1548:
eruptions. However, the lithology and astrochronology of Newark seem to be continuous and this precludes any assumed unconformity. In addition, the magnetic signature of at the end of Newark basin has been found worldwide, with sequences in
Morocco, Nova Scotia, Italy, the U.K., and possibly Turkey all preserving E23r-equivalent magnetozones underlying the Rhaetian-Hettangian boundary. It would be very improbable for all of these sites of varying geology and deposition rates to experience an unconformity erasing an equivalent amount of time. Kent, Olsen, & Muttoni (2017) additionally found convincing correlations between the magnetozones of the upper Passaic Formation and Rhaetian strata in England. They suggest that the apparent delay between Newark and Europe fauna and flora may instead be biogeographic differences due to climatic variation over time and latitude, a factor which has manifested at other points in the Triassic.
1815:) cycles as recorded by climate-induced changes in lake depth and geology, although depositional rate is remarkably consistent within the Newark basin. The most consistent and regular of these cycles are 405,000-year cycles known as McLaughlin cycles. By tracing McLaughlin cycles backwards from the radiometrically-dated CAMP basalts, the boundaries between each formation and magnetozone in the Newark sequence could be assigned a precise age. Magnetozone E20r.2r lasted from 206.03 to 204.65 Ma according to this method, suggesting that the Rhaetian began ~205.5 Ma. This agrees with the dates for the Norian-Rhaetian boundary obtained by Wotzlaw
1448:(2007) explained this by suggesting that there was a missing period of time or "hiatus" at the end of the Newark sequence, which would have resembled part of Oyuklu had it not been eroded away. If the base of Oyuklu (A+) was equivalent to E21n, then the upper half of Oyuklu would be equivalent to the Newark "hiatus", B− was equivalent to E21r, and G+ was equivalent to E23n. If A+ was instead equivalent to E23n, then practically all of Oyuklu (B− and up) would represent the hiatus. Estimating the duration of Oyuklu by comparing Pizzo Mondello with equivalent sections of Newark led Gallet
4645:
1441:. The inferred overlap between these reverse-polarity sections was located above a normal-polarity section (A+ in Oyuklu and PM11n in Pizzo Mondello). This underlying normal-polarity section was correlated with either magnetozone E21n or E23n of the Newark sequence. Although the upper portion of Oyuklu was mostly normal, it did have a few reverse sections (H− and J−) which were at odds with the almost entirely-normal last few Triassic magnetozones of Newark.
1395:
4634:
1518:
1645:
1576:(2007). Hounslow & Muttoni (2010) elaborated on this sentiment and correlated section A+ of Oyuklu with PM12n of Pizzo Mondello, indicating that the overlap between the two sections was very narrow. They also noted that a thrust fault at Oyuklu artificially lengthens B−, the magnetozone containing the Norian-Rhaetian boundary at that section. Ikeda & Tada (2014) provided an
1600:. (2011) was a prominent study arguing in favor of a long Rhaetian. This was based on biostratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy of the Steinbergkogel section in Austria, which is a candidate GSSP for the base of the Rhaetian. They proposed two options for defining the base of the Rhaetian, either at the first occurrence of
1158:(2020) found this same pattern in the nearby Mt Volturino and Madonna del Sirino sections, as well as the Kastelli section of Greece. They also found it in East Panthalassan sediments (Kennecott Point of British Columbia and New York Canyon of Nevada) and West Panthalassan sediments (Wombat and northern
1162:
of
Australia and the Kiritehere section of New Zealand). It was construed to be related to the same event responsible for the Norian-Rhaetian extinction, which heavily impacted ammonoids, bivalves, conodonts, and radiolarians. The Norian-Rhaetian extinction may have been caused by the eruption of the
1508:
in 2012, the "short
Rhaetian" and "long Tuvalian" hypotheses were equated with each other. The combined "short Rhaetian/long Tuvalian" hypothesis as described by Ogg (2012) was ultimately not chosen by the ICS when compared to its competition, which was supported by a more diverse array of methods.
2307:
Hillebrandt, A.v.; Krystyn, L.; Kürschner, W.M.; Bonis, N.R.; Ruhl, M.; Richoz, S.; Schobben, M. A. N.; Urlichs, M.; Bown, P.R.; Kment, K.; McRoberts, C.A.; Simms, M.; Tomãsových, A (September 2013). "The Global
Stratotype Sections and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Jurassic System at Kuhjoch
1895:
to 201.564 ±0.015/0.22 Ma. The biostratigraphically-defined
Triassic-Jurassic (Rhaetian-Hettangian) boundary is considered to lie approximately 60–140 thousand years after the extinction by most sources, and therefore the Rhaetian ended in the range of 201.5 to 201.4 Ma under the methodology of
1571:
appears above the youngest complete magnetozone, PM12n (equivalent to E17n at Newark). This suggests that the Norian-Rhaetian boundary lies in the range of Newark magnetozones E17r to E19r, or 207-210 Ma. The authors expressed skepticism towards the substantial overlap between Oyuklu and Pizzo
1547:
The "short
Rhaetian" hypothesis has been criticized for its reliance on the assumption that a hiatus existed at Newark. This hiatus was presumed to lie within the normal polarity-dominated end of the Rhaetian, after a very short reverse polarity section (E23r) and just before the first CAMP
3262:
Clutson, Michael J.; Brown, David E.; Tanner, Lawrence H. (2018), Tanner, Lawrence H. (ed.), "Distal
Processes and Effects of Multiple Late Triassic Terrestrial Bolide Impacts: Insights from the Norian Manicouagan Event, Northeastern Quebec, Canada",
975:
A commonly cited approximation of 208.5 Ma (used by the ICS since 2012) is based on a "long-Rhaetian" hypothesis reconstructed from the
Steinbergkogel GSSP candidate. Most recently, aspects of the "short-Rhaetian" hypothesis have been revived by
1418:. This sequence was largely normal-polarity dominated, and presented two potential Norian-Rhaetian boundaries (since the defining biostratigraphy of the Rhaetian was not resolved at the time). Defining the boundary based on the appearance of
1495:
faunas similar to Norian events in Europe have also been used to support this hypothesis. Many of the biostratigraphers who argue in favor of a Newark hiatus use similar techniques to support a "long
Tuvalian" hypothesis, in which the
1695:
to 205.70 ± 0.15 Ma and 205.30 ± 0.14 Ma. This allowed them to conclude that the Norian-Rhaetian boundary occurred somewhere between these ash beds, 205.50 ± 0.35 Ma. This date corresponds to "short-Rhaetian" predictions, but
Wotzlaw
1755:
correlated MPA5r (the Pignola-Abriola magnetozone surrounding the Norian-Rhaetian boundary) with the early part of Newark's E20. This provided an estimated date of 205.7 Ma for the Norian-Rhaetian boundary, very similar to Wotzlaw
1118:, which was abundant throughout the world in the Norian but only persisted into the Rhaetian in the form of a few miniaturized species endemic to the Tethys ocean. The Norian-Rhaetian boundary also experienced an overturn in
1795:
altogether, a proposal which itself has been criticized by Triassic conodont specialists. Writing on behalf of the ICS, Ogg (2016) stated that there were two possible dates for the Norian-Rhaetian boundary: 209.5 Ma (using
3103:
Rigo, Manuel; Bertinelli, Angela; Concheri, Giuseppe; Gattolin, Giovanni; Godfrey, Linda; Katz, Miriam E.; Maron, Matteo; Mietto, Paolo; Muttoni, Giovanni; Sprovieri, Mario; Stellin, Fabio; Mariachiara, Zaffani (2016).
2251:
Rigo, Manuel; Bertinelli, Angela; Concheri, Giuseppe; Gattolin, Giovanni; Godfrey, Linda; Katz, Miriam E.; Maron, Matteo; Mietto, Paolo; Muttoni, Giovanni; Sprovieri, Mario; Stellin, Fabio; Mariachiara, Zaffani (2016).
1628:, and estimated a date for the Norian-Rhaetian boundary of 209.8 Ma based on that of Newark's magnetozone E16n. However, the ICS Triassic subcommission had already voted in 2010 to certify the first appearance of
968:, though such correlations are subject to debate and revision. Some authors have suggested that the Rhaetian lasted less than 5 million years using magnetostratigraphy from Turkish strata and a presumed gap or
2369:
Schoene, Blair; Guex, Jean; Bartolini, Annachiara; Schaltegger, Urs; Blackburn, Terrence J. (2010-05-01). "Correlating the end-Triassic mass extinction and flood basalt volcanism at the 100 ka level".
2488:
Bertinelli, A.; Casacci, M.; Concheri, G.; Gattolin, G.; Godfrey, L.; Katz, M.E.; Maron, M.; Mazza, M.; Mietto, P.; Muttoni, G.; Rigo, M.; Sprovieri, M.; Stellin, F.; & Zaffani, M. (April 2016).
