918:. First are direct financial transfers, second are indirect financial transfers and services. Third, certain forms of intervention and fourth, not intervening. The first category regards direct payments from the government received by the fisheries industry. These typically affect profits of the industry in the short term and can be negative or positive. Category two pertains to government intervention, not involving those under the first category. These subsidies also affect the profits in the short term but typically are not negative. Category three includes intervention that results in a negative short-term economic impact, but economic benefits in the long term. These benefits are usually more general societal benefits such as the environment. The final category pertains to inaction by the government, allowing producers to impose certain production costs on others. These subsidies tend to lead to positive benefits in the short term but negative in the long term.
670:
States, Europe and poorer developing countries. While subsidies may provide immediate benefits to an industry, in the long-run they may prove to have unethical, negative effects. Subsidies are intended to support public interest, however, they can violate ethical or legal principles if they lead to higher consumer prices or discriminate against some producers to benefit others. For example, domestic subsidies granted by individual US states may be unconstitutional if they discriminate against out-of-state producers, violating the
Privileges and Immunities Clause or the Dormant Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution. Depending on their nature, subsidies are discouraged by international trade agreements such as the World Trade Organization (WTO). This trend, however, may change in the future, as needs of sustainable development and environmental protection could suggest different interpretations regarding energy and
213:
are better off and experience an increase in consumer welfare due to the decrease in price of the imported goods, as well as the decrease in price of the domestic substitute goods. Conversely, the consumers in the exporting country experience a decrease in consumer welfare due to an increase in the price of their domestic goods. Furthermore, producers of the importing country experience a loss of welfare due to a decrease in the price for the goods in their market, while on the other side, the exporters of the producing country experience an increase in well-being due to the increase in demand. Ultimately, the import subsidy is rarely used due to an overall loss of welfare for the country due to a decrease in domestic production and a reduction in production throughout the world. However, that can result in a redistribution of income.
804:, pollution, loss of landscape, misuse and overuse of supplies) which, as well as its fundamental damage, acts as a further brake on economies; tend to benefit the few at the expense of the many, and the rich at the expense of the poor; lead to further polarization of development between the Northern and Southern hemispheres; lower global market prices; and undermine investment decisions reducing the pressure on businesses to become more efficient. Over time the latter effect means support becomes enshrined in human behaviour and business decisions to the point where people become reliant on, even addicted to, subsidies, "locking" them into society.
927:
R&D contracts had gone to advanced and viable firms as well as old uneconomic enterprises. However, the main recipients had been larger, established companies – while most of the firms pioneering radical technical-product developments with long-term economic growth potential had been new small enterprises. The study concluded that instead of providing subsidies, governments wanting to benefit industrial-technological development and performance should lower standard rates of business taxation, raise tax allowances for investments in new plant, equipment and products, and remove obstacles to market competition and customer choice.
642:
equilibrium quantity implies an increase in the price. The effect of a subsidy is to shift the supply or demand curve to the right (i.e. increases the supply or demand) by the amount of the subsidy. If a consumer is receiving the subsidy, a lower price of a good resulting from the marginal subsidy on consumption increases demand, shifting the demand curve to the right. If a supplier is receiving the subsidy, an increase in the price (revenue) resulting from the marginal subsidy on production results increases supply, shifting the supply curve to the right.
781:. To be "perverse", subsidies must exert effects that are demonstrably and significantly adverse both economically and environmentally. A subsidy rarely, if ever, starts perverse, but over time a legitimate efficacious subsidy can become perverse or illegitimate if it is not withdrawn after meeting its goal or as political goals change. Perverse subsidies are now so widespread that as of 2007 they amounted $ 2 trillion per year in the six most subsidised sectors alone (agriculture, fossil fuels, road transportation, water, fisheries and forestry).
79:, and government provision of goods and services. For instance, the government may distribute direct payment subsidies to individuals and households during an economic downturn in order to help its citizens pay their bills and to stimulate economic activity. Here, subsidies act as an effective financial aid issued when the economy experiences economic hardship. They can also be a good policy tool to revise market imperfections when rational and competitive firms fail to produce an optimal market outcome. For example, in an
646:
389:
397:
530:
incentives for beneficiaries to participate in the labour market. In the contrary, certain literatures have found that subsidy cuts do not encourage employment or participation among beneficiaries. For example, research by Daniel
Borbely found that reducing housing subsidies did not increase employment and labour force participation. Though, he also added that claimants relocated to other areas of the rental market to maintain their benefits.
226:
grants to subside a substantial part of the wages for retaining their employees or to create new jobs during severe recessions such as the 2008 GFC (Global
Financial Crisis), there were minor impacts on employment during the first year. However, the subsidy began to yield positive effects on employment, particularly a decrease in the unemployment rate, in the second year as employers began to properly utilise the subsidy.
836:. Irrespective of the path, the aim of policymakers should be to: create alternative policies that target the same issue as the original subsidies but better; develop subsidy removal strategies allowing market-discipline to return; introduce "sunset" provisions that require remaining subsidies to be re-justified periodically; and make perverse subsidies more transparent to taxpayers to alleviate the "vote-loser" concern.
635:
950:, measures the effect that subsidies and trade barriers actually have on the undeveloped world. It uses trade, along with six other components such as aid or investment, to rank and evaluate developed countries on policies that affect the undeveloped world. It finds that the richest countries spend $ 106 billion per year subsidizing their own farmers – almost exactly as much as they spend on foreign aid.
595:
classified as indirect when they do not involve actual payments. An example would be an increase in disposable income arising from a decrease in price of an essential good or service that the government has enforced in a form of monetary support. In contrast, a decrease in the price of a good or service may lead to an increase in revenue for producers earned from the heightened demand by consumers.
713:
174:. There are at least three compelling reasons for studying government subsidy behavior. First, subsidies are a major instrument of government expenditure policy. Second, on a domestic level, subsidies affect domestic resource allocation decisions, income distribution, and expenditure productivity. A consumer subsidy is a shift in demand as the subsidy is given directly to consumers.
890:
while US cotton growers, backed by government agricultural payments, received 75 cents per pound. Developing countries and trade organizations argue that poorer countries should be able to export their principal commodities to survive, but protectionist laws and payments in the United States and Europe prevent these countries from engaging in international trade opportunities.
832:
country) are less likely to be undertaken for the reasons outlined above, although New
Zealand, Russia, Bangladesh and others represent successful examples. Multilateral actions by several countries are more likely to succeed as this reduces competitiveness concerns, but are more complex to implement requiring greater international collaboration through a body such as the
115:, and expenditure productivity. On an international level, subsidies may increase or decrease international interaction and integration through trade. For this reason, having a thorough subsidy policy is essential as its inadequacy can potentially lead to financial hardship and problems for not only the poor or low income individuals but the aggregate economy as a whole.
204:
deploy their capital in other ways – or to move into markets where the sales prices do cover the supply costs and yield ordinary profits. Like other mercantilist schemes and devices, export bounties are a means of trying to force business capital into channels it would not naturally enter. The schemes are invariably costly and damaging in various ways."
911:, the supply of larger and longer nets, larger yields and indiscriminate catch, as well as mitigating risks which encourages further investment into large-scale operations to the disfavour of the already struggling small-scale industry. Collectively, these result in the continued overcapitalization and overfishing of marine fisheries.
854:. Today, agricultural subsidies are defended on the grounds of helping farmers to maintain their livelihoods. The majority of payments are based on outputs and inputs and thus favour the larger producing agribusinesses over the small-scale farmers. In the US nearly 30% of payments go to the top 2% of farmers.
254:
652:
Assuming the market is in a perfectly competitive equilibrium, a subsidy increases the supply of the good beyond the equilibrium competitive quantity. The imbalance creates deadweight loss. Deadweight loss from a subsidy is the amount by which the cost of the subsidy exceeds the gains of the subsidy.
