248:, is a function of the temperature difference between the inlet to the boiler and the outlet to the turbine. The maximum temperature at the turbine is a function of the energy source, and the minimum temperature at the inlet is a function of the surrounding environment's ability to absorb waste heat. For many practical reasons, coal plants generally extract about 35% of the heat energy from the coal, the rest is ultimately dumped into the cooling system or escapes through other losses.
721:, similar to the power cycle of a combustion turbine. However, unlike the combustion turbine, there are no moving mechanical parts; the electrically conducting plasma provides the moving electrical conductor. The side walls and electrodes merely withstand the pressure within, while the anode and cathode conductors collect the electricity that is generated. All Brayton cycles are heat engines. Ideal Brayton cycles also have an ideal efficiency equal to ideal
1074:
734:
the ability to protect the electrodes from electrochemical attack from the hot slag coating the walls combined with the high current or arcs that impinge on the electrodes as they carry off the direct current from the plasma; and (d) by the capability of the electrical insulators between each electrode. Coal-fired MHD plants with oxygen/air and high oxidant preheats would probably provide potassium-seeded plasmas of about 4200
256:, and then directs it through a magnetic system that generates electricity directly. In a conventional generator, rotating magnets move past a material filled with nearly-free electrons, typically copper wire (or vice-versa depending on the design). In the MHD system the electrons in the exhaust gas move past a stationary magnet. Ultimately the effect is the same, the working fluid is slowed down and cools as its
625:, and very close to the channel. A major difficulty was refrigerating these magnets while insulating them from the channel. The problem is worse because the magnets work better when they are closer to the channel. There are also severe risks of damage to the hot, brittle ceramics from differential thermal cracking. The magnets are usually near absolute zero, while the channel is several thousand degrees.
1157:
795:
this equipment is an additional expense. If molten metal is the armature fluid of an MHD generator, care must be taken with the coolant of the electromagnetics and channel. The alkali metals commonly used as MHD fluids react violently with water. Also, the chemical byproducts of heated, electrified alkali metals and channel ceramics may be poisonous and environmentally persistent.
942:. These experiments extracted up to 30.2% of enthalpy, and achieved power densities near 100 megawatts per cubic meter. This facility was funded by Tokyo Electric Power, other Japanese utilities, and the Department of Education. Some authorities believe this system was a disc generator with a helium and argon carrier gas and potassium ionization seed.
36:
417:, steps must be taken to increase the electrical conductivity of the conductive substance. The heating of a gas to its plasma state or the addition of other easily ionizable substances like the salts of alkali metals can accomplish this increase. In practice, a number of issues must be considered in the implementation of an
458:
818:
In 1962, the First
International Conference on MHD Power was held in Newcastle upon Tyne, UK by Dr. Brian C. Lindley of the International Research and Development Company Ltd. The group set up a steering committee to set up further conferences and disseminate ideas. In 1964, the group set up a second
834:
to sponsor a third conference, in
Salzburg, Austria, July 1966. Negotiations at this meeting converted the steering committee into a periodic reporting group, the ILG-MHD (international liaison group, MHD), under the ENEA, and later in 1967, also under the International Atomic Energy Agency. Further
794:
MHD reduces the overall production of hazardous fossil fuel wastes because it increases plant efficiency. In MHD coal plants, the patented commercial "Econoseed" process developed by the U.S. (see below) recycles potassium ionization seed from the fly ash captured by the stack-gas scrubber. However,
785:
dioxide to retard oxidation. Similarly, the electrodes must be both conductive and heat-resistant at high temperatures. The AVCO coal-fueled MHD generator at the CDIF was tested with water-cooled copper electrodes capped with platinum, tungsten, stainless steel, and electrically conducting ceramics.
