spanish conquistador
71:
70:
63:
2754:World Heritage Sites in Bolivia
2749:Archaeological sites in Bolivia
2596:, Hall of Ma’at, archived from
2509:, World Heritage Centre, UNESCO
2421:Stone-Miller, Rebecca (2002) ,
1637:. New York: Welcome Rain, 1999.
1342:Ponce Sanginés, Carlos (1971).
1275:10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm852
778:Semi-Subterranean Temple (1903)
325:The site was first recorded in
2113:"Program in Tiwanaku, Bolivia"
2089:Crítica Arqueológica Boliviana
518:and other Tiwanaku artifacts.
27:Archaeological site in Bolivia
1:
2618:Arqueologia Andina y Tiwanaku
2425:, London: Thames & Hudson
2385:An Insider's Guide to Bolivia
2139:Journal of Social Archaeology
2094:Bolivian archæological critic
1611:vol. 59, no., 3, pp. 358-371.
1077:10.2458/azu_js_rc.v54i2.15826
451:, is estimated to weigh 65.7
163:
2668:Jesuit Missions of Chiquitos
2471:Resources in other libraries
2431:Vallières, Claudine (2013).
2377:National Geographic Research
1569:vol. 69, no. 4, pp. 408-419.
1441:Andrews, Anthony P. (1995).
2543:"Revealing Ancient Bolivia"
2435:(Ph.D.). McGill University.
1761:10.1080/0043824042000192623
726:Stairs of Kalasasaya (1903)
564:Fraile Monolith, holding a
314:, about 70 kilometers from
2800:
2212:Sample, Ian (2019-04-01).
2067:Hoshower, Lisa M. (1995).
1875:World History Encyclopedia
1813:10.5876/9781607324690.c005
1327:Posnansky, Arthur (1945).
1298:Posnansky, Arthur (1910).
886:University of Pennsylvania
859:University of Pennsylvania
203:UNESCO World Heritage Site
29:
2718:
2663:
2466:Resources in your library
2387:, La Paz, pp. 151–81
2029:digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de
2023:Alfons Stübel, Max Uhle:
1948:The ancient central Andes
1945:Quilter, Jeffrey (2014).
1391:Stanish, Charles (2003).
949:the University of Chicago
272:
268:
58:
42:
2574:: University of Arkansas
2334:Latin American Antiquity
2304:Latin American Antiquity
2293:Latin American Antiquity
2151:10.1177/1469605305057585
1997:Riviale, Pascal (2018).
1798:Vranich, Alexei (2016).
1647:Reinhard, Johan (1985).
1580:Atlas of Ancient America
1546:Goldstein, Paul (1993).
1420:10.1179/naw.2012.32.2.69
1008:List of megalithic sites
975:The Stones of Tiahuanaco
863:Ground Penetrating Radar
378:University of Pittsburgh
699:Smithsonian Institution
431:The Akapana is a "half
424:stepped platforms, the
2523:Daily Life at Tiwanaku
2483:Map of Ingavi Province
2118:Summer School Archives
1845:Magli, Giulio (2009).
1359:Estudios Arqueológicos
1091:Janusek, John (2004).
958:John Wayne Janusek of
843:
801:
793:
738:Gate of the Sun (1903)
662:
654:
573:
541:
490:
485:", Tiwanaku, drawn by
410:
293:
286:
91:Tiahuanaco, Tiahuanacu
2774:Prehistory of Bolivia
2710:, Andean Road System
2279:Ancient South America
2277:Bruhns, Karen Olsen,
2196:Sydney Morning Herald
1479:Isbell, W. H., 2004,
960:Vanderbilt University
953:Valley of The Spirits
908:marine archaeologists
865:surveys of the area.
841:
814:University of Chicago
799:
791:
675:Ephraim George Squier
660:
648:
563:
539:
480:
404:
131:16.55472°S 68.67333°W
100:Tiwanaku Municipality
88:Alternative name
2656:World Heritage Sites
2611:Higueros, A (1999),
2586:Heinrich, P (2008),
2547:Archaeology Magazine
2379:1(3): 395–422, 1985.