571:
A 2015 report studied the implicit subsidies accruing to 20 fossil fuel companies. It estimated that the societal costs from downstream emissions and pollution attributable to these companies were substantial. The report spans the period 2008–2012 and notes that: "for all companies and all years, the
264:
Furthermore, tax subsidies can have unintended consequences, such as creating market distortions that favor certain industries or companies over others. For example, if a government offers tax breaks to incentivize investment in renewable energy, it may lead to a glut of renewable energy projects and
607:
Another important classification of subsidies are producer/production subsidies and consumer/consumption subsidies. Production subsidies are designed to ensure producers are advantaged by creating fluid market activity through other market control mechanisms or by providing cash payments for factors
122:
countries in 2020, the median of subsidies and other transfers such as social benefits and non-repayable transfers to private and public enterprises was 56.3 percent of total government expenses which was 34.9 percent (weighted average) of GDP in the same year. Yet, the number of subsidy measures in
926:
A survey of manufacturing in
Britain found government subsidies had had various unintended dysfunctional consequences. The subsidies had usually been selective or discriminatory – benefiting some companies at the expense of others. Government money in the form of grants and awards of production and
525:
Housing subsidies are designed to promote the construction industry and homeownership. As of 2018, U.S housing subsidies total around $ 15 billion per year. Housing subsidies can come in two types; assistance with down payment and interest rate subsidies. The deduction of mortgage interest from the
221:
Employment or wage subsidies keep the employment relationship ongoing even during financial crisis. It is particularly beneficial for enterprises to recover quickly after a temporary suspension following a crisis. Workers are prevented from losing their jobs and other associated employment benefits
212:
An import subsidy is support from the government for products that are imported. Rarer than an export subsidy, an import subsidy further reduces the price to consumers for imported goods. Import subsidies have various effects depending on the subject. For example, consumers in the importing country
203:
Adam Smith observed that special government subsidies enabled exporters to sell abroad at substantial ongoing losses. He did not regard that as a sound and sustainable policy. That was because "… under normal industrial-commercial conditions their own interests soon oblige loss-making businesses to
190:
identified the subsidies to manufacturing industry provided by the
Chinese government and how they have altered trade patterns. Traditionally, economists have argued that subsidies benefit consumers but hurt the subsidizing countries. Haley and Haley provided data to show that over the decade after
169:
where governments subsidise such things as food, water, electricity and education on the basis that no matter how impoverished, all should be allowed those most basic requirements. For example, some governments offer "lifeline" rates for electricity, that is, the first increment of electricity each
83:
condition, governments can inject subsidies to encourage firms to invest in R&D (research and development). This will not only benefit the firms but also produce some positive externalities such that it benefits the industry in which the firms belong, and most importantly, the society at large.
55:
for individuals and households, as well as businesses with the aim of stabilizing the economy. It ensures that individuals and households are viable by having access to essential goods and services while giving businesses the opportunity to stay afloat and/or competitive. Subsidies not only promote
660:
Subsidies targeted at goods in one country, by lowering the price of those goods, make them more competitive against foreign goods, thereby reducing foreign competition. As a result, many developing countries cannot engage in foreign trade, and receive lower prices for their products in the global
302:
In many countries, roads and highways are paid for through general revenue, rather than tolls or other dedicated sources that are paid only by road users, creating an indirect subsidy for road transportation. The fact that long-distance buses in
Germany do not pay tolls has been called an indirect
268:
In addition, tax subsidies can be difficult to monitor and enforce, which can lead to abuse and fraud. Companies may claim tax breaks for activities that do not qualify, or may use complex legal structures to shift profits to lower tax jurisdictions. This can result in lost revenue for governments
260:
While tax subsidies can be effective in achieving certain outcomes, they are also less transparent than direct cash payments and can be difficult to undo. Additionally, some argue that tax breaks disproportionately benefit the wealthy and large corporations, further exacerbating income inequality.
199:
Export subsidy is known for being abused. For example, some exporters substantially over declare the value of their goods so as to benefit more from the export subsidy. Another method is to export a batch of goods to a foreign country but the same goods will be re-imported by the same trader via a
136:
A production subsidy encourages suppliers to increase the output of a particular product by partially offsetting the production costs or losses. The objective of production subsidies is to expand production of a particular product more so that the market would promote but without raising the final
906:
estimate this at approximately 75%. Fishing subsidies include "direct assistant to fishers; loan support programs; tax preferences and insurance support; capital and infrastructure programs; marketing and price support programs; and fisheries management, research, and conservation programs." They
849:
Support for agriculture dates back to the 19th century. It was developed extensively in the EU and US across the two World Wars and the Great
Depression to protect domestic food production, but remains important across the world today. In 2005, US farmers received $ 14 billion and EU farmers $ 47
241:
One type of tax subsidy is a health tax deduction, which allows individuals or businesses to deduct their health expenses from their taxable income. This can be seen as a way to incentivize people to prioritize their health and well-being. However, it can also create distortions in the economy by
225:
Employment subsidies allow individual beneficiaries a minimum standard of living at the very least. However, less than half of active jobseekers in around 50% of OECD countries receive unemployment support. The effect of employment subsidies may not be evident immediately. When employers received
110:
All countries use subsidies via national and sub-national entities through different forms such as tax incentives and direct grants. Likewise, subsidies have an economic influence on both a domestic and international level. On a domestic level, subsidies affect the allocation decision of domestic
889:
and resulted in a record cotton harvest in 2002, much of which had to be sold at very reduced prices in the global market. For foreign producers, the depressed cotton price lowered their prices far below the break-even price. In fact, African farmers received 35 to 40 cents per pound for cotton,
831:
Reform of perverse subsidies is at a propitious time. The current economic conditions mean governments are forced into fiscal constraints and are looking for ways to reduce activist roles in their economies. There are two main reform paths: unilateral and multilateral. Unilateral agreements (one
669:
Subsidies create spillover effects in other economic sectors and industries. A subsidized product sold in the world market lowers the price of the good in other countries. Since subsidies result in lower revenues for producers of foreign countries, they are a source of tension between the United
279:
In conclusion, tax subsidies are a powerful tool for governments to achieve policy goals, but they come with their own set of challenges and limitations. It is important for policymakers to carefully consider the potential unintended consequences of tax subsidies and to design them in a way that
347:
During FY 2016–22, most US federal subsidies were for renewable energy producers (primarily biofuels, wind, and solar), low-income households, and energy-efficiency improvements. During FY 2016–22, nearly half (46%) of federal energy subsidies were associated with renewable energy, and 35% were
195:
industrial subsidies have helped give China an advantage in industries in which they previously enjoyed no comparative advantage such as the steel, glass, paper, auto parts, and solar industries. China's shores have also collapsed from overfishing and industrialization, which is why the
Chinese
616:
These various subsidies can be divided into broad and narrow. Narrow subsidies are those monetary transfers that are easily identifiable and have a clear intent. They are commonly characterised by a monetary transfer between governments and institutions or businesses and individuals. A classic
598:
The use of indirect subsidies such as price controls is widespread among developing economies and emerging markets as a necessary tool for social policy. It has proven to be effective in many cases but price controls have a potential to dampen investment activity and growth, cause heavy fiscal
594:
The first important classification of subsidies are direct and indirect subsidies. Subsidies are categorised as direct when it involves actual cash outlays targeted towards a specified individual or household. Popular examples includes cash grants and interest-free loans. Subsidies can also be
533:
Nonetheless, the most common method for providing housing subsidies is via direct payments to renters by covering a part of their rent on the private rent market. This method of direct transfer of housing subsidies is often referred to as "housing vouchers". In the United States, the so-called
641:
Competitive equilibrium is a state of balance between buyers and suppliers, in which the quantity demanded of a good is the quantity supplied at a specified price. When the price falls the quantity demand exceeds the equilibrium quantity, conversely, a reduction in the supply of a good beyond
529:
As a housing policy tool, housing subsidies also help low income individuals gain and maintain liveable residency by easing the cost burdens of housing for low income individuals and households. However, some policy makers and experts believe they are costly to implement and may even reduce
815:
Perverse subsidies are not tackled as robustly as they should be. Principally, this is because they become "locked" into society, causing bureaucratic roadblocks and institutional inertia. When cuts are suggested many argue (most fervently by those "entitled", special interest groups and
323:
are measures that keep prices for customers below market levels, or for suppliers above market levels, or reduce costs for customers and suppliers. Energy subsidies may be direct cash transfers to suppliers, customers, or related bodies, as well as indirect support mechanisms, such as
238:, are a way for governments to achieve certain outcomes without directly providing cash payments. By offering tax breaks, the government can incentivize behavior that is beneficial to the economy or society as a whole. However, tax subsidies can also have negative consequences.
665:
arises when industries are selected for nationalistic reasons (infant-industry), rather than to gain a comparative advantage. The market distortion, and reduction in social welfare, is the logic behind the World Bank policy for the removal of subsidies in developing countries.
599:
burdens for the government, and may even complicate the optimal performance of monetary policy. To prevent the undesirable negative effects, price control regimes may be replaced by creating social safety nets and proposing sound reforms to encourage competition and growth.
2573:
608:
of production. Consumption subsidies benefit consumers typically through a reduction in the market price of goods and services. They are commonly used by governments of many developing countries in an attempt to secure the most basic needs for its population.
99:, rent rebates). Furthermore, they can be broad or narrow, legal or illegal, ethical or unethical. The most common forms of subsidies are those to the producer or the consumer. Producer/production subsidies ensure producers are better off by either supplying
276:. The use of tax subsidies is often debated in political circles, with some arguing that they are necessary to support certain industries or to incentivize certain behaviors, while others argue that they create inefficiencies and distortions in the economy.
