459:
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1102:, an American medical anthropologist, conducted fieldwork among the Matawais between 1970 and 1973, with intermittent visits since. His doctoral dissertation focused on changes underway then in the matrilineal kinship and indigenous spiritual belief systems. He has become known for his work on processes related to AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases, especially in African nations, and making use of indigenous healers.
385:
severely restricted for many
Saramaka in their homeland. The end of the war in the mid-1990s initiated a period in which the national government largely neglected the needs of Saramaka and other Maroons while granting large timber and mining concessions to foreign multinationals (Chinese, Indonesian, Malaysian, and others) in traditional Saramaka territory. They did not consult the Saramaka authorities.
37:
964:, and other animals, to ancestors, river gods, and warrior spirits. Within these categories, each supernatural being is named, individualized, and given specific relationships to living people. Intimately involved in the ongoing events of daily life, these beings communicate to humans mainly through divination and spirit possession.
369:– individually, in small groups, and sometimes in great collective rebellions. For nearly 100 years, they fought from the rainforest for their independence. They were so feared that late 18th century maps showed the defensive fortifications in the European colony intended to protect against their raids.
840:, and other forms of divination. As the national government is intervening more frequently in Saramaka affairs (and paying political officials nominal salaries), the sacred base of these officials’ power is gradually being eroded. These political offices are historically controlled and the property of
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to an ancestor's displeasure. Once the cause is known, rites are carried out to appease the offended god or ancestor (or otherwise right the social imbalance). Since the 1960s, Western mission clinics and hospitals have been used by most
Saramaka as a supplement to their own healing practices. During
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A woman is required to go into seclusion during her menstrual cycle. The cycle is considered a time of transgression and destructive of village order. Women are not allowed to perform many of the village's functions and face other restrictions during their menstrual cycle. The
Saramaka expression "to
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from the time of their ancestor's escape from slavery in the eighteenth century. In the latter part of 1993, a local, independent missionary by the name of Steve
Groseclose and a small group of Saramaka men from other less remote villages ventured beyond the main barrier point called Tapa Wata Sula,
1021:
The dead play an active role in the lives of the living. Ancestor shrines – several to a village – are the site of frequent prayers and libations, as the dead are consulted about ongoing village problems. A death occasions a series of complex rituals that lasts about a year, culminating in the final
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are the avenging spirits of people or gods who were wronged during their lifetime and who pledge themselves to eternally tormenting the matrilineal descendants and close matrilineal kinsmen of their offender. Much of
Saramaka ritual life is devoted to their appeasement. The Saramaka believe that all
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Once the men have cleared and burned the fields, horticulture is mainly women's work. Women cultivate and process a variety of crops, choosing which to develop to continue preferred qualities. They process the food for meals and storage of foods such as peanuts. They use parts of plants to make some
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Due to their matrilineal ties, many women have a house in their own birth village, another in their horticultural camp, and a third in their husband's village. Men divide their time among several different houses, built at various times for themselves and for their wives. Traditional
Saramaka houses
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that serve large numbers of clients, as well as the various categories of possession gods, and various kinds of minor divination. These specialists generally pass on their knowledge to selected individuals before death. A large proportion of
Saramaka have some kind of specialized ritual expertise,
691:. Hunting and gathering rights belong to clan members collectively. Within the clan, temporary rights to land use for farming are negotiated by village headmen. The establishment of transmigration villages in the 1960s led to land shortages in certain regions. The success of the Saramakas in their
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to land disputes, political succession, or major crimes. These same problems, in addition to illness and other kinds of misfortune, are routinely interpreted through various kinds of divination as well. In all cases, consensus is found through negotiation, often with a strong role being played by
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originates in human action; not only does each misfortune, illness, or death stem from a specific past misdeed, but every offense, whether against people or gods, has eventual consequences. The ignoble acts of the dead intrude daily on the lives of the living; any illness or misfortune calls for
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During the late 1980s, a civil war between
Maroons and the military government of Suriname caused considerable hardship to the Saramaka and other Maroons. By mid-1989 approximately 3,000 Saramaka and 8,000 Ndyuka were living as temporary refugees in French Guiana. Access to the outside world was
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Aside from adultery disputes, which sometimes mobilize a full canoe-load of men seeking revenge in a public fistfight, intra-Saramaka conflict rarely surpasses the level of personal relations. The civil war that began in 1986, pitting
Maroons against the national army of Suriname, brought major
381:. Innovative scholarly research since the late 20th century has brought together oral and archival accounts in new histories. Like the other Suriname Maroons, the Saramaka lived almost as a state-within-a-state until the mid-20th century, when the pace of outside encroachments increased.
616:; they also do most of the fishing as well. Men have long devoted a large portion of their adult years to earning money in work in coastal Suriname or French Guiana. This allows them to buy the Western goods considered essential to life in their home villages, such as shotguns and
232:
supporting their land rights in
Suriname for lands they have historically occupied, over national government claims. It was a landmark decision for indigenous peoples in the world. They have received compensation for damages and control this fund for their own development goals.
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translated as Shut Off Rapids. This initial excursion led to subsequent trips and began the gradual influx of increasing outside influence throughout the following years. A local Saramaka man named Pompeia had left one of the uncontacted villages to visit the capital city of
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is not determined by the calendar, but rather regulated by the occurrence of particular misfortunes, interpreted through divination. The most important ceremonies include those surrounding funerals and the appeasement of ancestors, public curing rites, rituals in honor of
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of the deceased from the village forever. These rites involve the largest public gatherings in Saramaka and also include all-night drum/song/dance performances. At their conclusion, the deceased has passed out of the realm of the living into that of the ancestors.