3162:
Rigo, Manuel; Onoue, Tetsuji; Tanner, Lawrence; Lucas, Spencer G.; Godfrey, Linda; Katz, Miriam E.; Zaffani, Mariachiara; Grice, Kliti; Cesar, Jaime; Yamashita, Daisuke; Maron, Matteo (2020-04-13).
3813:
The Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Ladinian Stage (Middle Triassic) at Bagolino (Southern Alps, Northern Italy) and its implications for the Triassic time scale
3675:"Astronomical tuning and magnetostratigraphy of the Upper Triassic Xujiahe Formation of South China and Newark Supergroup of North America: Implications for the Late Triassic time scale"
2923:
Wotzlaw, Jörn-Frederik; Guex, Jean; Bartolini, Annachiara; Gallet, Yves; Krystyn, Leopold; McRoberts, Christopher A.; Taylor, David; Schoene, Blair; Schaltegger, Urs (2014-07-01).
1620:(sensu lato) first appeared at the base of a shorter overlying reverse-polarity section. These sections were correlated with magnetozones E16n and E16r of the Newark Basin. Hüsing
4014:
1636:. (2011), the ICS's 2012 Geologic Time Scale utilized a tentative 208.5 Ma date for the Norian-Rhaetian boundary. This date has been retained in ICS time scales as of 2020.
3145:
2514:
2293:
1716:
which is considered early Rhaetian based on its conodont fauna. Their estimated 205.2 ± 0.9 Ma date for this early Rhaetian section agrees with the results of Wotzlaw
3720:
Blackburn, Terrence J.; Olsen, Paul E.; Bowring, Samuel A.; McLean, Noah M.; Kent, Dennis V; Puffer, John; McHone, Greg; Rasbury, Troy; Et-Touhami7, Mohammed (2013).
1567:
first appeared quite a distance below the oldest reported magnetozone, BIT1n, which was correlated with E20n at Newark. The opposite is true in Pizzo Mondello, where
3295:
von Hillebrandt A, Krystyn L, Kürschner WM, Bonis NR, Ruhl M, Richoz S, Schobben MAN, Urlichs M, Bown PR, Kment K, McRoberts CA, Simms M, Tomãsových A (2013-09-01).
2535:"Astrochronostratigraphic polarity time scale (APTS) for the Late Triassic and Early Jurassic from continental sediments and correlation with standard marine stages"
3788:
3329:
3297:"The Global Stratotype Sections and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Jurassic System at Kuhjoch (Karwendel Mountains, Northern Calcareous Alps, Tyrol, Austria)"
3402:"The quest for chron E23r at Partridge Island, Bay of Fundy, Canada: CAMP emplacement postdates the end-Triassic extinction event at the North American craton"
1537:
1325:
912:
1811:
to form the longest astrochronostratigraphic polarity time scale (APTS) known in the fossil record. The Newark sequence was affected by astrochronological (
2979:
1704:. (2014) estimated that the Norian-Rhaetian boundary was concurrent with a lengthy reverse polarity section (E20r.2r) of Newark magnetozone E20. Golding
4007:
3892:
2804:"Magnetostratigraphic dating of the proposed Rhaetian GSSP at Steinbergkogel (Upper Triassic, Austria): Implications for the Late Triassic time scale"
987:
extinctions and magnetostratigraphy at the Pignola-Abriola GSSP candidate. These studies suggest that the base of the Rhaetian was close to 205.5 Ma.
3516:"A 70 million year astronomical time scale for the deep-sea bedded chert sequence (Inuyama, Japan): Implications for Triassic–Jurassic geochronology"
2490:"The Norian/Rhaetian boundary interval at Pignola-Abriola section (southern Apennines, Italy) as a GSSP candidate for the Rhaetian stage: an update"
1840:
1501:
1039:
932:
651:
601:
1892:
1700:(2014) also agreed with "long-Rhaetian" proponents who argued that there was no good evidence for a hiatus in the Newark Basin sequence. Wotzlaw
568:
1551:
Various studies have supported a "long Rhaetian" hypothesis (where the Rhaetian lasts 5–10 million years) based on magnetostratigraphy. Muttoni
964:
in the eastern United States. Correlating the Newark basin to marine sections encompassing the Norian-Rhaetian boundary is mainly achieved via
2980:"Magnetostratigraphy, biostratigraphy, and chemostratigraphy of the Pignola-Abriola section: New constraints for the Norian-Rhaetian boundary"
1763:
Some controversy over the date of the Norian-Rhaetian boundary has resulted from differing interpretations of the conodont used to define it,
458:
3582:"U-Pb isotopic ages of euhedral zircons in the Rhaetian of British Columbia: Implications for Cordilleran tectonics during the Late Triassic"
3280:
2200:
1452:. (2007) to the conclusion that the Rhaetian lasted only 2 million years (if the boundary was at G+) or 4.5 million years (if it was at B−).
2925:"Towards accurate numerical calibration of the Late Triassic: High-precision U-Pb geochronology constraints on the duration of the Rhaetian"
4000:
1974:
1856:
2978:
Maron, Matteo; Rigo, Manuel; Bertinelli, Angela; Katz, Miriam E.; Godfrey, Linda; Zaffani, Mariachiara; Muttoni, Giovanni (2015-07-01).
1328:
marking the beginning of the Hettangian (and the end of the Rhaetian) is located at Kuhjoch, a geological section near the base of the
1987:
1470:
1318:
931:(since 2016). The end of the Rhaetian (and the base of the overlying Hettangian Stage) is more well-defined. According to the current
2465:
1872:. The overlying ash bed was dated to 201.29 ±0.16 Ma while the underlying was 201.36 ±0.13 Ma. This allowed the first appearance of
3219:
Zaffani, Mariachiara; Agnini, Claudia; Concheri, Giuseppe; Godfrey, Linda; Katz, Miriam; Maron, Matteo; Rigo, Manuel (2017-08-01).
1584:
sequence in Japan which suggested that the Norian-Rhaetian boundary occurred 208.5 ± 0.3 Ma, based on the extinction of the Norian
2676:
Muttoni, Giovanni; Kent, Dennis V.; Jadoul, Flavio; Olsen, Paul E.; Rigo, Manuel; Galli, Maria Teresa; Nicora, Alda (2010-01-01).
1139:
option for defining the base of the Rhaetian at the Pignola-Abriola section. This sequence records a pronounced negative spike in
3866:
1056:
first appears shortly before the boundary. Around the same time is the first occurrence of the more extravagant conodont species
4683:
942:
In 2010, the base of the Rhaetian (i.e. the Norian-Rhaetian boundary) was voted to be defined based on the first appearance of
3863:
3673:
Li, Mingsong; Zhang, Yang; Huang, Chunju; Ogg, James; Hinnov, Linda; Wang, Yongdong; Zou, Zhuoyan; Li, Liqin (2017-10-01).
3885:
3721:
1175:
3376:
1424:
placed it in a reverse-polarity section (B−) near the base of Oyuklu. Defining the boundary based on the extinction of
4023:
640:
1933:
3834:
3648:
3622:
2420:
1723:
This compromise between "short-Rhaetian" and "long-Rhaetian" hypotheses has been supported by other studies. Maron
3106:"The Pignola-Abriola section (southern Apennines, Italy): a new GSSP candidate for the base of the Rhaetian Stage"
2489:
2254:"The Pignola-Abriola section (southern Apennines, Italy): a new GSSP candidate for the base of the Rhaetian Stage"
1737:
3221:"The Norian "chaotic carbon interval": New clues from the δ13Corg record of the Lagonegro Basin (southern Italy)"
2882:
1787:
sensu stricto) is considered morphologically more similar to the original fossils of the species, described from
1480:
1433:
The early reverse-polarity zones (B− to D−) were correlated with PM11r, a reverse-polarity section at the top of
1256:
2652:"The Triassic-Jurassic strata of the Newark Basin, USA: A complete and accurate astronomically-tuned timescale?"