2309:Janusek, John Wayne
1511:Publication no. 21.
1050:Marsh, Erik (2012).
531:descriptive geometry
420:, Akapana East, and
136:-16.55472; -68.67333
79:Shown within Bolivia
2673:Fuerte de Samaipata
2507:World Heritage List
2298:Hoshower, Lisa M.,
2288:; Nueva York, 1945.
2198:. October 20, 2009.
2055:Visions of Tiwanaku
1622:Annu. Rev. Anthrop.
1591:Silverman, Helaine
1527:Vranich, A., 1999,
1241:National Geographic
1236:Genographic Project
1068:2012Radcb..54..203M
930:Aerial surveillance
851:World Heritage Site
440:of this structure.
331:Pedro Cieza de León
304:archaeological site
127: /
39:
2326:American Antiquity
2284:Arthur Posnansky;
1951:. Abingdon, Oxon.
1593:Andean Archaeology
1003:Las Ánimas complex
844:
802:
794:
663:
655:
574:
542:
491:
483:Gateway of the Sun
411:
249:Reference no.
2731:
2730:
2490:on April 18, 2009
2447:Library resources
2409:Revista Pumapunku
2319:978-0-521-01662-9
2272:978-0-691-03359-4
2100:log) (in Spanish)
2082:Lémuz, C (2007),
1917:Speerschleuder.“)
1856:978-0-387-76566-2
1749:World Archaeology
1284:978-1-44435-107-1
1209:978-0-470-18986-3
1174:978-0-387-95310-6
1145:978-1-55786-183-2
943:Important authors
540:Gate of the Moon.
468:Plataforma Lítica
276:
275:
244:
16:(Redirected from
2791:
2784:Tiwanaku culture
2779:Archaeoastronomy
2726:
2725:
2713:
2704:
2692:
2691:Historic City of
2684:
2649:
2642:
2635:
2626:
2621:
2607:
2606:
2605:
2582:
2581:
2579:
2570:, Fayetteville,
2557:
2556:
2554:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2436:
2426:
2416:
2402:
2396:
2388:
2364:
2311:Ancient Tiwanaku
2300:Jane E. Buikstra
2250:
2249:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2233:
2232:
2209:
2200:
2199:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2169:
2163:
2161:
2134:
2128:
2126:
2109:
2103:
2101:
2079:
2073:
2072:
2064:
2058:
2051:
2045:
2038:
2032:
2021:
2015:
2014:
2012:
2010:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1981:
1973:
1971:
1970:
1961:. Archived from
1942:
1936:
1935:
1932:Trekkingchile EN
1924:
1918:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1885:
1879:
1878:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1815:
1795:
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1691:
1685:
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1605:
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1576:
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1552:
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1543:
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1505:
1490:
1477:
1466:
1465:
1463:
1461:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1403:
1397:
1396:
1393:Ancient Titicaca
1388:
1382:
1381:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1354:
1348:
1347:
1339:
1333:
1332:
1324:
1318:
1317:
1311:
1303:
1295:
1289:
1288:
1262:
1256:
1255:
1253:
1252:
1243:. Archived from
1227:
1221:
1220:
1218:
1216:
1185:
1179:
1178:
1156:
1150:
1149:
1124:
1113:
1112:
1088:
1082:
1081:
1079:
1047:
988:Arthur Posnansky
964:Ancient Tiwanaku
926:domestic units.