450:(paramount chief) of the Saramaka, signed an official accord that the Saramaka could stay in French Guiana under the legal authority of the Granman. The accords have never been rescinded and allow the tribe entry to French Guiana without the risk of deportation.
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of slaves in Suriname, the Maroons won their freedom and signed a treaty with the Dutch Crown to acknowledge their territorial rights and trading privileges. The Saramaka have a keen interest in the history of their formative years; they preserve their very rich
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The Saramaka people, like the other Maroon groups, are politically and formally run by men. The 2007 ruling of the Inter-American Court for Human Rights helps define the spheres of influence in which the national government and Saramaka authorities hold sway.
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plus some wives and children of lineage men. Always located near a river, for water, transportation and fishing, they are constructed of an irregular arrangement of small houses, open-sided structures, domesticated trees, occasional chicken houses, various
605:, practiced by virtually all Saramaka women as late as the 1970s and 1980s, had become relatively uncommon by the start of the 21st century. Numerous genres of singing, dance, drumming, and tale telling continue to be a vibrant part of Saramaka culture.
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filled with personal belongings. These rites include divination with the coffin (to consult the spirit of the deceased) by carrying it on the heads of two men, feasts for the ancestors, all-night drum/song/dance performances, and the telling of
918:. The means of communication with these powers vary from spirit possession and the consultation of oracle-bundles, to the interpretation of dreams. Gods and spirits, which are a constant presence in daily life, are also honored through frequent
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passage of the deceased to the status of ancestor. The initial rites, which are carried out over a period of one week to three months, depending on the importance of the deceased, end with the burial of the corpse in an elaborately constructed
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is established early, with children taking on responsibility for gender-typed adult tasks as soon as they are physically able. Girls often marry by age 15, whereas boys are more often in their twenties when they take their first wife.
855:) and divination sessions provide complementary arenas for the resolution of social problems. Palavers may involve the men of a lineage, a village, or all Saramaka. They treat problems ranging from conflicts concerning marriage or
518:
For more than two centuries, the economy has been based on full exploitation of the forest environment and on periodic work trips by men to the coast to bring back Western goods. For subsistence, the Saramaka depend on shifting
475:, and scattered patches of bush. (In contrast, the so-called transmigration villages, built to house the 6,000 Saramaka displaced by the hydroelectric project, range up to 2,000 people. They are laid out in a European-style
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and ancestors. In a type of reconciliation justice, guilty parties are usually required to pay for their misdeeds with material offerings to the lineage of the offended person. In the 18th century people found guilty of
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beliefs. Such decisions as where to clear a garden or build a house, whether to undertake a trip, or how to deal with theft or adultery are made in consultation with village deities, ancestors, forest spirits, and
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gold-miners arrived on the Suriname river. Such economic activities as prostitution, casino gambling, and drug smuggling became major industries in coastal Suriname and accompanied the miners to the interior.
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bowls. Some men also produced baskets, and some women made pottery. Men built the houses and canoes. In addition, they carved a wide range of wooden objects for domestic use, such as stools, paddles,
523:) horticulture done mostly by women, with hunting and fishing done by men, supplemented by the women gathering wild forest products, such as palm nuts. They imported a few key items, such as
416:
in the Americas, the Saramaka were granted collective rights to the lands on which their ancestors had lived since the early 18th century, including rights to decide about the exploitation of
365:
to Europeans in Suriname in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Coming from a variety of West and Central African peoples speaking many different languages, they escaped into the dense
424:
within that territory. In addition, they were granted compensation from the government for damages caused by previous timber grants made to Chinese companies. This was paid into a special
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and women's decorative sewing. Although many women live primarily in their husband's village, men never spend more than a few days at a time in the matrilineal (home) village of a wife.
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Beginning in mid-2010, the people formerly known as “Saramaka” began identifying themselves, in their official documents in English, as "Saamaka," to conform to their own pronunciation.
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came to most villages only in the 1960s. Schools ceased to function completely during the Suriname civil war of the late 1980s and have been rebuilt only partially since.
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758:, girls typically are raised by women, and boys by men. Although children spend most of their time with matrilineal kin, father-child relations are warm and strong.
244:. Since 1990 especially, some of the Saramaka have migrated to French Guiana due to extended civil war in Suriname. By the early 16th century, the term "maroon" (
353:(the latter were later colonists). Although lexically different, the grammar resembles that of the other Atlantic creoles and derives from West African models.
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and plunder. Their reintegration into Saramaka (and Ndyuka) society has been difficult, though their migration to the coast and French Guiana has provided a
2381:
2295:
2057:
Price, Richard, and Sally Price. 1977. "Music from Saramaka: A Dynamic Afro American Tradition", Washington, D.C., Smithsonian Folkways Recording FE 4225.
1558:
Brunner, Lisl (1 October 2008). "The Rise of Peoples' Rights in the Americas: The Saramaka People Decision of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights".
479:, used throughout larger South American cities. In many cases they have been located far from the riverside, making life difficult for the occupants.)