200:
circuitous route and changing the product description so as to obscure their origin. Thus the trader benefits from the export subsidy without creating real trade value to the economy. Export subsidy as such can become a self-defeating and disruptive policy.
828:" – insofar as that even if they wanted to adopt subsidy reform, by acting unilaterally they fear only negative effects will ensue if others do not follow. Furthermore, cutting subsidies, however perverse they may be, is considered a vote-losing policy.
580:
in 2008." Pure coal companies fare even worse: "the economic cost to society exceeds total revenue (employment, taxes, supply purchases, and indirect employment) in all years, with this cost varying between nearly $ 2 and nearly $ 9 per $ 1 of revenue."
866:; shorten fallow periods; and promote exploitative land use change from forests, rainforests and wetlands to agricultural land. These all lead to severe environmental degradation, including adverse effects on soil quality and productivity including
3332:
792:
Directly, they are expensive to governments by directing resources away from other legitimate should priorities (such as environmental conservation, education, health, or infrastructure), ultimately reducing the fiscal health of the government.
625:
Conversely broad subsidies include both monetary and non-monetary subsidies and is often difficult to identify. A broad subsidy is less attributable and less transparent. Environmental externalities are the most common type of broad subsidy.
170:
month is subsidized. Evidence from recent studies suggests that government expenditures on subsidies remain high in many countries, often amounting to several percentage points of GDP. Subsidization on such a scale implies substantial
149:). Production subsidies are critically discussed in the literature as they can cause many problems including the additional cost of storing the extra produced products, depressing world market prices, and incentivizing producers to
857:
By subsidising inputs and outputs through such schemes as "yield based subsidisation", farmers are encouraged to over-produce using intensive methods, including using more fertilizers and pesticides; grow high-yielding
2565:
1823:
280:
maximizes their benefits while minimizing their costs. Additionally, strong monitoring and enforcement mechanisms are needed to ensure that tax subsidies are used appropriately and do not result in abuse or fraud.
3371:
1228:
694:
are performed to verify whether the funds that have been received has indeed been spent legally (and all requirements of the subsidy provider have been attained), for the purpose intended. It hence prevents
939:) profits have topped records at $ 11 billion, the highest of all sports. The NFL had tax-exempt status until voluntarily relinquishing it in 2015, and new stadiums have been built with public subsidies.
3328:
878:
of waterways, and lowering of water tables; diversity of flora and fauna including indigenous species both directly and indirectly through the destruction of habitats, resulting in a genetic wipe-out.
295:
Publicly owned airports can be an indirect subsidy if they lose money. The
European Union, for instance, criticizes Germany for its high number of money-losing airports that are used primarily by
261:
Therefore, it is important for governments to carefully consider the potential consequences of offering tax subsidies and ensure that they are targeted towards achieving the greatest public good.
1734:
526:
federal income tax accounts for the largest interest rate subsidy. Additionally, the federal government will help low-income families with the down payment, coming to $ 10.9 million in 2008.
107:. Consumer/consumption subsidies commonly reduce the price of goods and services to the consumer. For example, in the US at one time it was cheaper to buy gasoline than bottled water.
2988:
1790:
Data source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Federal Financial Interventions and Subsidies in Energy in Fiscal Years 2016–2022, Table 1 and Table A3, DOE, Department of Energy.
1403:
3096:
502:
says: "High fossil fuel prices hit the poor hardest, but subsidies are rarely well-targeted to protect vulnerable groups and tend to benefit better-off segments of the population."
137:
price to consumers. This type of subsidy is predominantly found in developed markets. Other examples of production subsidies include the assistance in the creation of a new firm (
2492:
Farah, Paolo Davide; Cima, Elena (2015). "World Trade Organization, Renewable Energy Subsidies and the Case of Feed-In Tariffs: Time for Reform Toward Sustainable Development?".
789:
The detrimental effects of perverse subsidies are diverse in nature and reach. Case-studies from differing sectors are highlighted below but can be summarised as follows.
3355:
1943:
1220:
2095:
253:(BEPS) is a particular form of tax subsidy that involves companies shifting their profits to low-tax jurisdictions in order to reduce their overall tax burden. The
348:
associated with energy end uses. Federal support for renewable energy of all types more than doubled, from $ 7.4 billion in FY 2016 to $ 15.6 billion in FY 2022.
3197:
2752:
2566:"Uncertain global economy should prompt governments to embark on reforms that boost sustainable growth, raise incomes and increase opportunities for all - OECD"
1192:
1498:
2186:
1925:
2962:
807:
Consumer attitudes do not change and become out-of-date, off-target and inefficient; furthermore, over time people feel a sense of historical right to them.
272:
Despite these concerns, tax subsidies remain a popular tool for governments to promote various policy objectives, such as economic growth, job creation, and
3305:
1466:
1128:
432:
2663:
2778:
McDonald, B.D.; Decker, J.W.; Johnson, B.A.M. (2020). "You don't always get what you want: The effect of financial incentives on state fiscal health".
2281:
1702:
1595:
1529:
2599:
1724:
2228:
1871:
2871:
1436:
661:
market. This is considered protectionism: a government policy to erect trade barriers in order to protect domestic industries. The problem with
985:
288:
Some governments subsidise transport, especially rail and bus transport, which decrease congestion and pollution compared to cars. In the EU,
182:
An export subsidy is a support from the government for products that are exported, as a means of assisting the country's balance of payments.
3039:
1634:
1392:
1369:
1278:
351:
2922:
2356:
682:
suggests that countries make better use of environmental taxation, phase out agricultural subsidies and environmentally harmful tax breaks.
3395:
3235:
3261:"Report of the Expert Consultation on Identifying, Assessing and Reporting on Subsidies in the Fishing Industry - Rome, 3-6 December 2002"
3092:
512:. Global fossil fuel consumption subsidies in 2022 have been estimated at one trillion dollars; although they vary each year depending on
490:. As of 2021, policy researchers estimate that substantially more money is spent on fossil fuel subsidies than on environmentally harmful
2999:
3122:
2638:
2476:
2158:
722:
3365:
2433:
801:
755:
3067:
2842:
3064:
Workshop on the Impact of Government Financial Transfers on Fisheries Management, Resource Sustainability, and International Trade
508:
countries having pledged to phase-out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies, as of 2023 they continue because of voter demand, or for
400:
Fossil-fuel subsidies as a share of GDP, 2019. Fossil-fuel pre-tax subsidies are given as a share of total gross domestic product.
1573:
250:
3268:
2393:
1161:
943:
265:
an oversupply of energy in the market. This, in turn, can lead to lower prices for energy and financial losses for investors.
3171:
2543:
1092:
947:
479:
2087:
556:
While conventional subsidies require financial support, many economists have described implicit subsidies in the form of
1000:
273:
138:
3206:
3199:
Perverse Subsidies and the Implications for Biodiversity: A review of recent findings and the status of policy reforms
2761:
2754:
Perverse Subsidies and the Implications for Biodiversity: A review of recent findings and the status of policy reforms
499:
87:
Although commonly extended from the government, the term subsidy can relate to any type of support – for example from
1494:
1184:
392:
Fossil-fuel subsidies per capita, 2019. Fossil-fuel pre-tax subsidies per capita are measured in constant US dollars.
1847:"Fossil fuel subsidies: If we want to reduce greenhouse gas emissions we should not pay people to burn fossil-fuels"
2195:
671:
91:
or as implicit. Subsidies come in various forms including: direct (cash grants, interest-free loans) and indirect (
2951:
165:
A consumption subsidy is one that subsidizes the behavior of consumers. This type of subsidies are most common in
2317:
2258:
797:
543:
487:
3302:
1459:
1117:
726:
534:
Section 8 is a direct payment program subsidising the largest amount of money to renters for rental assistance.
551:
472:
192:
96:
2188:
Quantifying the implicit climate subsidy received by leading fossil fuel companies — Working Paper No. 02/2015
1926:"Update on recent progress in reform of inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption"
2660:
3458:
3313:
2512:
Farah, Paolo Davide; Cima, Elena (15 December 2015). "WTO and Renewable Energy: Lessons from the Case Law".
1042:
821:
778:
547:
440:
420:
255:
Multilateral Convention to Implement Tax Treaty Related Measures to Prevent Base Erosion and Profit Shifting
3453:
1521:
851:
468:
444:
436:
52:
3357:
A Sweeter Future? The potential for EU sugar reform to contribute to poverty reduction in Southern Africa
2595:
1698:
2220:
979:
404:
381:
355:
246:
104:
3419:
OECD (2001) Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: Policy Issues and Challenges. France: OECD Productions.