775:
759:
747:
735:
723:
367:archaeoastronomy
363:Arthur Posnansky
351:Puquina language
298:
238:
168:
165:
142:
141:
139:
138:
137:
132:
128:
125:
124:
123:
120:
74:
73:
67:
47:
40:
32:Tiwanaku, La Paz
21:
2799:
2798:
2794:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2734:
2733:
2732:
2727:
2720:
2716:
2711:
2702:
2690:
2682:
2659:
2653:
2610:
2603:
2601:
2585:
2577:
2575:
2560:
2552:
2550:
2541:
2533:
2531:
2530:on May 22, 2010
2520:
2512:
2510:
2501:
2493:
2491:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2455:
2454:
2450:
2443:
2430:
2420:
2406:
2389:
2382:
2331:
2259:
2254:
2253:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2230:
2228:
2211:
2210:
2203:
2190:
2189:
2185:
2171:
2170:
2166:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2111:
2110:
2106:
2081:
2080:
2076:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2052:
2048:
2039:
2035:
2022:
2018:
2008:
2006:
1996:
1995:
1991:
1974:
1968:
1966:
1959:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1904:
1900:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1871:"Lake Titicaca"
1869:
1868:
1864:
1857:
1844:
1843:
1839:
1832:j.ctt1dfnt2b.11
1824:
1797:
1796:
1792:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1693:
1692:
1688:
1665:10.2307/3673292
1646:
1645:
1641:
1632:
1628:
1619:
1615:
1606:
1599:
1590:
1586:
1577:
1573:
1564:
1555:
1545:
1544:
1537:
1526:
1519:
1506:
1493:
1478:
1469:
1459:
1457:
1455:
1440:
1439:
1435:
1405:
1404:
1400:
1390:
1389:
1385:
1375:
1374:
1370:
1356:
1355:
1351:
1341:
1340:
1336:
1326:
1325:
1321:
1304:
1297:
1296:
1292:
1285:
1264:
1263:
1259:
1250:
1248:
1247:on July 5, 2011
1229:
1228:
1224:
1214:
1212:
1210:
1187:
1186:
1182:
1175:
1158:
1157:
1153:
1146:
1136:Wiley-Blackwell
1128:Kolata, Alan L.
1126:
1125:
1116:
1109:
1101:. p. 128.
1090:
1089:
1085:
1049:
1048:
1041:
1036:
1023:Tiwanaku Empire
1018:Qhunqhu Wankani
984:
947:Alan Kolata of
945:
932:
828:Tiwanaku empire
786:
779:
776:
767:
760:
751:
748:
739:
736:
727:
724:
643:
623:Gate of the Sun
598:human sacrifice
579:
407:Gate of the Sun
405:Carving in the
399:
387:
359:
327:written history
205:
178:Tiwanaku empire
166:
135:
133:
129:
126:
121:
118:
116:
114:
113:
83:
82:
81:
80:
77:
76:
75:
54:
51:Gate of the Sun
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2797:
2795:
2787:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2736:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2719:
2717:
2715:
2714:
2705:
2696:
2688:
2680:
2675:
2670:
2664:
2661:
2660:
2654:
2652:
2651:
2644:
2637:
2629:
2623:
2622:
2608:
2583:
2558:
2539:
2518:
2499:
2474:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2457:
2456:
2445:
2444:
2442:
2441:External links
2439:
2438:
2437:
2428:
2418:
2411:(in Spanish),
2404:
2380:
2373:
2366:
2346:10.2307/972273
2329:
2322:
2307:
2296:
2289:
2282:
2275:
2262:Bermann, Marc
2258:
2255:
2252:
2251:
2237:
2201:
2183:
2164:
2145:(3): 383–408,
2129:
2104:
2098:World Wide Web
2074:
2059:
2046:
2033:
2016:
1989:
1957:
1937:
1919:
1898:
1880:
1862:
1855:
1837:
1822:
1790:
1755:(1): 123–141.
1735:
1706:(4): 336–342.
1686:
1659:(4): 299–317.
1639:
1633:Bahn, Paul G.
1626:
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1222:
1208:
1180:
1173:
1151:
1144:
1114:
1108:978-0415946346
1107:
1083:
1062:(2): 203–218.
1038:
1037:
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1032:
1031:
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1015:
1010:
1005:
1000:
995:
990:
983:
980:
944:
941:
931:
928:
882:Alexei Vranich
817:anthropologist
785:
782:
781:
780:
777:
770:
768:
761:
754:
752:
749:
742:
740:
737:
730:
728:
725:
718:
715:
714:
679:Alphons Stübel
642:
639:
593:destinations.