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derives from various West and Central African languages, 20 percent from English (the language of the original colonists in Suriname), 20 percent from
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ruled in favor of the Saramaka people against the government of Suriname. In this landmark decision, which establishes a precedent for all Maroon and
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Every case of illness is believed to have a specific cause that can be determined only through divination. The causes revealed vary from a lineage
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680:) – usually 50 to 150 people – descended from a more recent ancestress. Several lineages from a single clan constitute the core of every village.
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thereafter). This late-20th century fieldwork complements the modern fieldwork carried out among other groups of Suriname Maroons, such as the
1942:(Ph.D. dissertation, Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America, 1974.) Available through University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1974.
1928:
Brunner, Lisl. 2008. "The Rise of Peoples’ Rights in the Americas: The Saramaka People Decision of the Inter-American Court on Human Rights."
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Until the late 20th century, the Saramaka produced most of their material culture, much of it embellished with decorative detail. Women sewed
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Each child, after spending its first several years with its mother, is raised by an individual man or woman (not a couple) designated by the
329:. The Ndyuka, Paramaka, and Aluku, (in eastern Suriname), as well as the several hundred Kwinti, speak variants of another creole language,
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the Suriname Civil War of the 1980s and 1990s, most of these facilities were destroyed. They have only been very partially restored since.
409:
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713:. Although co-wives hold equal status, relations between them are expected to be adversarial. The Saramaka treat marriage as an ongoing
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earlier that year. His knowledge of the villages beyond Tapa Wata Sula made him an invaluable guide on the first trips into the area.
264:) are one minority within this multi-ethnic nation. The Saramaka, together with the other Maroons in Suriname and French Guiana: the
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The Great Father and the Danger: Religious Cults, Material Forces, and Collective Fantasies in the World of the Surinamese Maroons
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surrounding birth, death, and other life passages are extensive, as are those relating to more mundane activities, from hunting a
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1607:"Les conventions entre la France et les peuples Marrons du Surinam. Contribution Ă l'Ă©tude des middle-grounds post-esclavagistes"
318:. Today, about one-third of the Saramaka live in French Guiana, most having migrated there since 1990 after warfare in Suriname.
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The Great Father and the Danger: Religious Cults, Material Forces, and Collective Fantasies in the World of the Suriname Maroons
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In addition, during this period there were numerous social changes, both on the coast of Suriname and in Saramaka territory.
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Matrilineal principles, mediated by divination, determine the inheritance of material and spiritual possessions as well as
628:. During the second half of the 20th century, small stores were established in many villages, making more goods available.
507:. Since the Suriname civil war, the Saramaka have built an increasing number of houses in coastal, Western style. They use
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444:. During the gold rush, their services became important for the economy. In 1883, the Governor of French Guiana and the
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832:). Traditionally, the role of these officials in political and social control was exercised in a context replete with
598:, cooking utensils, and combs. Today, an increasing number of items, including clothing, are imported from the coast.
1935:"Case of the Saramaka People v. Suriname." Inter-American Court for Human Rights (ser. C). No. 172 (28 November 2007)
307:, a major aluminum company. They were relocated to allow flooding of approximately half their tribal territory for a
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648:. New economic opportunities in the gold industry – mining for men, prostitution for women – are being exploited.
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are compact, wide enough to tie a hammock and not much longer from front to back; with walls of planks and woven
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against the government of Suriname will now permit them to manage their lands with less outside interference.
1589:. Unshackled Spaces: Fugitives from Slavery and Maroon Communities in the Americas. Williamsburg, Virginia:
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20:
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687:) own land, based on claims staked out in the early 18th century as the original Maroons fled southward to
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have also studied the people (intermittently between 1966 and the present: in Suriname until 1986, and in
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For examples of popular songs, work songs, finger piano pieces, children's riddles, drum language on the
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divination, which quickly reveals the specific past act that caused it. Through the performance of
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with the wife of another man are either beaten by the woman's kinsmen or made to pay them a fine.
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1801:"TRIP DOWN MEMORY LANE: SARAMAKA (SARAMACCAN) PEOPLE: THE FEARLESS SURINAME LARGEST MAROON TRIBE"
1210:
Arrom, José (1986). "Cimarrón: Apuntes sobre sus primeras documentaciones y su probable origen".
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from each village. They are exploited by small groups of women related through matrilineal ties.
413:
241:
191:
668:) – often several thousand individuals – consists of the matrilineal descendants of an original
1987:
Migge, Bettina (ed.). 2007. "Substrate Influence in the Creoles of Suriname." Special issue of
1956:(Contributions to Linguistics and Ethnology, the Netherlands), Vol.133, pp. 136 154, 1977.
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to planting a rice field. Today about 25 per cent of Saramaka are nominal Christians – mainly
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members or temporary visitors, eat meals together. The women of these same clusters, whether
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1002:(in particular snake gods and forest spirits), and the installation of political officials.
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are distinguished. Elders are accorded special respect and ancestors are consulted, through
633:
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and its tributaries, the GaánlĂo and the PikĂlĂo. Since the 1960s, they also live along the
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men, spend a great deal of time in each other's company, often farming together as well.