2116:
4678:
3878:
1410:. (2007) argued in support of a "short Rhaetian" (where the Rhaetian lasts under 5 million years) based on the
827:
817:
1859:
1807:
A recent update of Newark stratigraphy by Kent, Olsen, & Muttoni (2017) combined magnetostratigraphy with
1709:
1692:
3852:
1728:
1248:
1206:. It records many potential Norian-Rhaetian biostratigraphic events, such as the appearance of the conodonts
924:
4296:
4291:
1731:
in Southern Italy. This section recorded the Norian-Rhaetian boundary as tracked by the first occurrence of
1305:
In the Tethyan domain, the Rhaetian contains two ammonite biozones. The highest ammonite biozone is that of
916:
494:
2924:
1909:
4673:
3744:
3330:"The biostratigraphic importance of conchostracans in the continental Triassic of the northern hemisphere"
2317:
2093:"Global coal gap between Permian–Triassic extinctions and middle Triassic recovery of peat forming plants"
1921:
1167:
713:
3722:"Zircon U-Pb Geochronology Links the End-Triassic Extinction with the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province"
1791:
in 1974. This debate has led some biostratigraphers to suggest avoiding the use of conodonts in Triassic
1671:
1560:
1190:
The Rhaetian does not yet have an official GSSP, but two candidates have been formally proposed. Krystyn
3782:
3164:"The Late Triassic Extinction at the Norian/Rhaetian boundary: Biotic evidence and geochemical analysis"
3139:
2508:
2287:
1937:
1290:
892:
586:
1883:. (2013) instead estimated a slightly older end date. They used a combination of radiometric dates and
1828:
1342:
3749:
3736:
3686:
3593:
3527:
3515:
3460:
3413:
3344:
3163:
3058:
2939:
2818:
2753:
2692:
2678:"Rhaetian magneto-biostratigraphy from the Southern Alps (Italy): Constraints on Triassic chronology"
2613:
2601:
2549:
2378:
2149:
2104:
2092:
2024:
1955:
1556:
1124:
1083:
888:
778:
754:
685:
2322:
1533:
1434:
1411:
1362:
1352:
769:
4627:
3562:
2738:
1888:
1812:
1752:
1652:(2014) radiometrically dated the Norian-Rhaetian boundary to ~205.50 Ma based on the extinction of
1529:
1505:
1329:
1307:
1232:
1105:
1094:
965:
1869:
1727:(2015) elaborated on the dating of an upcoming GSSP candidate for the Rhaetian in the form of the
1182:. However, the dating of these geological events and their effects on life are uncertain at best.
3770:
3368:
3201:
3082:
2777:
2716:
2335:
2173:
1992:
1792:
1663:
1313:
1099:
977:
952:. However, there is still much debate over the age of this boundary, as well as the evolution of
896:
735:
4644:
2052:
McElwain, J. C.; Punyasena, S. W. (2007). "Mass extinction events and the plant fossil record".
1687:. This prominent biotic event is closely associated with the Norian-Rhaetian boundary. The last
1589:
1475:
1164:
3847:
2677:
1460:
1077:
4668:
4425:
4389:
3762:
3702:
3543:
3496:
3478:
3429:
3360:
3276:
3193:
3127:
3074:
2999:
2955:
2834:
2769:
2708:
2629:
2575:
2461:
2394:
2275:
2196:
2165:
2137:
2069:
1961:
1949:
1466:
1136:
1042:
voted that the base of the Rhaetian should be defined by the first appearance of the conodont
936:
24:
2803:
1680:
1654:
1632:
as the defining event for the base of the Rhaetian. Partially inspired by the work of Hüsing
1223:
1114:
4519:
4394:
4363:
4160:
3754:
3694:
3690:
3649:"Base of the Rhaetian and a critique of Triassic conodont-based chronostratigraphy: comment"
3601:
3535:
3531:
3486:
3468:
3421:
3352:
3308:
3268:
3242:
3232:
3183:
3175:
3117:
3066:
2991:
2947:
2826:
2822:
2761:
2739:"The geomagnetic polarity timescale for the Triassic: linkage to stage boundary definitions"
2700:
2621:
2617:
2565:
2557:
2453:
2386:
2327:
2265:
2157:
2136:
Payne, J. L.; Lehrmann, D. J.; Wei, J.; Orchard, M. J.; Schrag, D. P.; Knoll, A. H. (2004).
2112:
2061:
2032:
2013:"Dynamics of the Largest Carbon Isotope Excursion During the Early Triassic Biotic Recovery"
1915:
1713:
1500:(late Carnian) extends into a period of time commonly believed to be early Norian. When the
1394:
880:
3267:, Topics in Geobiology, vol. 46, Springer International Publishing, pp. 127–187,
1767:. Paleontologists working on the Pignola-Abriola GSSP candidate have argued that the early
1103:
biozone is used instead. Extinctions at the beginning of the Rhaetian include the ammonite
4488:
4384:
4322:
4217:
4186:
4155:
3919:
3447:
Whiteside, Jessica H.; Grogan, Danielle S.; Olsen, Paul E.; Kent, Dennis V. (2011-05-31).
3313:
3296:
2802:
Hüsing, Silja K.; Deenen, Martijn H. L.; Koopmans, Jort G.; Krijgsman, Wout (2011-02-01).
2331:
1970:
1927:
1884:
1808:
1577:
1526:
1159:
972:
in Newark strata. However, both of these lines of evidence have been met with skepticism.
957:
315:
2138:"Large Perturbations of the Carbon Cycle During Recovery from the End-Permian Extinction"
1969:* Tentatively assigned to the Rhaetian; age estimated primarily via terrestrial tetrapod
3740:
3597:
3464:
3417:
3348:
3062:
2943:
2757:
2696:
2553:
2382:
2153:
2108:
2028:
4638:
4457:
4327:
4222:
4191:
3914:
3491:
3448:
2457:
1484:
995:
336:
304:
935:(International Commission on Stratigraphy) system, the Rhaetian ended 201.4 ± 0.2 Ma (
4662:
4358:
4348:
4317:
4280:
4212:
4181:
3924:
3674:
3401:
3372:
3205:
3105:
3086:
2781:
2651:
2339:
2253:
1943:
1426:
1007:
956:. The most comprehensive source of precise age data for the Late Triassic comes from
884:
873:
743:
675:
347:
326:
72:
3774:
3179:
3023:
2561:
2177:
1517:
4649:
4633:
4580:
4430:
4353:
3623:"Base of the Rhaetian and a critique of Triassic conodont-based chronostratigraphy"
3046:
2720:
2088:
1876:
to be given a date of 201.31 ±0.18/0.43 Ma (assuming minimum/maximum uncertainty).
1555:(2010) studied a pair of Triassic sequences in northern Italy: the Norian-Rhaetian
1357:
1072:
1027:
1023:
969:
961:
547:
2534:
1430:
placed it at magnetozone G+, the first of several major normal-polarity sections.
3580:
Golding, M. L.; Mortensen, J. K.; Zonneveld, J.-P.; Orchard, M. J. (2016-10-01).
2704:
2602:"New constraints on the End-Triassic (Upper Norian–Rhaetian) magnetostratigraphy"
4575:
4444:
4420:
4265:
4060:
3272:
1827:(2017), who found astrochronological and magnetostratigraphic signatures in the
1456:
1398:
The magnetostratigraphic sequence of the Oyuklu section in Turkey, which Gallet
1011:
47:
3698:
3539:
2830:
2625:
2065:
1644:
4570:
4530:
4473:
4373:
4270:
4144:
4044:
3992:
3855:, at the website of the subcommission for stratigraphic information of the ICS
3449:"Climatically driven biogeographic provinces of Late Triassic tropical Pangea"
1864:
1848:
1741:
1585:
1525:(2011) argued that the Rhaetian extended for almost 10 million years based on
1488:
1347:
1298:
1289:
The top of the Rhaetian (the base of the Hettangian Stage, the Lower Jurassic
1119:
1087:
904:
801:
750:
419:
92:
57:
3706:
3547:
3482:
3433:
3364:
3197:
3131:
3078:
3003:
2959:
2838:
2773:
2712:
2633:
2579:
2398:
2279:
2037:
2012:
1771:
specimens present at Steinbergkogel are actually an older transitional form (
1465:
which in Europe is found in Norian rocks, occurs in the upper portion of the
842:
829:
4585:
4535:
4509:
4468:
4415:
4260:
4236:
4117:
4107:
4096:
3939:
3758:
3473:
2161:
1541:
1420:
1263:
1203:
1199:
1044:
944:
813:
721:
476:
356:
295:
243:
97:
20:
3766:
3500:
3022:
Krystyn, L.; Bouquerel, H.; Kuerschner, W.; Richoz, S.; Gallet, Y. (2007).
2169:
2073:
1862:
to date ash beds slightly below and slightly above the first appearance of
2421:"Decision report on the defining event for the base of the Rhaetian stage"
1455:
Some biostratigraphic studies have also supported a hiatus at Newark. The
1022:. The stage was introduced in scientific literature by Austrian geologist
4545:
4540:
4504:
4404:
4337:
4306:
4201:
4170:
4131:
4081:
4055:
4031:
3955:
3901:
3247:
3188:
2600:
Gallet, Yves; Krystyn, Leopold; Marcoux, Jean; Besse, Jean (2007-03-30).