3205:. Durban, South Africa: Vth World Parks Congress: Sustainable Finance Stream. p. 4. Archived from
825:
2883:
2119:"The impact of housing subsidy cuts on the labour market outcomes of claimants: Evidence from England"
1899:
1872:"Protecting Nature by Reforming Environmentally Harmful Subsidies: The Role of Business | Earth Track"
1824:"Local Environmental Externalities due to Energy Price Subsidies: A Focus on Air Pollution and Health"
1660:
1428:
2694:
1981:
1944:"Reforming global fossil fuel subsidies: How the United States can restart international cooperation"
1314:
1012:
959:
870:, nutrient supply and salinity which in turn affects carbon storage and cycling, water retention and
491:
166:
100:
824:
curbing trade opportunities, and increase unemployment. Individual governments recognise this as a "
388:
257:
is a treaty signed by half the nations of the world aimed at preventing this type of tax avoidance.
1770:"Fossil-fuel subsidies generally take two forms. Production subsidies......Consumption subsidies...
1017:
903:
653:
The magnitude of the deadweight loss is dependent on the size of the subsidy. This is considered a
112:
80:
2036:
1623:
1349:
3468:
3432:
3420:
3168:
Working Party on Global and Structural Policies Working Group on Economic Aspects of Biodiversity
2919:
Sixth Ordinary Meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity
2718:
2345:
1968:
Martinez-Alvarez, Cesar B.; Hazlett, Chad; Mahdavi, Paasha; Ross, Michael L. (22 November 2022).
1680:
1330:
1052:
1047:
1037:
774:
3224:
2911:
3463:
3361:
3035:
2834:
2710:
2634:
2521:
2517:
2505:
2501:
2472:
2429:
2017:
1999:
1274:
964:
915:
882:
871:
354:
tracked some $ 634 billion in energy-sector subsidies in 2020, and found that around 70% were
337:
154:
142:
61:
56:
long term economic stability but also help governments to respond to economic shocks during a
3118:
3437:
3057:"Previous Multilateral Efforts to Discipline Subsidies to Natural Resource Based Industries"
2826:
2787:
2760:. Durban, South Africa: Vth World Parks Congress: Sustainable Finance Stream. Archived from
2702:
2672:
2627:
2130:
2007:
1989:
1672:
1361:
1322:
1022:
881:
Cotton growers in the US reportedly receive half their income from the government under the
691:
645:
483:
296:
235:
171:
3031:
3025:
396:
3309:
2667:
2150:
1062:
1032:
990:
696:
509:
495:
359:
196:
government heavily subsidizes its fishermen, who sail the world in search of new grounds.
146:
2194:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Judge Business School, University of Cambridge. Archived from
118:
At large, subsidies take up a substantial portion of the government and economy. Amongst
3056:
2811:
2698:
1985:
1318:
2012:
1969:
1729:
1057:
1027:
974:
969:
886:
875:
820:) that it will disrupt and harm the lives of people who receive them, distort domestic
654:
634:
452:
408:
333:
320:
313:
289:
68:
3225:"Natural Resource Subsidies, Trade and Environment: The Cases of Forest and Fisheries"
2996:
International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development: Information Note June 2012
1661:"Can employment subsidies save jobs? Evidence from a shipbuilding city in South Korea"
1565:
1460:"Subsidies, Competition and Trade, OECD Competition Policy Roundtable Background Note"
1118:"Subsidies, Competition and Trade, OECD Competition Policy Roundtable Background Note"
3447:
3144:
Portugal, L. (2002). "OECD Work on Defining and Measuring Subsidies in Agriculture".
1801:
1757:
1684:
1267:
1067:
908:
899:
863:
662:
448:
367:
341:
325:
76:
3260:
2385:
1153:
2722:
1846:
1334:
1072:
995:
859:
737:
557:
513:
187:
150:
33:
2685:
James, A.N.; Gaston, K.J.; Balmford, A. (1999). "Balancing the Earth's accounts".
3160:
1676:
3146:
The OECD Workshop on Environmentally Harmful Subsidies, Paris, 7–8 November 2002
3027:
Perverse subsidies: how tax dollars can undercut the environment and the economy
2625:. In Costanza, R.; Norgaard, R.; Daly, H.; Goodland, R.; Cumberland, J. (eds.).
2535:
2061:
1269:
Perverse subsidies: how tax dollars can undercut the environment and the economy
675:
576:
emissions was greater than their after‐tax profit, with the single exception of
561:
460:
428:
412:
564:. These externalities include things such as pollution from vehicle emissions,
3409:
3290:
Manufacturing in Britain: A Survey of Factors Affecting Growth and Performance
2622:
2457:
Amegashie, J. A. (2006). The Economics of Subsidies. Crossroads , 6 (2), 7-15.
2135:
2118:
1831:
577:
565:
329:
183:
37:
2003:
1994:
1970:"Political leadership has limited impact on fossil fuel taxes and subsidies"
1365:
424:
416:
92:
72:
57:
2838:
2714:
2021:
242:
encouraging people to spend more on health care than they otherwise would.
2812:"Environmental Harm of Hidden Subsidies: Global Warming and Acidification"
17:
2952:"Consumption and sustainable development: the role of perverse subsidies"
817:
464:
456:
2830:
2791:
867:
363:
2309:
2250:
67:
Subsidies take various forms— such as direct government expenditures,
303:
subsidy by critics, who point to track access charges for railways.
2805:
2803:
2801:
292:
are around €73 billion, and Chinese subsidies reach $ 130 billion.
2989:"Tackling Perverse Subsidies in Agriculture, Fisheries and Energy"
2706:
1326:
644:
633:
395:
387:
2661:
Is That a Good State/Local Economic Development Deal? A Checklist
3093:"How Farm Subsidies Harm Taxpayers, Consumers, and Farmers, Too"
2987:
Bellmann, C.; Hepburn, J.; Sugathan, M.; Monkelbaan, J. (2012).
679:
119:
88:
3421:
http://www.inecc.gob.mx/descargas/dgipea/harmful_subsidies.pdf
1725:"China to Invest $ 128 Billion in Rail, Push for Global Share"
936:
833:
706:
505:
2872:"Perverse subsidies, international trade and the environment"
2865:
2863:
2037:"The new energy shock: Putin, Ukraine and the global economy"
2035:
Brower, Derek; Wilson, Tom; Giles, Chris (25 February 2022).
1429:"Subsidies and other transfers (% of expense) - OECD members"
874:; water quality including pollution, nutrient deposition and
153:, for example, a farmer overproducing in terms of his land's
1305:
Myers, N. (1998). "Lifting the veil on perverse subsidies".
1894:
1892:
222:
such as annual leave entitlements and retirement pensions.
2536:"Going for Growth 2019: The time for reform is now - OECD"
1260:
1258:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1246:
3292:, ISR/Google Books, 2019, pages 37-38. ISBN 9780906321614
2494:
Georgetown International Environmental Law Review (GIELR)
1566:"Welfare Effects of a VIE/Import Subsidy: Large Country"
1552:
The Wealth of Nations: A Translation into Modern English
733:
516:, they are consistently hundreds of billions of dollars.
299:, characterizing the arrangement as an illegal subsidy.
3265:
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
1942:
George, Johannes Urpelainen and Elisha (14 July 2021).
2959:
Background Paper for the 1998 Human Development Report
1554:. ISR/Google Books, 2019, page 300. ISBN 9780906321706
1214:
1212:
1210:
2514:
49 JOURNAL OF WORLD TRADE 6, Kluwer Law International
1489:
1487:
2185:
Hope, Chris; Gilding, Paul; Alvarez, Jimena (2015).
1900:"Fossil Fuels Consumption Subsidies 2022 – Analysis"
2810:van Beers, Cees; van den Bergh, Jeroen CJM (2009).
2746:
2744:
2742:
2740:
2738:
2736:
2734:
2732:
478:Eliminating fossil fuel subsidies would reduce the
2626:
1266:
2390:San José State University Department of Economics
2386:"The Impact of an Excise Tax or Subsidy on Price"
2180:
2178:
2176:
1624:"Basic income as a policy option: Can it add up?"
676:Going for Growth 2019: The time for reform is now
60:or in response to unforeseen shocks, such as the
2088:"Government Subsidies (Farm, Oil, Export, etc.)"
3196:Robin, S.; Wolcott, R.; Quintela, C.E. (2003).
2751:Robin, S.; Wolcott, R.; Quintela, C.E. (2003).
2282:"Price Controls, Good Intentions, Bad Outcomes"
1974:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1802:"Why fossil fuel subsidies are so hard to kill"
1758:"Why fossil fuel subsidies are so hard to kill"
1522:"The deadly secret of China's invisible armada"
898:Today, much of the world's major fisheries are
773:Although subsidies can be important, many are "
123:force have been rapidly increasing since 2008.