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In the mid-1990s, the Association of Saramaka Authorities filed a complaint before the
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of escaped slaves. Children are considered born into this clan. It is subdivided into
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Individual specialists who supervise rites oversee the major village- and clan-owned
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1514:. Inter-American Court of Human Rights (La Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos)
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beings, from localized forest spirits and gods that reside in the bodies of snakes,
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1996:
Vluchtelingen, opstandelingen en andere: Bosnegers van Oost-Suriname, 1986-1988
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Vluchtelingen, opstandelingen en andere: Bosnegers van Oost-Suriname, 1986-1988
466:
Traditional villages, which average 100 to 200 residents, consist of a core of
2262:
2104:
In the Shadow of the Oracle: Religion as Politics in a Suriname Maroon Society
1902:
In the Shadow of the Oracle: Religion as Politics in a Suriname Maroon Society
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is the most cultivated crop, in dry (hillside) technique. Other crops include
512:
366:
346:
337:, the creole language of coastal Suriname. About 50 percent of the Saramaccan
81:
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are ubiquitous: both men and women have greatly increased communication with
2036:
Price, Richard. 2002. "Maroons in Suriname and Guyane: How Many and Where."
1701:
1237:(3rd ed.). Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp.
1031:. Some months later, a "second funeral" is conducted to mark the end of the
910:
856:
714:
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476:
440:. They first came to French Guiana in the 19th century as freighters to the
248:) was used throughout the Americas to designate slaves who had escaped from
196:
1836:
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Since the 18th-century treaty, the Saramaka have had a government-approved
483:, which include permanent houses and shrines, are located several hours by
361:
The ancestors of the Saramaka were among those Africans sold as plantation
36:
1641:. RĂo Piedras: Institute of Caribbean Studies, University of Puerto Rico.
1152:. New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids Volume 87: Issue 3-4.
1048:
The Saramaka people beyond Gaan Lio lived in relative isolation and as an
978:, the ancestors speak, the gods dance, and the world is again made right.
291:
in the 17th and 18th centuries, the Saramaka have lived chiefly along the
2257:
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1966:
Green, Edward C., "Winti and Christianity: A Study of Religious Change",
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Travels with Tooy: History, Memory, and the African American Imagination
1756:
Travels with Tooy: History, Memory, and the African American Imagination
1509:"Case of the Saramaka People v. Suriname, Judgment of November 28, 2007"
1288:
Travels with Tooy: History, Memory, and the African American Imagination
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564:
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The Saramaka and the Matawai (in central Suriname) speak variants of a
288:
249:
709:. Demographic imbalance, owing to labor migration, permits widespread
2644:
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1945:
Green, Edward C., "Rum: A Special purpose Money in Matawai Society",
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occurs outdoors. The men in each cluster of several houses, whether
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The Root of Roots, Or, How Afro-American Anthropology Got Its Start
2017:
To Slay the Hydra: Dutch Colonial Perspectives on the Saramaka Wars
1852:
The Root of Roots: Or, How Afro-American Anthropology Got its Start
1331:
To Slay the Hydra: Dutch Colonial Perspectives on the Saramaka Wars
2713:
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2212:
2003:
Saramaka Social Structure: Analysis of a Maroon Society in Surinam
1639:
Saramaka Social Structure: Analysis of a Maroon Society in Surinam
1354:
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934:
841:
544:
484:
441:
345:(the language of the overseers and slave masters on many Suriname
304:
277:
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The 90,000 Saramaka in Suriname (some of whom live in neighboring
129:
1744:. United States: The University Michigan Press. pp. xi–xii.
970:
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540:
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528:
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The Riverbones: Stumbling After Eden in the Jungles of Suriname
1482:
The Riverbones: Stumbling After Eden in the Jungles of Suriname
1459:. Copenhagen: International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs.
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be in menstrual seclusion" is the same as "to be in mourning."
1984:. Copenhagen, International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs.
987:
625:
349:), and the remaining 10 percent from Amerindian languages and
252:
and set up independent communities beyond colonists' control.
1355:"Extract of the Dutch Map Representing the Colony of Surinam"
583:
are mainly cultivated in the villages. There are no markets.
503:. They do not have windows but often have elaborately carved
2010:
First-Time: The Historical Vision of an Afro-American People
1940:
The Matawai Maroons: An Acculturating Afro American Society,
1382:
First-time: The Historical Vision of an Afro-American People
809:
have existed in some villages since the 18th century. State
2005:. RĂo Piedras, Puerto Rico: Institute of Caribbean Studies.
1959:
Green, Edward C., "Social Control in Tribal Afro America",
1900:
Wetering, H.U.E. Thoden van; Velzen, W. van Velzen (2004).
724:
Each house belongs to an individual man or woman, but most
2117:
1973:
Herskovits, Melville J., and Frances S. Herskovits. 1934.
986:
which they occasionally exercise. They are paid in cloth,
2033:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 3rd edition.
2031:
Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas
1233:
Maroon Societies: Rebel Slave Communities in the Americas
877:
changes to the villages of the interior. Members of the "
511:
as well as wood, and feature windows and more expansive
1457:
The Rights of Indigenous Peoples and Maroons of Suriname
41:
Saramaka man, photo c.1910, from Sir Harry H. Johnson's
2012:. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press.
1982:
The Rights of Indigenous People and Maroons in Suriname
1696:(CD). Washington, DC: Smithsonian/Folkways Recordings.
747:. Before death, however, men often pass on specialized
2102:
Thoden van Velzen, H.U.E., and W. van Wetering. 2004.
2095:
Thoden van Velzen, H.U.E., and W. van Wetering. 1988.