1788:
1684:
1497:
1492:
1367:
1227:
1110:
984:
949:
908:
877:
728:
717:
383:
286:
274:
254:
87:
82:
67:
62:
52:
4559:
4499:
4249:
4086:
4070:
3966:
3950:
3606:
3581:
3237:
3220:
2570:
1745:
1371:
1333:
1270:
1267:
1195:
1140:
1090:
1019:
991:
920:
821:
773:
392:
374:
264:
102:
77:
3122:
2270:
4595:
4478:
4112:
3971:
3934:
3356:
2995:
2951:
2448:
Ogg, James G.; Ogg, Gabi M.; Gradstein, Felix M. (2016). "Triassic".
2390:
2191:
Ogg, James G.; Ogg, Gabi M.; Gradstein, Felix M. (2016). "Triassic".
1918:(Church Rock, Rock Point, and “siltstone” members)* (New Mexico, USA)
1473:
section of the Newark basin. Typical Rhaetian conchostracans such as
1438:
1415:
1179:
1171:
900:
784:
401:
365:
3561:
Cohen, K.M.; Finney, S.C.; Gibbard, P.L.; Fan, J.X. (January 2020).
3425:
3070:
2765:
3870:
3024:"Proposal for a candidate GSSP for the base of the Rhaetian Stage"
2308:(Karwendel Mountains, Northern Calcareous Alps, Tyrol, Austria)".
2229:
1783:
in the evolution of Triassic conodonts. The Pignola-Abriola form (
1643:
1581:
1393:
1294:
1260:
1252:
1015:
928:
731:
2533:
Kent, Dennis V.; Olsen, Paul E.; Muttoni, Giovanni (2017-03-01).
1823:(2015). The accuracy of the Newark APTS has been supported by Li
4619:
4615:
4611:
3858:
Norges Network of offshore records of geology and stratigraphy:
3047:"Triassic conodonts and their role in stage boundary definition"
1852:
1831:
of China practically identical to those of the Newark sequence.
1675:
1293:
and the Jurassic System) is at the first appearance of ammonite
1273:
towns. It preserves a diverse array of conodonts (including the
981:
41:
3996:
3874:
2011:
Widmann, Philipp; Bucher, Hugo; Leu, Marc; et al. (2020).
118:
1616:
first occurred at the top of a normal-polarity section while
1800:
sensu lato and Steinbergkogel as a GSSP) or 205.8 Ma (using
1381:
C spike which marks the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event.
1377:
spike marking a recovery from the underlying large negative
1068:
is uncommon or occurs later in time than it does elsewhere.
2117:
10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0195:GCGBPT>2.3.CO;2
1487:
which is likely equivalent to the upper Passaic formation.
1243:
A second formal GSSP candidate was not provided until Rigo
2881:
Ogg, James G.; Huang, Chunju; Hinnov, Linda (May 2014).
1662:
The Norian-Rhaetian boundary was finally provided with
1097:(i.e. the area of the Northern ocean), the base of the
3400:
Deenen, M.H.L.; Krijgsman, W.; Ruhl, M. (2011-08-01).
3265:
The Late Triassic World: Earth in a Time of Transition
2650:
Tanner, Lawrence H.; Lucas, Spencer G. (2 July 2015).
1281:
morphocline) as well as pronounced radiolarian zones.
1839:
The end date of the Rhaetian currently in use by the
1390:
Norian-Rhaetian boundary: "short Rhaetian" hypotheses
1513:
Norian-Rhaetian boundary: "long Rhaetian" hypotheses
1402:(2007) used to support a "short Rhaetian" hypothesis
1010:, a mountain chain stretching over parts of eastern
4594:
4558:
4518:
4487:
4456:
4443:
4403:
4372:
4336:
4305:
4279:
4248:
4235:
4200:
4169:
4143:
4130:
4095:
4069:
4043:
4030:
2737:Hounslow, Mark W.; Muttoni, Giovanni (2010-01-01).
1624:. (2011) preferred to define the Rhaetian based on
858:
808:
795:
763:
707:
699:
691:
681:
671:
666:
658:
646:
636:
631:
623:
618:
111:
32:
3805:Brack, P.; Rieber, H.; Nicora, A. & Mundil, R.
3563:"International chronostratigraphic chart v2020/01"
2685:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
3337:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
3328:Kozur, Heinz W.; Weems, Robert E. (2010-01-01).
3051:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
3028:New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science
2746:Geological Society, London, Special Publications
3453:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1958:* (Norian – Rhaetian) (Switzerland and Germany)
1843:(201.3 ±0.2 Ma) is based on a study by Schoene
1708:. (2016) utilized U-Pb dating at a part of the
2230:"Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point"
1804:sensu stricto and Pignola-Abriola as a GSSP).
4008:
3886:
2883:"Triassic timescale status: a brief overview"
1230:and the disappearance of ammonoids including
600:Subdivision of the Triassic according to the
8:
3823:Gradstein, F.M.; Ogg, J.G. & Smith, A.G.
3144:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2513:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2292:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1640:Norian-Rhaetian boundary: Recent compromises
1336:. This site records the first appearance of
1255:. This is a sequence of the Norian-Rhaetian
1064:which may be used as a proxy in areas where
907:(the lowermost stage or earliest age of the
3787:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
3514:Ikeda, Masayuki; Tada, Ryuji (2014-08-01).
1038:In 2010, the Triassic subcommission of the
911:). The base of the Rhaetian lacks a formal
607:Vertical axis scale: millions of years ago.
4453:
4245:
4140:
4040:
4015:
4001:
3993:
3910:
3893:
3879:
3871:
2232:. International Commission of Stratigraphy
2224:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2212:
1479:only appear in the last few layers of the
1317:. The end of this period is marked by the
1198:Steinbergkogel section, a Norian-Rhaetian
1093:begin at the base of the Rhaetian. In the
3748:
3605:
3490:
3472:
3312:
3246:
3236:
3187:
3121:
2569:
2321:
2269:
2036:
1691:specimens lie between ash beds which are
1221:. It also record the extinction of large
1075:(i.e. the area of the Tethys ocean), the
3567:International Commission on Stratigraphy
1516:
1502:International Commission on Stratigraphy
764:Lower boundary GSSP candidate section(s)
19:For the Alpine people of antiquity, see
2003:
1670:(2014). They studied a sequence of the
1437:, a similar Carnian-Norian sequence in
960:-constrained terrestrial strata of the
3780:
3157:
3155:
3137:
3098:
3096:
3017:
3015:
3013:
2918:
2916:
2732:
2730:
2671:
2669:
2595:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2506:
2285:
1678:which records the extinction of large
1174:, or the asteroid responsible for the
29:
3860:Stratigraphic charts for the Triassic
2973:
2971:
2969:
2876:
2874:
2872:
2870:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2848:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2645:
2643:
2528:
2526:
2524:
2483:
2481:
2479:
2477:
2443:
2441:
2414:
2412:
2410:
2408:
2364:
2362:
1100:Cochloceras (Paracochloceras) amoenum
7:
1975:Triassic land vertebrate faunachrons
1146:just before the first appearance of
1109:and almost all species of the large
915:, though candidate sections include
708:Lower boundary definition candidates
576:
558:
536:
520:
502:
484:
466:
448:
4614:= kiloannum (thousands years ago);
3679:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
3520:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2811:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2606:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
2193:A Concise Geologic Time Scale: 2016
1122:species, with the beginning of the
4618:= megaannum (millions years ago);
3647:Orchard, Michael J. (April 2016).
3406:Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences
3045:Orchard, Michael J. (2010-01-01).
2458:10.1016/B978-0-444-59467-9.00011-X
1988:Triassic-Jurassic extinction event
1319:Triassic-Jurassic extinction event
569:Triassic–Jurassic extinction event
14:
4622:= gigaannum (billions years ago).
2910:give 207 to 201 million years ago
2054:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1604:or the first appearance datum of
459:Permian-Triassic extinction event
16:Latest age of the Triassic Period
4643:
4632:
3621:Lucas, Spencer G. (April 2016).
1006:The Rhaetian is named after the
477:Smithian–Spathian boundary event
3314:10.18814/epiiugs/2013/v36i3/001
3180:10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103180
2562:10.1016/j.earscirev.2016.12.014
2419:Krystyn, Leopold (March 2010).
2332:10.18814/epiiugs/2013/v36i3/001
1934:‘Grès infraliasiques’ Formation
1775:sensu lato) which lies between
1744:zone, and a prominent negative
1034:Index fossils and biotic events
2859:Ogg, J.G. (2012). "Triassic".
2452:. Elsevier. pp. 133–149.
2195:. Elsevier. pp. 133–149.
1483:, a late Triassic unit in the
1214:(sensu lato) and the ammonoid
994:began to break up, though the
551:corals & calcified sponges
1:
4061:Pleistocene (11.7 ka–2.58 Ma)
2863:. Elsevier. pp. 681–730.