733:
The temperatures at which linear coal-fueled MHD generators can operate are limited by factors that include: (a) the combustion fuel, oxidizer, and oxidizer preheat temperature which limit the maximum temperature of the cycle; (b) the ability to protect the sidewalls and electrodes from melting; (c)
570:
and the magnetic field. Such an instability greatly degrades the performance of nonequilibrium MHD generators. The prospects of this technology, which initially predicted awesome efficiencies, crippled MHD programs all over the world as no solution to mitigate the instability was found at that time.
440:
There are limitations on the density and type of field used. The amount of power that can be extracted is proportional to the cross-sectional area of the tube and the speed of the conductive flow. The conductive substance is also cooled and slowed by this process. MHD generators typically reduce the
578:
As of 1994, the 22% efficiency record for closed-cycle disc MHD generators was held by Tokyo
Technical Institute. The peak enthalpy extraction in these experiments reached 30.2%. Typical open-cycle Hall & duct coal MHD generators are lower, near 17%. These efficiencies make MHD unattractive, by
469:
to create a current that flows with the fluid. (See illustration.) This design has arrays of short, segmented electrodes on the sides of the duct. The first and last electrodes in the duct power the load. Each other electrode is shorted to an electrode on the opposite side of the duct. These shorts
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in Moscow. U-25's bottoming plant was actually operated under contract with the Moscow utility, and fed power into Moscow's grid. There was substantial interest in Russia in developing a coal-powered disc generator. In 1986 the first industrial power plant with MHD generator was built, but in 1989
899:
An integrated MHD topping cycle, with channel, electrodes, and current control units developed by AVCO, later known as
Textron Defence of Boston. This system was a Hall effect duct generator heated by pulverized coal, with a potassium ionisation seed. AVCO had developed the famous Mk. V generator,
476:
However, this design has problems because the speed of the material flow requires the middle electrodes to be offset to "catch" the
Faraday currents. As the load varies, the fluid flow speed varies, misaligning the Faraday current with its intended electrodes, and making the generator's efficiency
842:
MW, but used about 8 MW to drive its magnet. In 1966, the ILG-MHD had its first formal meeting in Paris, France. It began issuing a periodic status report in 1967. This pattern persisted, in this institutional form, up until 1976. Toward the end of the 1960s, interest in MHD declined because
510:
Another significant advantage of this design is that the magnets are more efficient. First, they cause simple parallel field lines. Second, because the fluid is processed in a disk, the magnet can be closer to the fluid, and in this magnetic geometry, magnetic field strengths increase as the 7th
493:
The third and, currently, the most efficient design is the Hall effect disc generator. This design currently holds the efficiency and energy density records for MHD generation. A disc generator has fluid flowing between the center of a disc, and a duct wrapped around the edge. (The ducts are not
448:
current. This makes the
Faraday duct very inefficient. Most further refinements of MHD generators have tried to solve this problem. The optimal magnetic field on duct-shaped MHD generators is a sort of saddle shape. To get this field, a large generator requires an extremely powerful magnet. Many
617:
MHD generators have difficult problems in regard to materials, both for the walls and the electrodes. Materials must not melt or corrode at very high temperatures. Exotic ceramics were developed for this purpose and must be selected to be compatible with the fuel and ionization seed. The exotic
251:
MHD generators attempt to extract more energy from the fuel source than turbine-generator systems. They do this by skipping the step where the heat is transferred to another working fluid. Instead, they use a hot exhaust as the working fluid directly. In the case of a coal plant, the exhaust is
934:
The
Japanese program in the late 1980s concentrated on closed-cycle MHD. The belief was that it would have higher efficiencies, and smaller equipment, especially in the clean, small, economical plant capacities near 100 megawatts (electrical) which are suited to Japanese conditions. Open-cycle
695:. The spinel was reported to have electronic conductivity, absence of a resistive reaction layer but with some diffusion of iron into the alumina. The diffusion of iron could be controlled with a thin layer of very dense alumina, and water cooling in both the electrodes and alumina insulators.
486:
436:
material. When an electrically conductive fluid flows through the tube, in the presence of a significant perpendicular magnetic field, a voltage is induced in the fluid, which can be drawn off as electrical power by placing the electrodes on the sides at 90-degree angles to the magnetic field.