2945:
2943:
982:(oil subsidies, coal subsidies, gas subsidies)
2905:
2903:
2901:
2467:Parkin, M.; Powell, M.; Matthews, K. (2007).
2339:
2337:
2335:
2225:University of Cambridge Judge Business School
1300:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1292:
1290:
617:example is a government payment to a farmer.
145:) and even the development of certain areas (
8:
2419:
2417:
2415:
2413:
2411:
2426:Encyclopedia of business ethics and society
1348:Schwartz, Gerd; Clements, Benedict (1999).
234:Tax subsidies, also known as tax breaks or
3161:"Perverse incentives in biodiversity loss"
2379:
2377:
1043:Audit software in governmental procurement
736:. Please do not remove this message until
269:and a lack of fairness in the tax system.
245:Another type of tax subsidy is related to
3030:. Washington, DC: Island Press. pp.
2819:Ambio: A Journal of the Human Environment
2448:Protectionism. (2006). Collins Dictionary
2134:
2011:
1993:
756:Learn how and when to remove this message
3329:"Playing by the NFL's Tax Exempt Rulesh"
2471:(7th ed.). Harlow: Addison-Wesley.
732:Relevant discussion may be found on the
3433:Another Day, Another Bad Incentive Deal
2629:An introduction to ecological economics
1083:
27:Financial support to an economic sector
3241:from the original on 15 September 2012
2221:"Measuring fossil fuel 'hidden' costs"
1800:Timperley, Jocelyn (20 October 2021).
1756:Timperley, Jocelyn (20 October 2021).
1501:from the original on 27 September 2013
3267:. Food and Agriculture Organization.
2848:from the original on 3 September 2011
2633:. Boca Raton, Fla.: St. Lucie Press.
2062:"Fossil Fuel Subsidies & Finance"
1570:International Trade Theory and Policy
1532:from the original on 19 February 2021
1472:from the original on 27 November 2022
1134:from the original on 27 November 2022
467:. Some fossil fuel subsidies are via
352:International Renewable Energy Agency
7:
3374:from the original on 9 February 2014
3177:from the original on 3 December 2013
3073:from the original on 22 October 2012
2968:from the original on 9 December 2019
2428:. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
1705:from the original on 6 February 2021
572:economic cost to society of their CO
3335:from the original on 20 August 2013
3119:"Who Benefits from Farm Subsidies?"
2870:van Beers, C.; de Moor, A. (1998).
2576:from the original on 1 October 2019
2546:from the original on 8 October 2019
1227:. London: Oxford University Press.
935:The US National Football League's (
3301:Clegg, Jonathan (28 April 2015).
3271:from the original on 16 March 2018
3125:from the original on 23 April 2018
3099:from the original on 23 April 2018
2602:from the original on 18 April 2021
2320:from the original on 28 April 2023
2261:from the original on 28 April 2023
2161:from the original on 28 April 2023
2098:from the original on 16 March 2018
1737:from the original on 24 March 2017
1659:Kim, Hyejin; Lee, Jungmin (2019).
1640:from the original on 28 April 2023
1576:from the original on 16 March 2018
1439:from the original on 28 April 2023
1372:from the original on 28 April 2023
1195:from the original on 28 April 2023
1164:from the original on 28 April 2023
885:. The subsidy payments stimulated
777:", in the sense of having adverse
482:, and would greatly reduce global
25:
2876:Planejamento e Políticas Públicas
2596:"Audit of the subsidy statements"
2396:from the original on 23 June 2016
2362:from the original on 4 March 2016
2231:from the original on 26 June 2016
1603:International Labour Organisation
1495:"Collins Dictionary of Economics"
1231:from the original on 16 June 2017
103:, direct support, or payments to
95:, insurance, low-interest loans,
2928:from the original on 12 May 2012
2424:Kolb, R.W. (2008). "Subsidies".
1273:. Washington, DC: Island Press.
1183:Clements, Benedict; Parry, Ian.
711:
380:This section is an excerpt from
312:This section is an excerpt from
251:Base Erosion and Profit Shifting
3360:. Oxford: Oxfam International.
3354:Fowler, P.; Fokker, R. (2004).
3303:"NFL to End Tax-Exempt Status."
1409:from the original on 7 May 2023
1391:Johan Kruger Afcap Consulting.
1221:"Subsidies to Chinese Industry"
944:Commitment to Development Index
443:. Or they may be free or cheap
3317:. Retrieved 17 December 2019.
1520:Urbina, Ian (11 August 2020).
1:
2151:"What Are Housing Subsidies?"
1033:Subsidization of company cars
948:Center for Global Development
914:There are four categories of
480:health risks of air pollution
3232:Center for Environmental Law
3024:Myers, N.; Kent, J. (2001).
2780:Public Administration Review
2123:Journal of Housing Economics
1677:10.1016/j.labeco.2019.101763
1265:Myers, N.; Kent, J. (2001).
1219:Haley, U.; G. Haley (2013).
1001:Artist subsidy (Netherlands)
674:. In its July 2019 report, "
274:environmental sustainability
161:Consumer/consumption subsidy
139:Enterprise Investment Scheme
1354:Journal of Economic Surveys
1189:International Monetary Fund
738:conditions to do so are met
538:Environmental externalities
500:International Energy Agency
494:or environmentally harmful
3485:
1699:"EU Technical Report 2007"
1596:"Temporary Wage Subsidies"
1097:. Salem Press Encyclopedia
672:renewable energy subsidies
603:Production and consumption
541:
379:
360:renewable power generation
311:
31:
3410:Resources in your library
2280:Guenette, Justin-Damien.
2136:10.1016/j.jhe.2022.101859
907:promote the expansion of
802:exploitation of resources
798:environmental degradation
621:Monetary and non-monetary
544:Climate change mitigation
473:coal-fired power stations
439:, such as tax breaks on
2117:Borbely, Daniel (2022).
2066:Oil Change International
946:(CDI), published by the
552:Environmental protection
471:, such as subsidies for
193:World Trade Organization
97:accelerated depreciation
32:Not to be confused with
3331:. NonProfit Quarterly.
3314:The Wall Street Journal
2882:: 49–69. Archived from
1995:10.1073/pnas.2208024119
1366:10.1111/1467-6419.00079
1091:Ayanna, Julien (2022).
954:Short list of subsidies
922:Manufacturing subsidies
796:Indirectly, they cause
779:unintended consequences
548:Environmental economics
3055:Steenblik, R. (1998).
1350:"Government Subsidies"
852:agricultural subsidies
845:Agricultural subsidies
649:
638:
585:Categorising subsidies
492:agricultural subsidies
469:electricity generation
445:negative externalities
401:
393:
53:government expenditure
2346:"Perverse Priorities"
1185:"What Are Subsidies?"
986:Photovoltaics subsidy
980:Fossil fuel subsidies
648:
637:
405:Fossil fuel subsidies
399:
391:
382:Fossil fuel subsidies
356:fossil fuel subsidies
247:Intellectual Property
105:factors of production
2912:"Perverse Subsidies"
2623:"Perverse subsidies"
1154:"What is a Subsidy?"
1013:Agricultural subsidy
960:Agricultural subsidy
690:In the Netherlands,
568:, or other sources.
488:limit climate change
366:and just over 3% to
358:. About 20% went to
167:developing countries
101:market price support
49:government incentive
3223:Porter, G. (1998).
3212:on 3 December 2013.
2767:on 3 December 2013.
2699:1999Natur.401..323J
1986:2022PNAS..11908024M
1980:(47): e2208024119.
1564:Suranovic, Steven.
1319:1998Natur.392..327M
1018:Cross subsidization
916:fisheries subsidies
818:political lobbyists
725:of this section is
657:, or inefficiency.
590:Direct and indirect
441:exploration for oil
433:residential heating
284:Transport subsidies
113:income distribution
3327:Cohen, R. (2008).
3308:2017-11-12 at the
2950:Myers, N. (1998).
2910:Myers, N. (1996).
2831:10.1579/08-A-616.1
2792:10.1111/puar.13163
2666:2014-06-05 at the
2621:Myers, N. (1997).
2353:IUCN Opinion Piece
2344:Myers, N. (2008).
2086:Amadeo, Kimberly.
1906:. 16 February 2023
1876:www.earthtrack.net
1053:Perverse incentive
1048:Municipal services
1038:Federal government
872:drought resistance
826:prisoner's dilemma
703:Perverse subsidies
650:
639:
435:; or subsidies on
423:, such as a lower
402:
394:
338:trade restrictions
217:Employment subsidy
132:Production subsidy
3396:Library resources
3041:978-1-55963-835-7
2693:(6751): 323–324.