2090:
Maroon Arts: Cultural Vitality in the African Diaspora
1694:
Music from Saramaka: A Dynamic Afro American Tradition
1664:
Maroon Arts: Cultural Vitality in the African Diaspora
1146:"The Maroon Population Explosion: Suriname and Guyane"
869:
were sometimes burned at the stake. Today, men caught
392:
volunteers lived and worked in Saramaka villages, and
1994:
Polimé, T. S., and H. U. E. Thoden van Velzen. 1998.
1975:
Rebel Destiny: Among the Bush Negroes of Dutch Guiana
1828:
Rebel Destiny: Among the Bush Negroes of Dutch Guiana
1825:
Melville J Herskovits; Frances S. Herskovits (1934).
1290:, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008, p. 436.
1185:"Albert Aboikoni is nu officieel granman van Saamaka"
1875:
Velzen, H.U.E. Thoden van; Wetering, W. van (1988).
1068:
among the Saramaka was first conducted by Americans
848:). Political activity is strongly dominated by men.
220:(formerly called "Bush Negroes") in the Republic of
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2570:
2547:
2514:
2464:
2397:
2280:
2155:
952:The Saramaka world is populated by a wide range of
190:
160:
140:
123:
111:
101:
91:
80:
64:
59:
49:
1769:
1605:
1537:. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania Press.
1434:. Utrecht: Instituut voor Culturele Antropologie.
1430:Polimé, Thomas; van Velzen, H.U.E. Thoden (1988).
1230:
656:Saramaka society is firmly based on a matrilineal
2054:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
1998:. Utrecht: Instituut voor Culturele Antropologie.
1072:(during two summers in 1928 and 1929). Americans
751:knowledge (and occasionally a shotgun) to a son.
717:, with frequent exchanges of gifts such as men's
16:Maroon ethnic group of Suriname and French Guiana
1503:
1501:
1302:"Substrate Influence in the Creoles of Suriname"
436:The Saramaka maroons were originally living in
941:(some since the mid-18th century), but others
2604:
2375:
2133:
1980:Kambel, Ellen-Rose, and Fergus MacKay. 1999.
1952:Green, Edward C., "Matawai Lineage Fission",
1758:, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2008.
1409:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
1384:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
333:. Both languages are historically related to
8:
2026:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
1324:
1322:
1136:
1134:
428:fund, which is now managed by the Saramaka.
228:. In 2007, the Saramaka won a ruling by the
29:
1768:Price, Richard; Bilby, Sally Price (1991).
1719:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
1455:Kambel, Ellen-Rose; MacKay, Fergus (1999).
372:In 1762, a full century before the general
2611:
2597:
2589:
2382:
2368:
2360:
2140:
2126:
2118:
2085:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
2052:Rainforest Warriors: Human Rights on Trial
1954:Bijdragen Tot de Taal Land En Volkenkunde
1879:. Dordrecht, Holland: Foris Publications.
1587:Saramaka Maroons on the Brazilian Frontier
1266:. Chateauneuf-le-Rouge: Vents d'Ailleurs.
1212:Revista Española de AntropologĂa Americana
35:
28:
2071:. Châteauneuf-le-Rouge: Vents d'ailleurs.
1535:Rainforest Warriors Human Rights on Trial
1161:
771:Political organization and social control
705:) and preferences are negotiated through
698:Complex marriage prohibitions (including
402:Inter-American Commission of Human Rights
236:The word "Maroon" comes from the Spanish
1776:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
457:
2088:Price, Sally, and Richard Price. 1999.
2074:Price, Richard, and Sally Price. 2003.
2067:Price, Richard, and Sally Price. 2003.
2064:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2060:Price, Richard, and Sally Price. 1991.
2047:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1949:Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 411 417, 1976.
1130:
1111:
1989:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages
1309:Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages
620:, tools, pots, cloth, hammocks, soap,
157:
19:For the village in French Guiana, see
1970:Vol.25, No.3, pp. 251 276, 1978;
1850:Price, Richard; Price, Sally (2003).
1692:Price, Richard; Price, Sally (1977).
1662:Price, Sally; Price, Richard (1999).
1262:Price, Richard; Price, Sally (2003).
945:. Increasingly some are converted to
640:became common consumer items. Today,
612:The men conduct hunting of game with
590:and embroidered clothing, and carved
410:Inter-American Court for Human Rights
230:Inter-American Court for Human Rights
7:
1930:Chinese Journal of International Law
1904:. Long Grove, Ill.: Waveland Press.
1831:. New York and London: McGraw-Hill.
1560:Chinese Journal of International Law
60:Regions with significant populations
1977:. New York and London: McGraw-Hill.
1854:. Chicago, Ill.: Prickly Paradigm.
824:), as well as a series of headmen (
462:Example of art by the Saramaka folk
311:built to supply electricity for an
284:(who together number some 25,000).
2078:. Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press.
897:, if not for the receiving areas.
454:Subsistence, economy, and the arts
14:
1963:Vol 50(3) pp. 107 116, 1977.
224:and one of the Maroon peoples in
136:: Moravian, Catholic, Evangelical
2687:
1070:Melville and Frances Herskovits
299:in villages constructed by the
1088:ethnography of Dutch scholars
889:. They became accustomed to a
563:. Domesticated trees, such as
1:
1591:College of William & Mary
885:and Saramaka, learned to use
807:Protestant missionary schools
736:members or resident wives of
495:, and traditionally roofs of
2296:British and French Caribbean
1947:Social and Economic Studies,
1690:talking drum, and more, see
1300:Migge, Bettina, ed. (2007).
1229:Price, Richard, ed. (1996).