2450:A Concise Geologic Time Scale
1930:(Norian – Rhaetian) (Germany)
1343:Cerebropollenites thiergartii
1176:Rochechouart impact structure
2861:The Geologic Time Scale 2012
2705:10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.10.014
1835:Rhaetian-Hettangian boundary
1738:Proparvicingula moniliformis
1572:Mondello proposed by Gallet
1559:and the Rhaetian-Hettangian
1285:Rhaetian-Hettangian boundary
1152:Proparvicingula moniliformis
1125:Proparvicingula moniliformis
755:Proparvicingula moniliformis
513:Full recovery of woody trees
4024:Geological history of Earth
3848:GeoWhen Database - Rhaetian
3273:10.1007/978-3-319-68009-5_5
802:Psiloceras spelae tirolicum
4700:
4297:Mississippian (323–359 Ma)
4292:Pennsylvanian (299–323 Ma)
4056:Holocene (present–11.7 ka)
3835:Cambridge University Press
3831:A Geologic Time Scale 2004
3699:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.07.015
3540:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.04.031
2831:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.12.012
2626:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.01.004
2066:10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.003
2017:Frontiers in Earth Science
1240:forms with lateral nodes.
1026:and German paleontologist
899:). It was preceded by the
23:. For their language, see
18:
4609:
4581:Paleoarchean (3.2–3.6 Ga)
4431:Terreneuvian (521–539 Ma)
3908:
1912:* (England and Wales, UK)
1491:turnovers and changes in
1481:Catharpin Creek Formation
1353:Praegubkinella turgescens
1266:") Formation named after
1002:Stratigraphic definitions
796:Upper boundary definition
741:Near FAD of the Conodont
700:Lower boundary definition
597:
116:
37:
4576:Mesoarchean (2.8–3.2 Ga)
4421:Miaolingian (497–509 Ma)
4266:Guadalupian (260–272 Ma)
4118:Paleocene (56.0–66.0 Ma)
4108:Oligocene (23.0–33.9 Ma)
3853:Upper Triassic timescale
2038:10.3389/feart.2020.00196
1765:Misikella posthernsteini
1733:Misikella posthernsteini
1710:Black Bear Ridge section
1606:Misikella posthernsteini
1421:Misikella posthernsteini
1363:Cytherelloidea buisensis
1311:, the lower one that of
1150:(sensu stricto) and the
1148:Misikella posthernsteini
1045:Misikella posthernsteini
945:Misikella posthernsteini
818:Northern Calcareous Alps
789:British Columbia, Canada
722:Misikella posthernsteini
4571:Neoarchean (2.5–2.8 Ga)
4536:Orosirian (1.8–2.05 Ga)
4531:Statherian (1.6–1.8 Ga)
4474:Cryogenian (635–720 Ma)
4364:Llandovery (433–444 Ma)
4271:Cisuralian (272–299 Ma)
4082:Pliocene (2.59–5.33 Ma)
3759:10.1126/science.1234204
3691:2017E&PSL.475..207L
3532:2014E&PSL.399...30I
3474:10.1073/pnas.1102473108
2823:2011E&PSL.302..203H
2618:2007E&PSL.255..458G
2162:10.1126/science.1097023
1946:(England and Wales, UK)
1893:end-Triassic extinction
1729:Pignola-Abriola section
1427:Epigondolella bidentata
1249:Pignola-Abriola section
1154:radiolarian zone. Rigo
1058:Epigondolella mosheri (
495:Carnian pluvial episode
234:−200 —
224:−205 —
214:−210 —
204:−215 —
194:−220 —
184:−225 —
174:−230 —
164:−235 —
154:−240 —
144:−245 —
134:−250 —
124:−255 —
4684:Triassic geochronology
4541:Rhyacian (2.05–2.3 Ga)
4510:Calymmian (1.4–1.6 Ga)
4469:Ediacaran (539–635 Ma)
4416:Furongian (485–497 Ma)
4261:Lopingian (252–260 Ma)
4087:Miocene (5.33–23.0 Ma)
2091:; Morante, R. (1996).
1922:Lower Elliot Formation
1666:in a study by Wotzlaw
1659:
1544:
1403:
1168:large igneous province
1084:Paracochloceras suessi
40:~208.5 – 201.4 ± 0.2
4546:Siderian (2.3–2.5 Ga)
4505:Ectasian (1.2–1.4 Ga)
4426:Series 2 (509–521 Ma)
4113:Eocene (33.9–56.0 Ma)
3168:Earth-Science Reviews
2542:Earth-Science Reviews
1938:Saint-Nicolas-de-Port
1910:British fissure fills
1647:
1520:
1397:
1078:Sagenites reticulatus
990:During the Rhaetian,
903:and succeeded by the
744:Epigondolella mosheri
4586:Eoarchean (3.6–4 Ga)
4479:Tonian (720 Ma–1 Ga)
4359:Wenlock (427–433 Ma)
4349:Pridoli (419–423 Ma)
3915:Lower/Early Triassic
1956:Trossingen Formation
1760:(2014)'s estimate.
1602:Misikella hernsteini
1578:astrochronologically
1476:Euestheria brodieana
1330:Kendelbach Formation
1308:Choristoceras marshi
1275:Misikella hernsteini
1247:(2015) proposed the
1208:Misikella hernsteini
1194:(2007) proposed the
1054:Misikella hernsteini
998:was not yet formed.
958:astrochronologically
799:FAD of the Ammonite
703:Not formally defined
4641: •
4630: •
4628:Geologic time scale
4390:Middle (458–470 Ma)
4354:Ludlow (423–427 Ma)
4323:Middle (383–393 Ma)
4218:Middle (237–247 Ma)
4187:Middle (164–174 Ma)
3925:Upper/Late Triassic
3819:, pp. 233–244.
3741:2013Sci...340..941B
3598:2016Geosp..12.1606G
3465:2011PNAS..108.8972W
3418:2011CaJES..48.1282D
3349:2010GSLSP.334..315K
3063:2010GSLSP.334..139O
2944:2014Geo....42..571W
2758:2010GSLSP.334...61H
2697:2010PPP...285....1M
2554:2017ESRv..166..153K
2383:2010Geo....38..387S
2154:2004Sci...305..506P
2109:1996GSAB..108..195R
2029:2020FrEaS...8..196W
1952:* (New Mexico, USA)
1891:) to constrain the
1889:Milankovitch cycles
1860:Uranium-Lead dating
1851:-bearing strata in
1847:. (2010) involving
1753:Magnetostratigraphy
1672:Aramachay Formation
1612:At Steinbergkogel,
1590:Betraccium deweveri
1561:Italcementi section
1530:magnetostratigraphy
1506:Geologic Time Scale
1052:'s direct ancestor
966:magnetostratigraphy
887:) or the uppermost
859:Upper GSSP ratified
843:47.4839°N 11.5306°E
839: /
814:Karwendel mountains
809:Upper boundary GSSP
692:Time span formality
4639:Geology portal
4500:Stenian (1–1.2 Ga)
4395:Early (470–485 Ma)
4328:Early (393–419 Ma)
4223:Early (247–252 Ma)
4192:Early (174–201 Ma)
4161:Early (100–145 Ma)
4156:Late (66.0–100 Ma)
3607:10.1130/GES01324.1
3238:10.1130/GES01459.1
2087:Retallack, G. J.;
1993:Rhaetian sandstone
1904:Notable formations
1793:chronostratigraphy
1735:, the base of the
1693:Uranium-Lead dated
1664:radiometric dating
1660:
1545:
1542:Hallstatt, Austria
1414:, a sequence from
1404:
1370:), and a positive
1314:Rhabdoceras suesii
1137:chemostratigraphic
1135:(2015) provided a
978:radiometric dating
897:chronostratigraphy
682:Stratigraphic unit
672:Chronological unit
659:Time scale(s) used
587:Manicouagan impact
4656:
4655:
4554:
4553:
4520:Paleoproterozoic
4439:
4438:
4385:Late (444–458 Ma)
4318:Late (359–383 Ma)
4231:
4230:
4213:Late (201–237 Ma)
4182:Late (145–164 Ma)
4126:
4125:
4047:(present–2.58 Ma)
4035:(present–66.0 Ma)
3990:
3989:
3985:
3984:
3735:(6135): 941–945.
3459:(22): 8972–8977.