925:
Initial prototypes at the CDIF were operated for short durations, with various coals: Montana
Rosebud, and a high-sulphur corrosive coal, Illinois No. 6. A great deal of engineering, chemistry, and material science was completed. After the final components were developed, operational testing
729:
from an MHD generator. All
Brayton cycles have higher potential for efficiency the higher the firing temperature. While a combustion turbine is limited in maximum temperature by the strength of its air/water or steam-cooled rotating airfoils; there are no rotating parts in an open-cycle MHD
769:
Superconducting magnets are used in the larger MHD generators to eliminate one of the large parasitic losses: the power needed to energize the electromagnet. Superconducting magnets, once charged, consume no power and can develop intense magnetic fields 4 teslas and higher. The only
543:) while the main gas (neutral atoms and ions) remains at a much lower temperature, typically 2500 kelvins. The goal was to preserve the materials of the generator (walls and electrodes) while improving the limited conductivity of such poor conductors to the same level as a plasma in
283:, which did produce plasma, and this led to some interest in MHD for this role. This style of reactor was never built, however, and interest from the nuclear industry waned. The vast majority of work on MHD for electrical generation has been related to coal fired plants.
1081:
In 1971, the natural-gas-fired U-25 plant was completed near Moscow, with a designed capacity of 25 megawatts. By 1974 it delivered 6 megawatts of power. By 1994, Russia had developed and operated the coal-operated facility U-25, at the High-Temperature
Institute of the
670:
Coal-burning MHDs have intensely corrosive environments with slag. The slag both protects and corrodes MHD materials. In particular, migration of oxygen through the slag accelerates the corrosion of metallic anodes. Nonetheless, very good results have been reported with
871:
Over more than a ten-year span, engineers in former Yugoslavian Institute of Thermal and Nuclear Technology (ITEN), Energoinvest Co., Sarajevo, had built the first experimental Magneto-Hydrodynamic facility power generator in 1989. It was here it was first patented.
730:
generator. This upper bound in temperature limits the energy efficiency in combustion turbines. The upper bound on Brayton cycle temperature for an MHD generator is not limited, so inherently an MHD generator has a higher potential capability for energy efficiency.
574:
Consequently, without implementing solutions to master the electrothermal instability, practical MHD generators had to limit the Hall parameter or use moderately heated thermal plasmas instead of cold plasmas with hot electrons, which severely lowers efficiency.
470:
of the Faraday current induce a powerful magnetic field within the fluid, but in a chord of a circle at right angles to the Faraday current. This secondary, induced field makes the current flow in a rainbow shape between the first and last electrodes.
750:
However, no testing at those aggressive conditions or size has yet occurred, and there are no large MHD generators now under test. There is simply an inadequate reliability track record to provide confidence in a commercial coal-fuelled MHD design.
747:, published in June 1989, showed that a large coal-fired MHD combined cycle plant could attain a HHV energy efficiency approaching 60 percent—well in excess of other coal-fueled technologies, so the potential for low operating costs exists.
233:, almost always water. In the coal plant, for instance, the coal burns in an open chamber which is surrounded by tubes carrying water. The heat from the coal is absorbed by the water which boils into steam. The steam is then sent into a
949:
continuous closed-cycle facility, powered by natural gas, to be built using the experience of FUJI-1. The basic MHD design was to be a system with inert gases using a disk generator. The aim was an enthalpy extraction of 30% and an MHD
648:) were reported to work for the insulating walls. Magnesium peroxide degrades near moisture. Alumina is water-resistant and can be fabricated to be quite strong, so in practice, most MHDs have used alumina for the insulating walls.