795:. No social or occupational
240:, which was derived from an
2113:. Toronto: Emblem Editions.
2029:Richard Price (ed.). 1996.
1484:. Toronto, Canada: Emblem.
1361:. Library of Congress. 1777
2790:
2301:Spanish New World colonies
1961:Anthropological Quarterly,
990:, or, increasingly, cash.
43:The Negro in the New World
18:
2685:
1572:10.1093/chinesejil/jmn031
1333:. Ann Arbor, MI: Karoma.
1163:10.1163/22134360-12340110
905:Every aspect of Saramaka
881:" rebel army, almost all
828:) and assistant headmen (
432:Presence in French Guiana
390:United States Peace Corps
168:
145:
128:
116:
54:
34:
2062:Two Evenings in Saramaka
1772:Two Evenings in Saramaka
1666:. Boston: Beacon Press.
1480:Westoll, Andrew (2008).
1050:uncontacted people group
949:of one or another kind.
791:forming the backbone of
408:. In November 2007, the
287:Since their escape from
2109:Westoll, Andrew. 2008.
2106:. Long Grove: Waveland.
2092:. Boston: Beacon Press.
2083:Co-Wives and Calabashes
1742:Co-Wives and Calabashes
1717:Co-wives and Calabashes
1637:Price, Richard (1975).
1585:Price, Richard (2002).
1533:Price, Richard (2012).
1405:Price, Richard (1995).
1380:Price, Richard (1983).
1329:Price, Richard (1983).
1090:Bonno Thoden van Velzen
683:The matrilineal clans (
21:Saramaka, French Guiana
2769:Indigenous land rights
2620:Ancestry and ethnicity
2347:Quilombola territories
2342:Quilombola communities
2050:Price, Richard. 2011.
2043:Price, Richard. 2008.
2022:Price, Richard. 1990.
2015:Price, Richard. 1983.
2008:Price, Richard. 1983.
2001:Price, Richard. 1975.
1612:Histoire de la Justice
926:, feasts, and dances.
463:
164:of the Saramaka people
2038:New West Indian Guide
1805:TRIP DOWN MEMORY LANE
1740:Price, Sally (1996).
1715:Price, Sally (1984).
1359:Digital World Library
1150:New West Indian Guide
499:or, increasingly, of
461:
309:hydroelectric project
141:Related ethnic groups
2081:Price, Sally. 1984.
2019:. Ann Arbor: Karoma.
1624:10.3917/rhj.026.0201
1604:Yerri Urban (2016).
1061:Ethnographic studies
909:is based in various
871:in flagrante delicto
803:, on a daily basis.
297:Lower Suriname River
293:Upper Suriname River
256:Setting and language
2287:History of slavery
2099:. Dordrecht: Foris.
793:social organization
652:Social organization
481:Horticultural camps
420:such as timber and
301:colonial government
55:90,000 (2013, est.)
31:
2774:Surinamese Maroons
2337:Haitian Revolution
2178:Great Dismal Swamp
1094:Ineke van Wetering
851:Council meetings (
811:elementary schools
726:social interaction
464:
414:indigenous peoples
268:(90,000), and the
2751:
2750:
2586:
2585:
2391:Surinamese people
2357:
2356:
1938:Green, Edward C.
1035:and to chase the
887:automatic weapons
838:spirit possession
745:political offices
634:transistor radios
418:natural resources
404:to protect their
202:
201:
156:
155:
130:Saramaka religion
2781:
2691:
2613:
2606:
2599:
2590:
2384:
2377:
2370:
2361:
2316:colonial history
2142:
2135:
2128:
2119:
1916:
1915:
1897:
1891:
1890:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1847:
1841:
1840:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1813:
1812:
1797:
1788:
1787:
1775:
1765:
1759:
1752:
1746:
1745:
1737:
1731:
1730:
1712:
1706:
1705:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1659:
1653:
1652:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1609:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1582:
1576:
1575:
1555:
1549:
1548:
1530:
1524:
1523:
1521:
1519:
1513:
1505:
1496:
1495:
1477:
1471:
1470:
1452:
1446:
1445:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1377:
1371:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1351:
1345:
1344:
1326:
1317:
1316:
1306:
1297:
1291:
1284:
1278:
1277:
1259:
1253:
1252:
1236:
1226:
1220:
1219:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1191:. 12 August 2018
1181:
1175:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1165:
1156:(3–4): 323–327.
1138:
1119:
1116:
1092:and his partner
1013:, from a broken
501:corrugated metal
182:
158:
50:Total population
39:
32:
2789:
2788:
2784:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2779:
2778:
2754:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2692:
2683:
2626:
2617:
2587:
2582:
2566:
2543:
2510:
2460:
2393:
2388:
2358:
2353:
2325:Slave rebellion
2276:
2166:Black Seminoles
2151:
2146:
2116:
1924:
1922:Further reading
1919:
1912:
1899:
1898:
1894:
1887:
1874:
1873:
1869:
1862:
1849:
1848:
1844:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1810:
1808:
1799:
1798:
1791:
1784:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1754:Richard Price,
1753:
1749:
1739:
1738:
1734:
1727:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1691:
1685:
1681:
1674:
1661:
1660:
1656:
1649:
1636:
1635:
1631:
1618:(26): 201–221.
1603:
1602:
1598:
1593:. pp. 1–2.