3282:978-3-319-68009-5
3123:10.1111/let.12145
2271:10.1111/let.12145
2202:978-0-444-63771-0
1978:
1962:Wingate Sandstone
1950:Redonda Formation
1829:Xujiahe Formation
1819:(2014) and Maron
1802:M. posthernsteini
1798:M. posthernsteini
1785:M. posthernsteini
1781:M. posthernsteini
1773:M. posthernsteini
1769:M. posthernsteini
1630:M. posthernsteini
1618:M. posthernsteini
1565:M. posthernsteini
1467:Passaic Formation
1338:Psiloceras spelae
1257:Calcari con Selce
1212:M. posthernsteini
1066:M. posthernsteini
1062:Mockina mosheri),
1050:M. posthernsteini
954:M. posthernsteini
937:million years ago
923:(since 2007) and
866:
865:
812:Kuhjoch section,
632:Usage information
613:
612:
593:
592:
575:
574:
557:
556:
535:
534:
519:
518:
501:
500:
483:
482:
465:
464:
25:Rhaetian language
4691:
4650:World portal
4648:
4647:
4637:
4636:
4599:
4563:
4523:
4492:
4489:Mesoproterozoic
4461:
4454:
4449:
4408:
4377:
4341:
4310:
4284:
4253:
4246:
4241:
4205:
4174:
4148:
4141:
4136:
4100:
4074:
4048:
4041:
4036:
4017:
4010:
4003:
3994:
3911:
3895:
3888:
3881:
3872:
3824:
3806:
3793:
3792:
3786:
3778:
3752:
3750:10.1.1.1019.4042
3726:
3717:
3711:
3710:
3670:
3664:
3663:
3653:
3644:
3638:
3637:
3627:
3618:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3592:(5): 1606–1616.
3577:
3571:
3570:
3558:
3552:
3551:
3511:
3505:
3504:
3494:
3476:
3444:
3438:
3437:
3412:(8): 1282–1291.
3397:
3391:
3390:
3388:
3387:
3381:
3375:. Archived from
3357:10.1144/SP334.13
3334:
3325:
3319:
3318:
3316:
3292:
3286:
3285:
3259:
3253:
3252:
3250:
3240:
3231:(4): 1133–1148.
3216:
3210:
3209:
3191:
3159:
3150:
3149:
3143:
3135:
3125:
3100:
3091:
3090:
3042:
3036:
3035:
3019:
3008:
3007:
2996:10.1130/B31106.1
2990:(7–8): 962–974.
2975:
2964:
2963:
2952:10.1130/G35612.1
2929:
2920:
2911:
2904:
2898:
2897:
2887:
2878:
2865:
2864:
2856:
2843:
2842:
2808:
2799:
2786:
2785:
2743:
2734:
2725:
2724:
2682:
2673:
2664:
2663:
2647:
2638:
2637:
2597:
2584:
2583:
2573:
2539:
2530:
2519:
2518:
2512:
2504:
2494:
2485:
2472:
2471:
2445:
2436:
2435:
2425:
2416:
2403:
2402:
2391:10.1130/G30683.1
2366:
2357:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2325:
2304:
2298:
2297:
2291:
2283:
2273:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2226:
2207:
2206:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2133:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2123:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2049:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2008:
1968:
1916:Chinle Formation
1714:British Columbia
1569:M. posthersteini
1461:Shipingia olseni
1160:Carnarvon Basins
891:of the Triassic
854:
853:
851:
850:
849:
848:47.4839; 11.5306
844:
840:
837:
836:
835:
832:
749:Near FAD of the
727:Near FAD of the
582:
577:
564:
559:
552:
542:
537:
526:
521:
514:
508:
503:
490:
485:
472:
467:
454:
449:
422:
413:
404:
395:
386:
377:
368:
359:
350:
341:
331:
329:
320:
318:
309:
307:
298:
279:
277:
257:
246:
235:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
140:
135:
130:
125:
119:
107:
44:
30:
4699:
4698:
4694:
4693:
4692:
4690:
4689:
4688:
4679:Geological ages
4659:
4658:
4657:
4652:
4642:
4631:
4623:
4605:
4597:
4590:
4561:
4550:
4521:
4514:
4490:
4483:
4459:
4458:Neoproterozoic
4448:(539 Ma–2.5 Ga)
4447:
4446:
4445:Proterozoic Eon
4435:
4406:
4399:
4375:
4368:
4339:
4332:
4308:
4301:
4282:
4275:
4251:
4239:
4238:
4227:
4203:
4196:
4172:
4165:
4146:
4134:
4133:
4122:
4098:
4091:
4072:
4065:
4046:
4034:
4033:
4026:
4021:
3991:
3986:
3981:
3960:
3944:
3920:Middle Triassic
3904:
3902:Triassic Period
3899:
3844:
3822:
3804:
3801:
3796:
3779:
3724:
3719:
3718:
3714:
3672:
3671:
3667:
3651:
3646:
3645:
3641:
3625:
3620:
3619:
3615:
3579:
3578:
3574:
3560:
3559:
3555:
3513:
3512:
3508:
3446:
3445:
3441:
3426:10.1139/e11-015
3399:
3398:
3394:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3332:
3327:
3326:
3322:
3294:
3293:
3289:
3283:
3261:
3260:
3256:
3218:
3217:
3213:
3161:
3160:
3153:
3136:
3102:
3101:
3094:
3071:10.1144/SP334.7
3044:
3043:
3039:
3021:
3020:
3011:
2977:
2976:
2967:
2927:
2922:
2921:
2914:
2905:
2901:
2885:
2880:
2879:
2868:
2858:
2857:
2846:
2806:
2801:
2800:
2789:
2766:10.1144/SP334.4
2741:
2736:
2735:
2728:
2680:
2675:
2674:
2667:
2649:
2648:
2641:
2599:
2598:
2587:
2537:
2532:
2531:
2522:
2505:
2492:
2487:
2486:
2475:
2468:
2447:
2446:
2439:
2423:
2418:
2417:
2406:
2368:
2367:
2360:
2351:
2347:
2323:10.1.1.736.9905
2306:
2305:
2301:
2284:
2250:
2249:
2245:
2235:
2233:
2228:
2227:
2210:
2203:
2190:
2189:
2185:
2148:(5683): 506–9.
2135:
2134:
2130:
2121:
2119:
2086:
2085:
2081:
2060:(10): 548–557.
2051:
2050:
2046:
2010:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1984:
1971:biostratigraphy
1928:Exter Formation
1906:
1885:astrochronology
1837:
1809:astrochronology
1642:
1557:Brumano section
1515:
1469:, the last pre-
1392:
1387:
1287:
1216:Paracochloceras
1188:
1186:GSSP candidates
1036:
1004:
925:Pignola-Abriola
847:
845:
841:
838:
833:
830:
828:
826:
825:
824:
779:Pignola-Abriola
614:
609:
608:
606:
589:
580:
571:
562:
553:
550:
546:
540:
531:
524:
515:
512:
506:
497:
488:
479:
470:
461:
452:
445:
444:
440:
439:
435:
434:
430:
429:
425:
424:
420:
416:
415:
411:
407:
406:
402:
398:
397:
393:
389:
388:
384:
380:
379:
375:
371:
370:
366:
362:
361:
357:
353:
352:
348:
344:
343:
339:
337:
333:
332:
327:
325:
322:
321:
316:
314:
311:
310:
305:
303:
300:
299:
294:
291:
290:
282:
281:
275:
273:
269:
268:
260:
259:
253:
249:
248:
242:
236:
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
106:
105:
100:
95:
90:
85:
80:
75:
70:
65:
60:
55:
50:
39:
38:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4697:
4695:
4687:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4661:
4660:
4654:
4653:
4610:
4607:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4592:
4591:
4589:
4588:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4567:
4565:
4556:
4555:
4552:
4551:
4549:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4527:
4525:
4516:
4515:
4513:
4512:
4507:
4502:
4496:
4494:
4485:
4484:
4482:
4481:
4476:
4471:
4465:
4463:
4451:
4441:
4440:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4433:
4428:
4423:
4418:
4412:
4410:
4401:
4400:
4398:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4381:
4379:
4370:
4369:
4367:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4345:
4343:
4334:
4333:
4331:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4314:
4312:
4303:
4302:
4300:
4299:
4294:
4288:
4286:
4281:Carboniferous
4277:
4276:
4274:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4257:
4255:
4243:
4233:
4232:
4229:
4228:
4226:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4209:
4207:
4198:
4197:
4195:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4178:
4176:
4167:
4166:
4164:
4163:
4158:
4152:
4150:
4138:
4128:
4127:
4124:
4123:
4121:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4104:
4102:
4099:(23.0–66.0 Ma)
4093:
4092:
4090:
4089:
4084:
4078:
4076:
4073:(2.58–23.0 Ma)
4067:
4066:
4064:
4063:
4058:
4052:
4050:
4038:
4028:
4027:
4022:
4020:
4019:
4012:
4005:
3997:
3988:
3987:
3983:
3982:
3980:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3963:
3961:
3959:
3958:
3953:
3947:
3945:
3943:
3942:
3937:
3931:
3928:
3927:
3922:
3917:
3909:
3906:
3905:
3900:
3898:
3897:
3890:
3883:
3875:
3869:
3868:
3856:
3850:
3843:
3842:External links
3840:
3839:
3838:
3820:
3800:
3797:
3795:
3794:
3712:
3665:
3639:
3613:
3572:
3553:
3506:
3439:
3392:
3343:(1): 315–417.