2384:Watkins, Thayer.
1851:Our World in Data
1313:(6674): 327–328.
1280:978-1-55963-835-7
965:Fisheries subsidy
883:Farm Bill of 2002
766:
765:
758:
521:Housing subsidies
297:low cost carriers
191:China joined the
172:opportunity costs
155:carrying capacity
143:industrial policy
62:COVID-19 pandemic
16:(Redirected from
3476:
3438:Naked Capitalism
3384:
3383:
3381:
3379:
3351:
3345:
3344:
3342:
3340:
3324:
3318:
3299:
3293:
3287:
3281:
3280:
3278:
3276:
3257:
3251:
3250:
3248:
3246:
3240:
3229:
3220:
3214:
3213:
3211:
3204:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3176:
3165:
3156:
3150:
3149:
3141:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3130:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3106:
3104:
3089:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3078:
3072:
3061:
3052:
3046:
3045:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3010:
3005:on 8 August 2020
3004:
2998:. Archived from
2993:
2984:
2978:
2977:
2975:
2973:
2967:
2956:
2947:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2933:
2927:
2916:
2907:
2896:
2895:
2893:
2891:
2867:
2858:
2857:
2855:
2853:
2847:
2816:
2807:
2796:
2795:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2759:
2748:
2727:
2726:
2682:
2676:
2673:Naked Capitalism
2658:
2652:
2651:
2649:
2647:
2632:
2618:
2612:
2611:
2609:
2607:
2592:
2586:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2562:
2556:
2555:
2553:
2551:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2509:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2464:
2458:
2455:
2449:
2446:
2440:
2439:
2421:
2406:
2405:
2403:
2401:
2381:
2372:
2371:
2369:
2367:
2361:
2350:
2341:
2330:
2329:
2327:
2325:
2306:
2300:
2299:
2297:
2295:
2289:World Bank Group
2286:
2277:
2271:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2227:. 23 July 2015.
2217:
2211:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2201:on 28 March 2016
2200:
2193:
2182:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2138:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2103:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2049:
2047:
2032:
2026:
2025:
2015:
1997:
1965:
1959:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1930:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1896:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1882:
1868:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1857:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1828:
1820:
1814:
1813:
1811:
1809:
1797:
1791:
1788:
1782:
1779:
1773:
1772:
1767:
1765:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1744:
1742:
1733:. 5 March 2015.
1721:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1695:
1689:
1688:
1665:Labour Economics
1656:
1650:
1649:
1647:
1645:
1639:
1628:
1620:
1614:
1613:
1611:
1609:
1600:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1561:
1555:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1539:
1537:
1517:
1511:
1510:
1508:
1506:
1491:
1482:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1471:
1464:
1455:
1449:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1416:
1414:
1408:
1400:World Bank Group
1397:
1388:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1345:
1339:
1338:
1302:
1285:
1284:
1272:
1262:
1241:
1240:
1238:
1236:
1216:
1205:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1180:
1174:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1150:
1144:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1133:
1122:
1113:
1107:
1106:
1104:
1102:
1088:
1023:Cultural subsidy
761:
754:
750:
747:
741:
715:
714:
707:
686:Preventing fraud
630:Economic effects
612:Broad and narrow
486:thus helping to
484:carbon emissions
409:energy subsidies
340:, and limits on
321:Energy subsidies
307:Energy subsidies
236:tax expenditures
81:imperfect market
21:
3484:
3483:
3479:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3474:
3473:
3444:
3443:
3429:
3416:
3415:
3414:
3404:
3403:
3399:
3392:
3390:Further reading
3387:
3377:
3375:
3368:
3353:
3352:
3348:
3338:
3336:
3326:
3325:
3321:
3310:Wayback Machine
3300:
3296:
3288:
3284:
3274:
3272:
3259:
3258:
3254:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3227:
3222:
3221:
3217:
3209:
3202:
3195:
3194:
3190:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3163:
3158:
3157:
3153:
3143:
3142:
3138:
3128:
3126:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3102:
3100:
3091:
3090:
3086:
3076:
3074:
3070:
3059:
3054:
3053:
3049:
3042:
3023:
3022:
3018:
3008:
3006:
3002:
2991:
2986:
2985:
2981:
2971:
2969:
2965:
2954:
2949:
2948:
2941:
2931:
2929:
2925:
2914:
2909:
2908:
2899:
2889:
2887:
2886:on 4 March 2016
2869:
2868:
2861:
2851:
2849:
2845:
2814:
2809:
2808:
2799:
2777:
2776:
2772:
2764:
2757:
2750:
2749:
2730:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2668:Wayback Machine
2659:
2655:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2620:
2619:
2615:
2605:
2603:
2594:
2593:
2589:
2579:
2577:
2564:
2563:
2559:
2549:
2547:
2534:
2533:
2529:
2511:
2491:
2490:
2486:
2479:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2456:
2452:
2447:
2443:
2436:
2423:
2422:
2409:
2399:
2397:
2383:
2382:
2375:
2365:
2363:
2359:
2348:
2343:
2342:
2333:
2323:
2321:
2308:
2307:
2303:
2293:
2291:
2284:
2279:
2278:
2274:
2264:
2262:
2249:
2248:
2244:
2234:
2232:
2219:
2218:
2214:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2191:
2184:
2183:
2174:
2164:
2162:
2149:
2148:
2144:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2101:
2099:
2085:
2084:
2080:
2070:
2068:
2060:
2059:
2055:
2045:
2043:
2041:Financial Times
2034:
2033:
2029:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1952:
1950:
1941:
1940:
1936:
1928:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1909:
1907:
1898:
1897:
1890:
1880:
1878:
1870:
1869:
1865:
1855:
1853:
1845:
1844:
1840:
1826:
1822:
1821:
1817:
1807:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1776:
1763:
1761:
1755:
1754:
1750:
1740:
1738:
1723:
1722:
1718:
1708:
1706:
1697:
1696:
1692:
1658:
1657:
1653:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1626:
1622:
1621:
1617:
1607:
1605:
1598:
1594:
1593:
1589:
1579:
1577:
1563:
1562:
1558:
1549:
1545:
1535:
1533:
1519:
1518:
1514:
1504:
1502:
1493:
1492:
1485:
1475:
1473:
1469:
1462:
1457:
1456:
1452:
1442:
1440:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1395:
1390:
1389:
1385:
1375:
1373:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1304:
1303:
1288:
1281:
1264:
1263:
1244:
1234:
1232:
1218:
1217:
1208:
1198:
1196:
1182:
1181:
1177:
1167:
1165:
1152:
1151:
1147:
1137:
1135:
1131:
1120:
1115:
1114:
1110:
1100:
1098:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1063:Stadium subsidy
1009:
991:Party subsidies
956:
933:
924:
902:; in 2002, the
896:
847:
842:
822:competitiveness
813:
787:
771:
762:
751:
745:
742:
731:
716:
712:
705:
688:
632:
623:
614:
605:
592:
587:
575:
554:
540:
523:
518:
517:
510:energy security
496:water subsidies
455:due to burning
385:
377:
372:
371:
317:
309:
286:
232:
219:
210:
180:
163:
147:regional policy
134:
129:
41:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3482:
3480:
3472:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3459:Grants (money)
3456:
3446:
3445:
3442:
3441:
3435:(2014-06-06),
3428:
3427:External links
3425:
3424:
3423:
3413:
3412:
3406:
3405:
3394:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3385:
3366:
3346:
3319:
3294:
3282:
3252:
3215:
3188:
3151:
3136:
3110:
3084:
3047:
3040:
3016:
2979:
2939:
2897:
2859:
2825:(6): 339–341.
2797:
2786:(3): 365–374.