1584:
1583:
1579:
1557:
1556:
1552:
1545:
1532:
1531:
1527:
1517:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1506:
1499:
1492:
1479:
1478:
1474:
1467:
1454:
1453:
1449:
1442:
1429:
1428:
1424:
1417:
1404:
1403:
1399:
1392:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1364:
1362:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1328:
1327:
1320:
1304:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1286:Richard Price,
1285:
1281:
1274:
1261:
1260:
1256:
1249:
1228:
1227:
1223:
1209:
1208:
1204:
1194:
1192:
1183:
1182:
1178:
1168:
1166:
1140:
1139:
1132:
1128:
1123:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1108:
1100:Edward C. Green
1063:
1046:
1033:mourning period
995:ceremonial life
903:
879:Jungle Commando
818:paramount chief
773:
760:Gender identity
654:
630:Outboard motors
596:winnowing trays
468:matrilineal kin
456:
434:
359:
323:creole language
258:
216:are one of six
186:
185:since 2018
184:
183:
176:
174:Albert Aboikoni
172:
45:
27:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2787:
2785:
2777:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2756:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2729:
2728:
2727:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2700:
2698:
2697:Non-Indigenous
2694:
2693:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2681:
2676:
2671:
2666:
2665:
2664:
2659:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2636:
2634:
2628:
2627:
2618:
2616:
2615:
2608:
2601:
2593:
2584:
2583:
2581:
2580:
2574:
2572:
2571:South American
2568:
2567:
2565:
2564:
2559:
2553:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2542:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2520:
2518:
2512:
2511:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2470:
2468:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2458:
2453:
2452:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2403:
2401:
2395:
2394:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2379:
2372:
2364:
2355:
2354:
2352:
2351:
2350:
2349:
2339:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2322:
2321:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2313:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2284:
2282:
2281:Related topics
2278:
2277:
2275:
2274:
2269:
2268:
2267:
2266:
2265:
2255:
2250:
2242:
2241:
2240:
2235:
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2220:
2215:
2210:
2202:
2197:
2196:
2195:
2187:
2182:
2181:
2180:
2175:
2174:
2173:
2162:United States
2159:
2157:
2153:
2152:
2147:
2145:
2144:
2137:
2130:
2122:
2115:
2114:
2107:
2100:
2093:
2086:
2079:
2072:
2065:
2058:
2055:
2048:
2041:
2034:
2027:
2020:
2013:
2006:
1999:
1992:
1985:
1978:
1971:
1964:
1957:
1950:
1943:
1936:
1933:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1917:
1910:
1892:
1885:
1867:
1860:
1842:
1817:
1789:
1782:
1760:
1747:
1732:
1725:
1707:
1679:
1672:
1654:
1647:
1629:
1596:
1577:
1566:(3): 699–711.
1550:
1543:
1525:
1497:
1491:978-0771088759
1490:
1472:
1466:978-8790730178
1465:
1447:
1440:
1422:
1415:
1397:
1390:
1372:
1346:
1339:
1318:
1292:
1279:
1273:978-2911412226
1272:
1254:
1248:978-0801854965
1247:
1221:
1202:
1176:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1110:
1109:
1107:
1104:
1062:
1059:
1045:
1042:
947:Evangelicalism
943:Roman Catholic
902:
899:
772:
769:
658:kinship system
653:
650:
638:tape recorders
609:needed goods.
455:
452:
433:
430:
379:oral tradition
358:
355:
257:
254:
218:Maroon peoples
200:
199:
194:
188:
187:
170:
169:
166:
165:
154:
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143:
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126:
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114:
113:
109:
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105:
99:
98:
95:
89:
88:
85:
78:
77:
74:
67:Boven Suriname
62:
61:
57:
56:
52:
51:
47:
46:
40:
25:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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2775:
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2712:
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2707:
2706:
2705:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2695:
2690:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2670:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2653:
2650:
2646:
2643:
2642:
2641:
2638:
2637:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2624:French Guiana
2621:
2614:
2609:
2607:
2602:
2600:
2595:
2594:
2591:
2579:
2576:
2575:
2573:
2569:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2554:
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2550:
2546:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
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2521:
2519:
2517:
2513:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2472:
2471:
2469:
2467:
2463:
2457:
2454:
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2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2417:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2385:
2380:
2378:
2373:
2371:
2366:
2365:
2362:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2331:
2330:United States
2328:
2327:
2326:
2323:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2308:
2307:
2306:United States
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2288:
2286:
2285:
2283:
2279:
2273:
2270:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2179:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2168:
2167:
2164:
2163:
2161:
2160:
2158:
2156:Ethnic groups
2154:
2150:
2143:
2138:
2136:
2131:
2129:
2124:
2123:
2120:
2112:
2108:
2105:
2101:
2098:
2094:
2091:
2087:
2084:
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2077:
2073:
2070:
2066:
2063:
2059:
2056:
2053:
2049:
2046:
2042:
2039:
2035:
2032:
2028:
2025:
2024:Alabi's World
2021:
2018:
2014:
2011:
2007:
2004:
2000:
1997:
1993:
1990:
1986:
1983:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1969:
1968:Ethnohistory,
1965:
1962:
1958:
1955:
1951:
1948:
1944:
1941:
1937:
1934:
1931:
1927:
1926:
1921:
1913:
1911:9781577663232
1907:
1903:
1896:
1893:
1888:
1886:9789067652346
1882:
1878:
1871:
1868:
1863:
1861:9780972819626
1857:
1853:
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1783:9780226680613
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1733:
1728:
1726:9780472100453
1722:
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1675:
1673:9780807085509
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1648:9788439938507
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1544:9780812221374
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134:Christianity
42:
26:Ethnic group
2069:Les Marrons
1264:Les Marrons
1195:14 December
1189:Star Nieuws
1078:Sally Price
1066:Ethnography
785:egalitarian
719:woodcarving
642:cell phones
513:floor plans
493:palm fronds
426:development
406:land rights
347:plantations
177: [
103:Netherlands
2758:Categories
2632:Indigenous
2562:Portuguese
2499:Paramaccan
2399:Indigenous
2263:Quilombola
2238:Paramaccan
1932:7:699-711.