3320:
3307:(3): 162–198.
3287:
3281:
3254:
3211:
3151:
3116:(3): 287–306.
3092:
3057:(1): 139–161.
3037:
3009:
2965:
2938:(7): 571–574.
2912:
2899:
2866:
2844:
2817:(1): 203–216.
2787:
2726:
2665:
2639:
2612:(3): 458–470.
2585:
2520:
2473:
2466:
2437:
2404:
2377:(5): 387–390.
2358:
2352:See Gradstein
2345:
2316:(3): 162–198.
2299:
2264:(3): 287–306.
2243:
2208:
2201:
2183:
2128:
2103:(2): 195–207.
2079:
2044:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1996:
1995:
1990:
1983:
1980:
1966:
1965:
1959:
1953:
1947:
1941:
1931:
1925:
1924:(South Africa)
1919:
1913:
1905:
1902:
1887:(via Triassic
1836:
1833:
1641:
1638:
1563:. In Brumano,
1536:, a candidate
1534:Steinbergkogel
1514:
1511:
1504:updated their
1485:Culpeper Basin
1435:Pizzo Mondello
1412:Oyuklu section
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1286:
1283:
1279:posthernsteini
1202:sequence near
1187:
1184:
1073:Tethyan domain
1035:
1032:
1003:
1000:
996:Atlantic Ocean
917:Steinbergkogel
872:is the latest
864:
863:
860:
856:
855:
810:
806:
805:
797:
793:
792:
791:
790:
787:
782:
776:
770:Steinbergkogel
765:
761:
760:
759:
758:
747:
739:
725:
709:
705:
704:
701:
697:
696:
693:
689:
688:
683:
679:
678:
673:
669:
668:
664:
663:
662:ICS Time Scale
660:
656:
655:
648:
647:Regional usage
644:
643:
638:
637:Celestial body
634:
633:
629:
628:
625:
624:Name formality
621:
620:
616:
615:
611:
610:
598:
595:
594:
591:
590:
585:
583:
573:
572:
567:
565:
555:
554:
545:
543:
533:
532:
529:
527:
517:
516:
511:
509:
499:
498:
493:
491:
481:
480:
475:
473:
463:
462:
457:
455:
446:
442:
441:
437:
436:
432:
431:
427:
426:
418:
417:
409:
408:
400:
399:
391:
390:
382:
381:
373:
372:
364:
363:
355:
354:
346:
345:
335:
334:
324:
323:
313:
312:
302:
301:
293:
292:
284:
283:
271:
270:
262:
261:
251:
250:
240:
239:
237:
232:
227:
222:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
142:
137:
132:
127:
122:
117:
114:
113:
109:
108:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
71:
66:
61:
56:
51:
46:
45:
35:
34:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4696:
4685:
4682:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4674:Late Triassic
4672:
4670:
4667:
4666:
4664:
4651:
4646:
4640:
4635:
4629:
4626:
4621:
4617:
4613:
4608:
4602:
4600:
4593:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4572:
4569:
4568:
4566:
4564:
4557:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4528:
4526:
4524:
4517:
4511:
4508:
4506:
4503:
4501:
4498:
4497:
4495:
4493:
4486:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4466:
4464:
4462:
4460:(539 Ma–1 Ga)
4455:
4452:
4450:
4442:
4432:
4429:
4427:
4424:
4422:
4419:
4417:
4414:
4413:
4411:
4409:
4402:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4371:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4346:
4344:
4342:
4335:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4315:
4313:
4311:
4304:
4298:
4295:
4293:
4290:
4289:
4287:
4285:
4278:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4258:
4256:
4254:
4247:
4244:
4242:
4237:Paleozoic Era
4234:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4210:
4208:
4206:
4199:
4193:
4190:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4179:
4177:
4175:
4168:
4162:
4159:
4157:
4154:
4153:
4151:
4149:
4147:(66.0–145 Ma)
4142:
4139:
4137:
4135:(66.0–252 Ma)
4129:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4106:
4105:
4103:
4101:
4094:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4079:
4077:
4075:
4068:
4062:
4059:
4057:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4049:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4029:
4025:
4018:
4013:
4011:
4006:
4004:
3999:
3998:
3995:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3964:
3962:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3948:
3946:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3932:
3930:
3929:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3912:
3907:
3903:
3896:
3891:
3889:
3884:
3882:
3877:
3876:
3873:
3867:
3864:
3861:
3857:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3845:
3841:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3821:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3803:
3802:
3798:
3790:
3784:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3723:
3716:
3713:
3708:
3704:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3688:
3684:
3680:
3676:
3669:
3666:
3661:
3657:
3650:
3643:
3640:
3635:
3631:
3624:
3617:
3614:
3608:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3576:
3573:
3568:
3564:
3557:
3554:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3529:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3510:
3507:
3502:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3450:
3443:
3440:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3423:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3396:
3393:
3382:on 2021-07-09
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3331:
3324:
3321:
3315:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3291:
3288:
3284:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3258:
3255:
3249:
3248:11577/3233762
3244:
3239:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3215:
3212:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3190:
3189:11577/3338907
3185:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3158:
3156:
3152:
3147:
3141:
3133:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3099:
3097:
3093:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3041:
3038:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3018:
3016:
3014:
3010:
3005:
3001:
2997:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2974:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2926:
2919:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2903:
2900:
2895:
2891:
2884:
2877:
2875:
2873:
2871:
2867:
2862:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2805:
2798:
2796:
2794:
2792:
2788:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2752:(1): 61–102.
2751:
2747:
2740:
2733:
2731:
2727:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2679:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2646:
2644:
2640:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2596:
2594:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2581:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2536:
2529:
2527:
2525:
2521:
2516:
2510:
2502:
2498:
2491:
2484:
2482:
2480:
2478:
2474:
2469:
2467:9780444637710
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2444:
2442:
2438:
2433:
2429:
2422:
2415:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2405:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2365:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2349:
2346:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2303:
2300:
2295:
2289:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2247:
2244:
2231:
2225:
2223:
2221:
2219:
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2163:
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2075:
2071:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2048:
2045:
2039:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2007:
2004:
1998:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1963:
1960:
1957:
1954:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1944:Penarth Group
1942:
1939:
1935:
1932:
1929:
1926:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1903:
1901:
1899:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1877:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1866:
1861:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1834:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1805:
1803:
1799:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1777:M. hernsteini
1774:
1770:
1766:
1761:
1759:
1754:
1750:
1748:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1734:
1730:
1726:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1699:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1683:
1682:
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1673:
1669:
1665:
1657:
1656:
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1639:
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1627:
1626:M. hernsteini
1623:
1619:
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1614:M. hernsteini
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1580:-constrained
1579:
1575:
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1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1468:
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1462:
1458:
1457:conchostracan
1453:
1451:
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1440:
1436:
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1428:
1423:
1422:
1417:
1413:
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1233:Metasibirites
1229:
1226:
1225:
1220:
1217:
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1106:Metasibirites
1102:
1101:
1096:
1095:boreal domain
1092:
1089:
1086:
1085:
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1067:
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1017:
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1008:Rhaetian Alps
1001:
999:
997:
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983:
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971:
967:
963:
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649:
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639:
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603:
596:
588:
584:
579:
578:
570:
566:
561:
560:
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548:Scleractinian
544:
539:
538:
528:
523:
522:
510:
505:
504:
496:
492:
487:
486:
478:
474:
469:
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369:
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351:
342:
330:
319:
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297:
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288:
280:
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64:
59:
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49:
43:
36:
31:
26:
22:
4624:
4560:Archean Eon
4522:(1.6–2.5 Ga)
4407:(485–539 Ma)
4376:(444–485 Ma)
4340:(419–444 Ma)
4309:(359–419 Ma)
4283:(299–359 Ma)
4252:(252–299 Ma)
4240:(252–539 Ma)
4204:(201–252 Ma)
4173:(145–201 Ma)
4132:Mesozoic Era
4032:Cenozoic Era
3976:
3859:
3830:
3826:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3783:cite journal
3732:
3728:
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3682:
3678:
3668:
3659:
3655:
3642:
3633:
3629:
3616:
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3509:
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3395:
3384:. Retrieved
3377:the original
3340:
3336:
3323:
3304:
3300:
3290:
3264:
3257:
3228:
3224:
3214:
3171:
3167:
3140:cite journal
3113:
3109:
3054:
3050:
3040:
3031:
3027:
2987:
2984:GSA Bulletin
2983:
2935:
2931:
2907:
2902:
2893:
2889:
2860:
2814:
2810:
2749:
2745:
2688:
2684:
2659:
2656:Stratigraphy
2655:
2609:
2605:
2545:
2541:
2509:cite journal
2500:
2496:
2449:
2431:
2427:
2374:
2370:
2353:
2348:
2313:
2309:
2302:
2288:cite journal
2261:
2257:
2246:
2234:. Retrieved
2192:
2186:
2145:
2141:
2131:
2120:. Retrieved
2100:
2097:GSA Bulletin
2096:
2082:
2057:
2053:
2047:
2023:(196): 196.