850:
became persuaded the MHD might be the most efficient way to utilise world coal reserves, and in 1976, sponsored the ILG-MHD. In 1976, it became clear that no nuclear reactor in the next 25 years would use MHD, so the
344:
742:
1.2. These plants would recover MHD exhaust heat for oxidant preheat, and for combined cycle steam generation. With aggressive assumptions, one DOE-funded feasibility study of where the technology could go,
421:: generator efficiency, economics, and toxic byproducts. These issues are affected by the choice of one of the three MHD generator designs: the Faraday generator, the Hall generator, and the disc generator.
1030:
A joint U.S.-China national programme ended in 1992 by retrofitting the coal-fired No. 3 plant in Asbach. A further eleven-year program was approved in March 1994. This established centres of research in:
128:(e.g. no turbine) to limit the upper temperature. They therefore have the highest known theoretical thermodynamic efficiency of any electrical generation method. MHD has been extensively developed as a
766:. None of these tests were conducted for long-enough durations to verify the commercial durability of the technology. Neither of the test facilities were in large-enough scale for a commercial unit.
444:
The main practical problem of a Faraday generator is that differential voltages and currents in the fluid short through the electrodes on the sides of the duct. The most powerful waste is from the
913:
A method to integrate MHD into preexisting coal plants. The Department of Energy commissioned two studies. Westinghouse Electric performed a study based on the Scholtz Plant of Gulf Power in
1017:
Retrofits to natural gas powerplants. One was to be at the Enichem-Anic factor in Ravenna. In this plant, the combustion gases from the MHD would pass to the boiler. The other was a 230
698:
Attaching the high-temperature electrodes to conventional copper bus bars is also challenging. The usual methods establish a chemical passivation layer, and cool the busbar with water.
706:
MHD generators have not been employed for large-scale mass energy conversion because other techniques with comparable efficiency have a lower lifecycle investment cost. Advances in
754:
U25B MHD testing in Russia using natural gas as fuel used a superconducting magnet, and had an output of 1.4 megawatts. A coal-fired MHD generator series of tests funded by the
237:
which extracts energy from the steam by turning it into rotational motion. The steam is slowed and cooled as it passes through the turbine. The rotational motion then turns an
511:
power of distance. Finally, the generator is compact for its power, so the magnet is also smaller. The resulting magnet uses a much smaller percentage of the generated power.
449:
research groups have tried to adapt superconducting magnets to this purpose, with varying success. (For references, please see the discussion of generator efficiency, below.)
815:. The initial patent on MHD is by B. Karlovitz, U.S. Patent No. 2,210,918, "Process for the Conversion of Energy", August 13, 1940. World War II interrupted development.
1140:
744:
970:
MWe topping facility that was operated outside Sydney. Messerle also wrote one of the most recent reference works (see below), as part of a UNESCO education program.
884:
began a vigorous multiyear program, culminating in a 1992 50 MW demonstration coal combustor at the Component Development and Integration Facility (CDIF) in
54:
298:
267:, like the resulting gas from burning coal. This means it is not suitable for systems that work at lower temperatures or do not produce an ionized gas, like a
1953:
1444:
Velikhov, E. P.; Dykhne, A. M. "Plasma turbulence due to the ionization instability in a strong magnetic field". In P. Hubert; E. Crémieu-Alcan (eds.).
1872:, 1994, John Wiley, Chichester, Part of the UNESCO Energy Engineering Series (This is the source of the historical and generator design information).
804:
777:
Because of the high temperatures, the non-conducting walls of the channel must be constructed from an exceedingly heat-resistant substance such as
1875:
Shioda, S. "Results of Feasibility Studies on Closed-Cycle MHD Power Plants", Proc. Plasma Tech. Conf., 1991, Sydney, Australia, pp. 189–200.
889:
295:
describes the effects of a charged particle moving in a constant magnetic field. The simplest form of this law is given by the vector equation.