2770:
2728:
2677:
2670:(2014-06-03),
2653:
2640:978-1884015724
2639:
2613:
2587:
2557:
2527:
2484:
2478:978-0132041225
2477:
2459:
2450:
2441:
2434:
2407:
2373:
2331:
2301:
2272:
2242:
2212:
2172:
2142:
2109:
2078:
2053:
2027:
1960:
1934:
1917:
1888:
1863:
1838:
1815:
1792:
1783:
1774:
1748:
1730:Bloomberg News
1716:
1690:
1651:
1615:
1587:
1556:
1543:
1512:
1483:
1450:
1433:The World Bank
1420:
1383:
1340:
1286:
1279:
1242:
1206:
1175:
1145:
1108:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1070:
1065:
1060:
1058:Rail subsidies
1055:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1035:
1030:
1028:Energy subsidy
1025:
1020:
1015:
1008:
1005:
1004:
1003:
998:
993:
988:
983:
977:
975:Energy subsidy
972:
970:Export subsidy
967:
962:
955:
952:
932:
929:
923:
920:
909:fishing fleets
895:
892:
887:overproduction
876:eutrophication
846:
843:
841:
838:
812:
811:Implementation
809:
786:
783:
770:
767:
764:
763:
746:September 2019
719:
717:
710:
704:
701:
687:
684:
655:market failure
631:
628:
622:
619:
613:
610:
604:
601:
591:
588:
586:
583:
573:
560:environmental
539:
536:
522:
519:
453:climate change
415:. They may be
386:
378:
376:
373:
334:price controls
326:tax exemptions
318:
314:Energy subsidy
310:
308:
305:
290:rail subsidies
285:
282:
231:
228:
218:
215:
209:
208:Import subsidy
206:
179:
178:Export subsidy
176:
162:
159:
133:
130:
128:
125:
69:tax incentives
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3481:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3460:
3457:
3455:
3454:Fiscal policy
3452:
3451:
3449:
3440:
3439:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3417:
3411:
3408:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3389:
3373:
3369:
3367:9781848141940
3363:
3359:
3358:
3350:
3347:
3334:
3330:
3323:
3320:
3316:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3304:
3298:
3295:
3291:
3286:
3283:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3256:
3253:
3237:
3233:
3226:
3219:
3216:
3208:
3201:
3200:
3192:
3189:
3173:
3169:
3162:
3159:OECD (2003).
3155:
3152:
3147:
3140:
3137:
3124:
3120:
3114:
3111:
3098:
3094:
3088:
3085:
3069:
3065:
3058:
3051:
3048:
3043:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3028:
3020:
3017:
3001:
2997:
2990:
2983:
2980:
2964:
2960:
2953:
2946:
2944:
2940:
2924:
2920:
2913:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2898:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2866:
2864:
2860:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2813:
2806:
2804:
2802:
2798:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2774:
2771:
2763:
2756:
2755:
2747:
2745:
2743:
2741:
2739:
2737:
2735:
2733:
2729:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2707:10.1038/43774
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2681:
2678:
2675:
2674:
2669:
2665:
2662:
2657:
2654:
2642:
2636:
2631:
2630:
2624:
2617:
2614:
2601:
2597:
2591:
2588:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2561:
2558:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2531:
2528:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2488:
2485:
2480:
2474:
2470:
2463:
2460:
2454:
2451:
2445:
2442:
2437:
2435:9781412916523
2431:
2427:
2420:
2418:
2416:
2414:
2412:
2408:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2380:
2378:
2374:
2358:
2354:
2347:
2340:
2338:
2336:
2332:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2305:
2302:
2290:
2283:
2276:
2273:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2246:
2243:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2216:
2213:
2197:
2190:
2189:
2181:
2179:
2177:
2173:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2143:
2137:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2113:
2110:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2082:
2079:
2067:
2063:
2057:
2054:
2042:
2038:
2031:
2028:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1964:
1961:
1949:
1945:
1938:
1935:
1927:
1921:
1918:
1905:
1901:
1895:
1893:
1889:
1877:
1873:
1867:
1864:
1852:
1848:
1842:
1839:
1834:
1833:
1825:
1819:
1816:
1803:
1796:
1793:
1787:
1784:
1778:
1775:
1771:
1759:
1752:
1749:
1736:
1732:
1731:
1726:
1720:
1717:
1704:
1700:
1694:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1655:
1652:
1636:
1632:
1625:
1619:
1616:
1604:
1597:
1591:
1588:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1560:
1557:
1553:
1550:Smith, Adam.
1547:
1544:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1516:
1513:
1500:
1496:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1468:
1461:
1454:
1451:
1438:
1434:
1430:
1424:
1421:
1405:
1401:
1394:
1387:
1384:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1344:
1341:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1327:10.1038/32761
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1282:
1276:
1271:
1270:
1261:
1259:
1257:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1249:
1247:
1243:
1230:
1226:
1225:The Economist
1222:
1215:
1213:
1211:
1207:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1179:
1176:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1149:
1146:
1130:
1126:
1119:
1112:
1109:
1096:
1095:
1087:
1084:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1068:Tax exemption
1066:
1064:
1061:
1059:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1006:
1002:
999:
997:
994:
992:
989:
987:
984:
981:
978:
976:
973:
971:
968:
966:
963:
961:
958:
957:
953:
951:
949:
945:
940:
938:
930:
928:
921:
919:
917:
912:
910:
905:
901:
900:overexploited
893:
891:
888:
884:
879:
877:
873:
869:
865:
864:crop rotation
861:
855:
853:
844:
839:
837:
835:
829:
827:
823:
819:
810:
808:
805:
803:
799:
794:
790:
784:
782:
780:
776:
768:
760:
757:
749:
739:
735:
729:
728:
724:
718:
709:
708:
702:
700:
698:
693:
685:
683:
681:
677:
673:
667:
664:
663:protectionism
658:
656:
647:
643:
636:
629:
627:
620:
618:
611:
609:
602:
600:
596:
589:
584:
582:
579:
569:
567:
563:
562:externalities
559:
553:
549:
545:
537:
535:
531:
527:
520:
515:
511:
507:
503:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
476:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
449:air pollution
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
410:
406:
398:
390:
383:
374:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
343:
342:market access
339:
335:
331:
327:
322:
315:
306:
304:
300:
298:
293:
291:
283:
281:
277:
275:
270:
266:
262:
258:
256:
252:
248:
243:
239:
237:
229:
227:
223:
216:
214:
207:
205:
201:
197:
194:
189:
185:
177:
175:
173:
168:
160:
158:
156:
152:
148:
144:
141:), industry (
140:
131:
126:
124:
121:
116:
114:
108:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
85:
82:
78:
77:price support
74:
70:
65:
63:
59:
54:
51:is a type of
50:
46:
39:
35:
30:
19:
3436:
3400:
3376:. Retrieved
3356:
3349:
3337:. Retrieved
3322:
3312:
3297:
3289:
3285:
3273:. Retrieved
3264:
3255:
3243:. Retrieved
3231:
3218:
3207:the original
3198:
3191:
3179:. Retrieved
3167:
3154:
3145:
3139:
3127:. Retrieved
3113:
3101:. Retrieved
3087:
3075:. Retrieved
3063:
3050:
3026:
3019:
3007:. Retrieved
3000:the original
2995:
2982:
2970:. Retrieved
2958:
2930:. Retrieved
2918:
2888:. Retrieved
2884:the original
2879:
2875:
2852:18 September
2850:. Retrieved
2822:
2818:
2783:
2779:
2773:
2762:the original
2753:
2690:
2686:
2680:
2671:
2656:
2644:. Retrieved
2628:
2616:
2604:. Retrieved
2590:
2578:. Retrieved
2570:www.oecd.org
2569:
2560:
2548:. Retrieved
2540:www.oecd.org
2539:
2530:
2513:
2497:
2493:
2487:
2468:
2462:
2453:
2444:
2425:
2398:. Retrieved
2389:
2364:. Retrieved
2352:
2322:. Retrieved
2313:
2304:
2292:. Retrieved
2288:
2275:
2263:. Retrieved
2254:
2245:
2233:. Retrieved
2224:
2215:
2203:. Retrieved
2196:the original
2187:
2163:. Retrieved
2154:
2145:
2126:
2122:
2112:
2100:. Retrieved
2091:
2081:
2069:. Retrieved
2065:
2056:
2044:. Retrieved
2040:
2030:
1977:
1973:
1963:
1951:. Retrieved
1947:
1937:
1920:
1908:. Retrieved
1903:
1879:. Retrieved
1875:
1866:
1854:. Retrieved
1850:
1841:
1830:
1818:
1806:. Retrieved
1795:
1786:
1777:
1769:
1762:. Retrieved
1751:
1739:. Retrieved
1728:
1719:
1707:. Retrieved
1693:
1668:
1664:
1654:
1642:. Retrieved
1630:
1618:
1606:. Retrieved
1602:
1590:
1578:. Retrieved
1569:
1559:
1551:
1546:
1534:. Retrieved
1525:
1515:
1503:. Retrieved
1474:. Retrieved
1453:
1441:. Retrieved
1432:
1423:
1411:. Retrieved
1399:
1386:
1374:. Retrieved
1357:
1353:
1343:
1310:
1306:
1268:
1235:15 September
1233:. Retrieved
1224:
1197:. Retrieved
1188:
1178:
1166:. Retrieved
1157:
1148:
1136:. Retrieved
1124:
1111:
1099:. Retrieved
1093:
1086:
1073:Wage subsidy
996:Wage subsidy
941:
934:
925:
913:
897:
880:
860:monocultures
856:
848:
830:
814:
806:
795:
791:
788:
772:
752:
743:
721:
689:
668:
659:
651:
640:
624:
615:
606:
597:
593:
570:
555:
532:
528:
524:
504:Despite the
477:
413:fossil fuels
403:
375:Fossil fuels
346:
319:
301:
294:
287:
278:
271:
267:
263:
259:
244:
240:
233:
224:
220:
211:
202:
198:
188:George Haley
181:
164:
151:over-produce
135:
117:
109:
86:
66:
48:
44:
42:
34:Subsidiarity
29:
3378:8 September
3009:8 September
2972:8 September
2932:8 September
2921:: 268–278.