1811:2015-10-07
1126:References
1055:Paramaribo
916:snake gods
867:witchcraft
801:divination
707:divination
646:Paramaribo
573:breadfruit
367:rainforest
343:Portuguese
327:Saramaccan
118:Saramaccan
82:Paramaribo
71:Brokopondo
2733:Brazilian
2578:Brazilian
2272:Mauritius
2189:Honduras
2040:76:81-88.
1044:Isolation
1029:folktales
993:Saramaka
924:libations
911:religious
857:fosterage
779:Saramaka
715:courtship
588:patchwork
557:sugarcane
549:plantains
394:Brazilian
214:Saramacca
197:Asindoopo
192:Residence
171:Incumbent
112:Languages
2764:Saramaka
2743:Javanese
2724:Saramaka
2549:European
2534:Javanese
2504:Saramaka
2258:Quilombo
2248:Kalungas
2223:Saramaka
2208:Suriname
2204:Guianas
2193:Garifuna
2171:Mascogos
1702:50625762
1218:: 13–30.
1144:(2013).
958:vultures
939:Moravian
826:kabiteni
711:polygyny
674:lineages
622:kerosene
614:shotguns
592:calabash
581:calabash
509:concrete
442:interior
438:Suriname
313:aluminum
274:Paramaka
246:cimarron
238:cimarrĂłn
222:Suriname
206:Saramaka
124:Religion
65:Tribal (
30:Saramaka
2709:Maroons
2704:African
2679:Wayampi
2669:Palikur
2657:Kali'na
2524:Chinese
2489:Matawai
2474:Maroons
2466:African
2439:Sikiana
2434:Saloema
2429:Kali'na
2253:Macombo
2244:Brazil
2233:Matawai
2185:Jamaica
2149:Maroons
1837:1114525
1169:25 July
1074:Richard
1011:sorcery
983:shrines
962:jaguars
931:rituals
920:prayers
834:oracles
797:classes
789:kinship
787:, with
781:society
703:exogamy
693:lawsuit
689:freedom
565:coconut
561:peanuts
553:bananas
533:cassava
521:swidden
505:facades
473:shrines
447:Granman
357:History
339:lexicon
325:called
316:smelter
289:slavery
270:Matawai
250:slavery
210:Saamaka
162:Granman
147:Matawai
2738:Indian
2719:Ndyuka
2662:Wayana
2645:Lokono
2640:Arawak
2539:Jewish
2529:Indian
2494:Ndyuka
2484:Kwinti
2449:Wayana
2444:TiriyĂł
2424:Akurio
2412:Lokono
2407:Arawak
2291:Brazil
2228:Kwinti
2218:Ndyuka
2200:Panama
1991:22(1).
1908:
1883:
1858:
1835:
1780:
1723:
1700:
1688:apĂnti
1670:
1645:
1541:
1518:21 May
1488:
1463:
1438:
1413:
1388:
1365:26 May
1337:
1270:
1245:
1239:xi-xii
1086:Ndyuka
1024:coffin
883:Ndyuka
749:ritual
636:, and
624:, and
618:powder
579:, and
577:papaya
569:orange
559:, and
497:thatch
363:slaves
331:Ndyuka
282:Kwinti
280:, and
266:Ndyuka
151:Kwinti
97:25,000
87:29,000
76:28,500
69:&
2714:Aluku
2652:Carib
2557:Dutch
2516:Asian
2479:Aluku
2456:Warao
2419:Carib
2311:Trade
2213:Aluku
1512:(PDF)
1305:(PDF)
1106:Notes
1037:ghost
1015:taboo
1000:kĂşnus
976:rites
966:KĂşnus
935:tapir
853:kuĂştu
842:clans
830:basiá
822:gaamá
601:Body
545:maize
485:canoe
351:Dutch
305:Alcoa
278:Aluku
181:]
107:7,500
2674:Teko
1906:ISBN
1881:ISBN
1856:ISBN
1833:OCLC
1778:ISBN
1721:ISBN
1698:OCLC
1668:ISBN
1643:ISBN
1539:ISBN
1520:2009
1486:ISBN
1461:ISBN
1436:ISBN
1411:ISBN
1386:ISBN
1367:2013
1335:ISBN
1315:(1).
1268:ISBN
1243:ISBN
1197:2021
1171:2020
1076:and
1007:kĂşnu
971:evil
929:The
907:life
862:gods
670:band
662:clan
660:. A
541:okra
537:taro
529:Rice
525:salt
422:gold
303:and
204:The
2622:in
1620:doi
1568:doi
1158:doi
1009:to
988:rum
783:is
756:bee
738:bee
734:bee
730:bee
700:bee
678:bee
626:rum
212:or
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