1603:"Velikhov electrothermal instability cancellation by a modification of electrical conductivity value in a streamer by magnetic confinement"
554:
first discovered theoretically in 1962 and experimentally in 1963 that an ionization instability, later called the Velikhov instability or
838:
In the 1960s, AVCO Everett Aeronautical Research began a series of experiments, ending with the Mk. V generator of 1965. This generated 35
1748:
Bajović, Valentina S. (1994). "The correct quasi-one-dimensional model of the fluid flow in a Faraday segmented MHD generator channel".
1899:
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1958:
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72:
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completed with 4,000 hours of continuous operation, 2,000 on Montana Rosebud, 2,000 on Illinois No. 6. The testing ended in 1993.
531:, and more precisely on the electron temperature. As very hot plasmas can only be used in pulsed MHD generators (for example using
473:
Losses are less than in a Faraday generator, and voltages are higher because there is less shorting of the final induced current.
1729:
Mason TO, Petuskey WT, Liang WW, Halloran JW, Yen F, Pollak TM, Elliott JF, Bowen HK (1975). "MHD Electrical Power Generation".
1516:"Suppression of ionization instability in a magnetohydrodynamic plasma by coupling with a radio-frequency electromagnetic field"
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MW thermal) generator with the MHD and bottoming cycle plants connected by steam piping, so either could operate independently.
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in 1992 produced MHD power from a larger superconducting magnet at the Component Development and Integration Facility (CDIF) in
1802:
1938:
1775:
Bajović, Valentina S. (1996). "A reliable tool for the design of shape and size of Faraday segmented MHD generator channel".
1125:
906:
A facility to regenerate the ionization seed was developed by TRW. Potassium carbonate is separated from the sulphate in the
856:
827:
820:
973:
A detailed obituary for Hugo is located on the Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (ATSE) website.
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steam plant. To get more electricity from coal, it is cheaper to simply add more low-temperature steam-generating capacity.
1648:. ICAPP'02: 2002 International congress on advances in nuclear power plants, Hollywood, FL (United States), 9-13 Jun 2002.
1933:
939:
117:) as the moving conductor. The mechanical dynamo, in contrast, uses the motion of mechanical devices to accomplish this.
94:
917:. The MHD Development Corporation also produced a study based on the J.E. Corrette Plant of the Montana Power Company of
1948:
771:
504:
The Hall effect currents flow between ring electrodes near the center duct and ring electrodes near the periphery duct.
1487:
Shapiro, G. I.; Nelson, A. H. (12 April 1978). "Stabilization of ionization instability in a variable electric field".
1433:. 1st International Conference on MHD Electrical Power Generation. Newcastle upon Tyne, England. p. 135. Paper 47.
1043:
1014:
T/m. The geometry was to resemble a saddle shape, with cylindrical and rectangular windings of niobium-titanium copper.
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into electricity with an estimated efficiency of up to 60 percent, compared to the 40 percent of a typical coal plant.
1036:
774:
for the magnets are to maintain refrigeration, and to make up the small losses for the non-supercritical connections.
46:
1710:
Bogdancks M, Brzozowski WS, Charuba J, Dabraeski M, Plata M, Zielinski M (1975). "MHD Electrical Power Generation".
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1943:
1147:
1083:
966:
In 1986, Professor Hugo Karl Messerle at The University of Sydney researched coal-fueled MHD. This resulted in a 28
555:
429:
The Faraday generator is named for Michael Faraday's experiments on moving charged particles in the Thames River.
164:
507:
The wide flat gas flow reduced the distance, hence the resistance of the moving fluid. This increases efficiency.
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881:
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The Italian program began in 1989 with a budget of about 20 million $ US, and had three main development areas:
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222:
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1905:
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MW (thermal) installation for a power station in Brindisi, that would pass steam to the main power plant.
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726:
938:
The first major series of experiments was FUJI-1, a blow-down system powered from a shock tube at the
539:
as working fluids in steady MHD generators, where only free electrons are heated a lot (10,000–20,000
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1305:
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238:
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For the electrodes of clean MHDs (i.e. burning natural gas), one good material was a mix of 80% CeO
524:
226:
133:
547:; i.e. completely heated to more than 10,000 kelvins, a temperature that no material could stand.