2890:8 September
2366:8 September
2092:The Balance
2046:26 February
1953:26 February
1910:16 February
1536:19 February
1505:5 September
1393:"Subsidies"
1158:Real Vision
850:billion in
769:Definitions
429:natural gas
421:consumption
230:Tax subsidy
111:resources,
3448:Categories
2155:Planetizen
2129:: 101859.
1856:4 November
1832:World Bank
1808:26 October
1781:OECD, 1998
1764:26 October
1671:: 101763.
1360:(2): 119.
1079:References
723:neutrality
578:ExxonMobil
566:pesticides
542:See also:
514:oil prices
447:; such as
437:production
417:tax breaks
184:Usha Haley
93:tax breaks
73:soft loans
38:Subsidiary
18:Subsidized
3469:Subsidies
2580:1 October
2550:1 October
2469:Economics
2310:"Subsidy"
2251:"Subsidy"
2004:0027-8424
1948:Brookings
1685:204435231
894:Fisheries
862:; reduce
734:talk page
425:sales tax
58:recession
3464:Payments
3372:Archived
3339:15 April
3333:Archived
3306:Archived
3275:16 March
3269:Archived
3245:5 August
3236:Archived
3181:5 August
3172:Archived
3129:23 April
3123:Archived
3103:23 April
3097:Archived
3077:5 August
3068:Archived
2963:Archived
2961:: 1–31.
2923:Archived
2843:Archived
2839:19860158
2715:16862091
2664:Archived
2646:3 August
2606:18 April
2600:Archived
2574:Archived
2544:Archived
2394:Archived
2357:Archived
2324:27 April
2318:Archived
2314:ClearTax
2294:27 April
2265:27 April
2259:Archived
2255:ClearTax
2229:Archived
2165:27 April
2159:Archived
2102:16 March
2096:Archived
2022:36375060
1804:. Nature
1760:. Nature
1741:11 March
1735:Archived
1709:23 March
1703:Archived
1644:27 April
1635:Archived
1608:27 April
1580:16 March
1574:Archived
1530:Archived
1526:NBC News
1499:Archived
1476:27 April
1467:Archived
1443:27 April
1437:Archived
1413:27 April
1404:Archived
1376:27 April
1370:Archived
1229:Archived
1199:27 April
1193:Archived
1168:27 April
1162:Archived
1138:27 April
1129:Archived
1101:27 April
1007:See also
840:Examples
775:perverse
727:disputed
465:jet fuel
457:gasoline
364:biofuels
362:, 6% to
3401:Subsidy
3032:box 3.2
2723:4410695
2695:Bibcode
2522:2704453
2506:2704398
2400:28 June
2355:: 6–7.
2235:27 June
2205:27 June
2013:9704748
1982:Bibcode
1931:. 2021.
1881:7 March
1335:4426064
1315:Bibcode
1094:Subsidy
868:erosion
785:Effects
678:", the
558:untaxed
368:nuclear
330:rebates
45:subsidy
3398:about
3364:
3038:
2837:
2721:
2713:
2687:Nature
2637:
2520:
2504:
2475:
2432:
2071:2 June
2020:
2010:
2002:
1683:
1458:OECD.
1333:
1307:Nature
1277:
1116:OECD.
931:Others
692:audits
550:, and
498:. The
461:diesel
3239:(PDF)
3228:(PDF)
3210:(PDF)
3203:(PDF)
3175:(PDF)
3164:(PDF)
3071:(PDF)
3060:(PDF)
3003:(PDF)
2992:(PDF)
2966:(PDF)
2955:(PDF)
2926:(PDF)
2915:(PDF)
2846:(PDF)
2815:(PDF)
2765:(PDF)
2758:(PDF)
2719:S2CID
2500:(1).
2360:(PDF)
2349:(PDF)
2285:(PDF)
2199:(PDF)
2192:(PDF)
1929:(PDF)
1827:(PDF)
1681:S2CID
1638:(PDF)
1627:(PDF)
1599:(PDF)
1470:(PDF)
1463:(PDF)
1407:(PDF)
1396:(PDF)
1331:S2CID
1132:(PDF)
1121:(PDF)
697:fraud
127:Types
3380:2013
3362:ISBN
3341:2013
3277:2018
3247:2013
3183:2013
3131:2018
3105:2018
3079:2013
3036:ISBN
3011:2013
2974:2013
2934:2013
2892:2013
2854:2019
2835:PMID
2711:PMID
2648:2013
2635:ISBN
2608:2021
2582:2019
2552:2019
2518:SSRN
2510:and
2502:SSRN
2473:ISBN
2430:ISBN
2402:2016
2368:2013
2326:2023
2296:2023
2267:2023
2237:2016
2207:2016
2167:2023
2104:2018
2073:2022
2048:2022
2018:PMID
2000:ISSN
1955:2022
1912:2023
1883:2022
1858:2021
1810:2021
1766:2021
1743:2017
1711:2016
1646:2023
1631:OECD
1610:2023
1582:2018
1538:2021
1507:2013
1478:2023
1445:2023
1415:2023
1378:2023
1275:ISBN
1237:2017
1201:2023
1170:2023
1140:2023
1125:OECD
1103:2023
942:The
720:The
680:OECD
475:.
463:and
431:for
407:are
350:The
328:and
186:and
120:OECD
89:NGOs
2827:doi
2788:doi
2703:doi
2691:401
2131:doi
2008:PMC
1990:doi
1978:119
1904:IEA
1673:doi
1362:doi
1323:doi
1311:392
937:NFL
904:WWF
834:WTO
506:G20
451:or
427:on
419:on
411:on
47:or
36:or
3450::
3370:.
3263:.
3234:.
3230:.
3170:.
3166:.
3121:.
3095:.
3066:.
3062:.
3034:.
2994:.
2957:.
2942:^
2917:.
2900:^
2880:18
2878:.
2874:.
2862:^
2841:.
2833:.
2823:38
2821:.
2817:.
2800:^
2784:81
2782:.
2731:^
2717:.
2709:.
2701:.
2689:.
2598:.
2572:.
2568:.
2542:.
2538:.
2516:.
2498:27
2496:.
2410:^
2392:.
2388:.
2376:^
2351:.
2334:^
2316:.
2312:.
2287:.
2257:.
2253:.
2223:.
2175:^
2157:.
2153:.
2127:57
2125:.
2121:.
2094:.
2090:.
2064:.
2039:.
2016:.
2006:.
1998:.
1988:.
1976:.
1972:.
1946:.
1902:.
1891:^
1874:.
1849:.
1829:.
1768:.
1727:.
1701:.
1679:.
1669:61
1667:.
1663:.
1633:.
1629:.
1601:.
1572:.
1568:.
1528:.
1524:.
1497:.
1486:^
1465:.
1435:.
1431:.
1402:.
1398:.
1368:.
1358:13
1356:.
1352:.
1329:.
1321:.
1309:.
1289:^
1245:^
1223:.
1209:^
1191:.
1187:.
1160:.
1156:.
1127:.
1123:.
699:.
546:,
459:,
344:.
336:,
332:,
249:.
157:.
75:,
71:,
64:.
43:A
3382:.
3343:.
3279:.
3249:.
3185:.
3148:.
3133:.
3107:.
3081:.
3044:.
3013:.
2976:.
2936:.
2894:.
2856:.
2829::
2794:.
2790::
2725:.
2705::
2697::
2650:.
2610:.
2584:.
2554:.
2524:.
2508:.
2481:.
2438:.
2404:.
2370:.
2328:.
2298:.
2269:.
2239:.
2209:.
2169:.
2139:.
2133::
2106:.
2075:.
2050:.
2024:.
1992::
1984::
1957:.
1914:.
1885:.
1860:.
1835:.
1812:.
1745:.
1713:.
1687:.
1675::
1648:.
1612:.
1584:.
1540:.
1509:.
1480:.
1447:.
1417:.
1380:.
1364::
1337:.
1325::
1317::
1283:.
1239:.
1203:.
1172:.
1142:.
1105:.
800:(
759:)
753:(
748:)
744:(
740:.
730:.
574:2
384:.
370:.
316:.
40:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.