2020:
2016:
2006:
1967:
1897:
1880:
1878:
1873:
1870:Pucará Basin
1863:
1855:. They used
1844:
1838:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1813:Milankovitch
1806:
1801:
1797:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1762:
1757:
1746:
1736:
1732:
1724:
1722:
1717:
1705:
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1688:
1679:
1667:
1661:
1653:
1649:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1608:(sensu lato)
1605:
1601:
1597:
1595:
1588:
1573:
1568:
1564:
1552:
1550:
1546:
1522:
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1454:
1449:
1445:
1443:
1432:
1425:
1419:
1407:
1405:
1399:
1378:
1372:
1361:
1351:
1341:
1337:
1323:
1312:
1306:
1304:
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1288:
1278:
1274:
1251:of southern
1244:
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1231:
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1132:
1130:
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1113:
1104:
1098:
1082:
1076:
1070:
1065:
1061:
1060:also called
1057:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1028:Albert Oppel
1024:Eduard Suess
1018:and western
1005:
989:
974:
970:unconformity
962:Newark basin
953:
943:
941:
869:
867:
800:
753:
742:
734:
720:
599:
530:Coals return
410:
285:
272:
263:
252:
241:
4596:Hadean Eon
4374:Ordovician
4145:Cretaceous
4045:Quaternary
3815:, Episodes
3685:: 207–223.
2691:(1): 1–16.
2662:(1): 47–65.
2571:2434/491902
2548:: 153–180.
2236:23 December
2089:Veevers, J.
1742:radiolarian
1586:radiolarian
1489:Palynomorph
1358:foraminifer
1348:palynomorph
1120:radiolarian
1014:, northern
1012:Switzerland
948:, a marine
846: /
751:Radiolarian
736:Cochloceras
349:Changhsing.
4663:Categories
4598:(4–4.6 Ga)
4562:(2.5–4 Ga)
4491:(1–1.6 Ga)
4097:Paleogene
3799:Literature
3656:Albertiana
3630:Albertiana
3386:2020-04-19
3174:: 103180.
3034:: 189–199.
2890:Albertiana
2497:Albertiana
2428:Albertiana
2122:2007-09-29
1999:References
1964:* (SW USA)
1900:. (2013).
1896:Blackburn
1879:Blackburn
1874:Psiloceras
1865:Psiloceras
1857:CA-ID-TIMS
1299:Psiloceras
1165:Angayucham
905:Hettangian
834:11°31′50″E
831:47°29′02″N
667:Definition
421:Hettangian
112:Chronology
4625:See also:
4405:Cambrian
4338:Silurian
4307:Devonian
4202:Triassic
4171:Jurassic
3940:Olenekian
3745:CiteSeerX
3707:0012-821X
3586:Geosphere
3548:0012-821X
3526:: 30–43.
3483:0027-8424
3434:0008-4077
3373:131224365
3365:0305-8719
3225:Geosphere
3206:218804530
3198:0012-8252
3132:1502-3931
3087:140691676
3079:0305-8719
3004:0016-7606
2960:0091-7613
2839:0012-821X
2782:129231967
2774:0305-8719
2713:0031-0182
2634:0012-821X
2580:0012-8252
2399:0091-7613
2340:128552062
2318:CiteSeerX
2280:1502-3931
1940:, France)
1751:anomaly.
1264:limestone
1238:Sagenites
1236:and some
1204:Hallstatt
1200:limestone
1128:biozone.
1030:in 1856.
619:Etymology
358:Olenekian
296:Lopingian
21:Rhaetians
4669:Rhaetian
4250:Permian
4071:Neogene
3977:Rhaetian
3956:Ladinian
3775:15895416
3767:23519213
3662:: 28–32.
3636:: 24–27.
3501:21571639
3301:Episodes
2434:: 11–12.
2310:Episodes
2178:35498132
2170:15273391
2074:17919771
1982:See also
1849:ammonite
1789:Slovakia
1720:(2014).
1685:bivalves
1648:Wotzlaw
1498:Tuvalian
1493:tetrapod
1385:Duration
1368:ostracod
1228:bivalves
1196:Austrian
1091:biozones
1088:ammonite
982:Peruvian
950:conodont
909:Jurassic
878:Triassic
870:Rhaetian
729:Ammonite
718:Conodont
650:Global (
412:Rhaetian
385:Ladinian
276:Triassic
255:Mesozoic
33:Rhaetian
3967:Carnian
3951:Anisian
3737:Bibcode
3729:Science
3687:Bibcode
3594:Bibcode
3528:Bibcode
3492:3107300
3461:Bibcode
3414:Bibcode
3345:Bibcode
3110:Lethaia
3059:Bibcode
2940:Bibcode
2932:Geology
2896:: 3–30.
2819:Bibcode
2754:Bibcode
2721:2559660
2693:Bibcode
2614:Bibcode
2550:Bibcode
2503:: 5–18.
2379:Bibcode
2371:Geology
2258:Lethaia
2150:Bibcode
2142:Science
2105:Bibcode
2025:Bibcode
1868:in the
1689:Monotis
1681:Monotis
1658:in Peru
1655:Monotis
1596:Hüsing
1521:Hüsing
1444:Gallet
1406:Gallet
1334:Austria
1224:Monotis
1115:Monotis
1111:bivalve
1071:In the
1020:Austria
992:Pangaea
985:bivalve
921:Austria
876:of the
822:Austria
781:, Italy
774:Austria
716:of the
581:←
563:←
541:←
525:←
507:←
489:←
471:←
453:←
394:Carnian
376:Anisian
229:–
219:–
209:–
199:–
189:–
179:–
169:–
159:–
149:–
139:–
129:–
4604:
3972:Norian
3935:Induan
3773:
3765:
3747:
3705:
3546:
3499:
3489:
3481:
3432:
3371:
3363:
3279:
3204:
3196:
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2958:
2908:et al.
2906:Brack
2837:
2780:
2772:
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2632:
2578:
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2354:et al.
2338:
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2176:
2168:
2072:
1825:et al.
1821:et al.
1817:et al.
1758:et al.
1725:et al.
1718:et al.
1698:et al.
1668:et al.
1650:et al.
1574:et al.
1553:et al.
1523:et al.
1446:et al.
1439:Sicily
1416:Turkey
1400:et al.
1291:Series
1271:nearby
1261:Cherty
1245:et al.
1219:suessi
1192:et al.
1180:France
1172:Alaska
1156:et al.
1133:et al.
1131:Maron
901:Norian
893:System
881:Period
785:Turkey
695:Formal
627:Formal
443:
438:
433:
428:
403:Norian
367:Induan
317:Middle
3817:28(4)
3771:S2CID
3725:(PDF)
3652:(PDF)
3626:(PDF)
3380:(PDF)
3369:S2CID
3333:(PDF)
3202:S2CID
3083:S2CID
2928:(PDF)
2886:(PDF)
2807:(PDF)
2778:S2CID
2742:(PDF)
2717:S2CID
2681:(PDF)
2538:(PDF)
2493:(PDF)
2424:(PDF)
2336:S2CID
2174:S2CID
1973:(see
1898:et al
1881:et al
1845:et al
1706:et al
1702:et al
1634:et al
1622:et al
1598:et al
1582:chert
1540:near
1450:et al
1408:et al
1295:genus
1253:Italy
1016:Italy
929:Italy
889:stage
732:genus
686:Stage
641:Earth
3865:and
3827:2004
3809:2005
3789:link
3763:PMID
3703:ISSN
3544:ISSN
3497:PMID
3479:ISSN
3430:ISSN
3361:ISSN
3277:ISBN
3194:ISSN
3146:link
3128:ISSN
3075:ISSN
3000:ISSN
2956:ISSN
2835:ISSN
2770:ISSN
2709:ISSN
2630:ISSN
2576:ISSN
2515:link
2462:ISBN
2395:ISSN
2294:link
2276:ISSN
2238:2020
2197:ISBN
2166:PMID
2070:PMID
1853:Peru
1779:and
1676:Peru
1538:GSSP
1471:CAMP
1366:(an
1326:GSSP
1324:The
1210:and
1081:and
913:GSSP
895:(in
883:(in
868:The
862:2010
328:Late
48:PreꞒ
3755:doi
3733:340
3695:doi
3683:475
3602:doi
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3524:399
3487:PMC
3469:doi
3457:108
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3341:334
3309:doi
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3243:hdl
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