951:
641:
121:
835:
research in the 1960s by R. Rosa established the practicality of MHD for fossil-fueled systems.
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materials and the difficult fabrication methods contribute to the high cost of MHD generators.
1855:
1829:
1649:
1602:
918:
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In the late 1970s, as interest in nuclear power declined, interest in MHD increased. In 1975,
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achieved similar thermal efficiencies at lower costs, by having the turbine's exhaust drive a
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is almost as hot as a flame. By routing its exhaust gases into a heat exchanger for a turbine
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292:
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145:
1906:
Model of an MHD-generator at the Institute of Computational Modelling, Akademgorodok, Russia
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Also, MHDs work better with stronger magnetic fields. The most successful magnets have been
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temperature of the conductive substance from plasma temperatures to just over 1000 °C.
264:
114:
1448:. 6th International Conference on Phenomena in Ionized Gases. Paris, France. p. 511.
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914:
672:
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402:
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directed through a nozzle that increases its velocity as much as practical, essentially a
179:
109:. An MHD generator, like a conventional generator, relies on moving a conductor through a
27:
Magnetohydrodynamic converter that transforms thermal and kinetic energy into electricity
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1534:
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1407:
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888:. This program also had significant work at the Coal-Fired-In-Flow-Facility (CFIFF) at
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1476:. 7th International Conference on Ionization Phenomena in Gases. Belgrade, Yugoslavia.
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coal-powered plants are generally thought to become economical above 200 megawatts.
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The Faraday currents flow in a perfect dead short around the periphery of the disk.
432:
A simple Faraday generator would consist of a wedge-shaped pipe or tube of some non-
1007:
722:
202:
183:
152:
125:
113:
to generate electric current. The MHD generator uses hot conductive ionized gas (a
1912:
The Magnetohydrodynamic Engineering Laboratory Of The University Of Bologna, Italy
1911:
1810:
485:
457:
263:
MHD can only be used with power sources that produce large amounts of fast moving
1087:
the project was cancelled before MHD launch and this power plant later joined to
745:
1000 MWe Advanced Coal-Fired MHD/Steam Binary Cycle Power Plant Conceptual Design
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563:
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160:
141:
106:
1556:
Petit, J.-P.; Geffray, J. (June 2009). "Non equilibrium plasma instabilities".
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Typically, for a large power station to approach the operational efficiency of
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1115:
532:
433:
198:
17:
1235:"Non-Equilibrium Ionization Due to Electron Heating. Theory and Experiments"
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996:
782:
523:
in MHD power generation increases with the magnetic field strength and the
260:
is transferred to electrons, and is thereby converted to electrical power.
229:, the energy created by the chemical or nuclear reactions is absorbed in a
1215:
339:{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =Q\left(\mathbf {v} \times \mathbf {B} \right)}
1265:
803:
The first practical MHD power research was funded in 1938 in the U.S. by
187:
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1653:
1629:
1515:
1389:"Electrical characteristics of a linear, nonequilibrium, MHD generator"
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988:
Superconducting magnet development. The goal in 1994 was a prototype 2
910:
from the scrubbers. The carbonate is removed, to regain the potassium.
144:. The hot exhaust gas from an MHD generator can heat the boilers of a
1900:
MHD generator Research at the University of Tennessee Space Institute
860:
847:
540:
1046:, concerned with overall system and superconducting magnet research.
535:) due to the fast thermal material erosion, it was envisaged to use
494:
shown.) The magnetic excitation field is made by a pair of circular
1807:
Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering (ATSE)
1415:
1261:
859:(both nuclear agencies) withdrew support from the ILG-MHD, leaving
605:
A magnetohydrodynamic generator might also be the first stage of a
1619:
1072:
484:
456:
206:
168:
1049:
The Thermoenergy Research Engineering Institute at the Nanjing's
137:
1345:
Argyropoulos, G. S.; Demetriades, S. T.; Kentig, A. P. (1967).