578:
575:
487:Ephraim Squier
415:platform mound
398:
395:
386:
383:
358:
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2643:
2638:
2636:
2631:
2630:
2627:
2620:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2600:on 2019-09-06
2599:
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2578:September 22,
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2553:September 22,
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2125:on 2012-08-05
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2017:
2004:
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1993:
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1985:
1979:
1965:on 2021-05-03
1964:
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1958:9780415673105
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2257:Bibliography
2240:
2229:. Retrieved
2218:The Guardian
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2178:The Guardian
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2019:
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2002:
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1967:. Retrieved
1963:the original
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1458:. Retrieved
1444:First Cities
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1245:the original
1234:
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1213:. Retrieved
1190:
1183:
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1131:
1097:. New York:
1093:
1086:
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1055:
1028:Wari culture
974:
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912:lapis lazuli
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695:Henry Meiggs
691:Théodore Ber
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433:Andean Cross
430:
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391:Wari culture
388:
375:
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360:
357:Site history
341:
339:
324:
294:
287:
278:
277:
1893:Sacred Land
1635:Lost Cities
1624:33: 73-102.
1414:: 169–188.
1408:Ñawpa Pacha
1198:. pp.
1056:Radiocarbon
998:Kimsa Chata
918:figurines,
821:suka kollus
641:Archaeology
603:Quimsachata
587:Chuqi Q’awa
516:snuff trays
344:, which is
306:in western
134: /
110:Coordinates
2738:Categories
2708:Qhapaq Ñan
2658:in Bolivia
2604:2013-09-23
2231:2019-04-02
2009:18 January
1969:2021-05-04
1365:: 107–120.
1251:2009-08-09
1034:References
993:Kalasasaya
874:Gary Urton
835:argument.
807:Stonehenge
607:Kalasasaya
591:pilgrimage
566:snuff tray
527:chambranle
426:Kalasasaya
397:Structures
295:Tiahuanacu
288:Tiahuanaco
234:Designated
184:Site notes
150:Settlement
122:68°40′24″W
119:16°33′17″S
18:Tiahuanaco
2264:Lukurmata
2226:0261-3077
2159:144411168
1978:cite book
1785:154741300
1769:0043-8243
1730:128460565
1722:0276-4741
1673:0276-4741
1428:194040072
1308:cite book
1302:. La Paz.
1099:Routledge
906:In 2013,
619:Viracocha
577:Cosmology
504:Staff God
422:Pumapunku
342:taypiqala
335:Qullasuyu
189:Condition
2712:(shared)
2699:Tiwanaku
2452:Tiwanaku
2393:citation
2005:. Bérose
1906:Max Uhle
1215:9 August
1196:Frommers
1165:Springer
1130:(1993).
982:See also
832:Moquegua
764:alluvial
707:New York
701:and the
684:Max Uhle
449:andesite
279:Tiwanaku
226:Criteria
221:Cultural
192:In ruins
174:Cultures
96:Location
38:Tiwanaku
2683:City of
2362:3812420
2096:] (
1777:4128306
1681:3673292
1460:26 July
1064:Bibcode
920:incense
916:ceramic
893:Akapana
884:of the
870:Harvard
546:luk’ a,
437:looters
418:Akapana
310:, near
308:Bolivia
299:) is a
283:Spanish
241:session
229:iii, iv
160:Founded
155:History
104:Bolivia
2686:Potosí
2593:Papers
2449:about
2415:: 8–66
2360:
2354:972273
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1582:p. 190
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936:UNESCO
897:UNESCO
880:, and
878:quipus
848:UNESCO
635:Aymara
614:Aymara
583:Pukara
568:and a
346:Aymara
316:La Paz
259:Region
239:(24th
2694:Sucre
2358:S2CID
2350:JSTOR
2155:S2CID
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1828:JSTOR
1781:S2CID
1773:JSTOR
1726:S2CID
1677:JSTOR
1424:S2CID
901:adobe
651:Stele
512:Qirus
445:mound
322:800.
237:2000
49:The "
2580:2013
2555:2013
2536:2013
2515:2013
2496:2013
2399:link
2315:ISBN
2268:ISBN
2222:ISSN
2011:2020
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1953:ISBN
1914:hook
1851:ISBN
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1669:ISSN
1462:2022
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1279:ISBN
1217:2009
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1103:ISBN
914:and
633:The
585:and
570:Qiru
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218:Type
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