1854:. Dover Civil and Mechanical Engineering. Dover Publications.
946:
210:
29:
1672:"High temperature materials for magnetohydrodynamic channels"
1446:
Volume IV. Proceedings of the conference held July 8-13, 1963
1431:
Hall instability of current carrying slightly ionized plasmas
679:
K. Another, perhaps superior option is a spinel ceramic, FeAl
1646:
Gas Core Reactor-MHD Power System with Cascading Power Cycle
1917:
579:
itself, for utility power generation, since conventional
1826:
Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, 11th Edition
954:
of 60%. FUJI-2 was to be followed by a retrofit to a 300
945:
In 1994, there were detailed plans for FUJI-2, a 5
738:°F, 10 atmospheres pressure, and begin expansion at Mach
465:
The typical solution, historically, has been to use the
1514:
Murakami, T.; Okuno, Y.; Yamasaki, H. (December 2005).
562:
nonthermal plasmas with hot electrons, when a critical
1467:
Velikhov, E. P.; Dykhne, A. M.; Shipuk, I. Ya (1965).
819:
conference in Paris, France, in consultation with the
193:
Natural MHD dynamos are an active area of research in
1918:
High Efficiency Magnetohydrodynamic Power Generation
1470:
Ionization instability of a plasma with hot electrons
1347:"Current Distribution in Non-Equilibrium J×B Devices"
1145:
903:
An integrated bottoming cycle, developed at the CDIF.
498:
above and below the disk. (The coils are not shown.)
489:
Diagram of a disk MHD generator showing current flows
461:
Diagram of a Hall MHD generator showing current flows
301:
1233:
Kerrebrock, Jack L.; Hoffman, Myron A. (June 1964).
1291:"MHD Channel Flow with Non-Equilibrium lonization"
843:nuclear power was becoming more widely available.
338:
1216:"Magnetohydrodynamic Electrical Power Generators"
1141:Shocks and discontinuities (magnetohydrodynamics)
586:However, the exhaust of an MHD generator burning
151:Practical MHD generators have been developed for
1850:Sutton, George W.; Sherman, Arthur (July 2006).
244:The efficiency of this overall cycle, known the
1882:, 1987, Hemisphere Publishing, Washington, D.C.
1039:, Beijing, concerned with MHD generator design.
1035:The Institute of Electrical Engineering in the
49:for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling
221:In a conventional thermal power plant, like a
120:MHD generators are different from traditional
205:communities since the magnetic fields of the
155:, but these were overtaken by less expensive
8:
1731:Proceedings of 6th Conference, Washington DC
1712:Proceedings of 6th Conference, Washington DC
558:, quickly arises in any MHD converter using
1665:
1663:
1091:as a 7th unit with ordinary construction.
1687:
1628:
1618:
1577:
1387:Zauderer, B.; Tate, E. (September 1968).
725:efficiency. Thus, the potential for high
717:A coal-fueled MHD generator is a type of
326:
318:
302:
300:
73:Learn how and when to remove this message
1644:Smith BM, Anghaie S, Knight TW (2002).
1174:
1152:
890:University of Tennessee Space Institute
863:as the primary sponsor of the ILG-MHD.
213:are produced by these natural dynamos.
1489:Pis'ma V Zhurnal Tekhnischeskoi Fiziki
275:. In the early days of development of
1880:Magnetohydrodynamic Energy Conversion
1824:Donald G. ink, H. Wayne Beatty (ed),
830:was limited, the group persuaded the
7:
1870:Magnetohydrodynamic Power Generation
1053:, concerned with later developments.
371:is the velocity of the particle, and
357:is the force acting on the particle.
566:is reached, hence depending on the
1954:Plasma technology and applications
1601:Petit, J.-P.; Doré, J.-C. (2013).
1101:Computational magnetohydrodynamics
895:This program combined four parts:
853:International Atomic Energy Agency
832:International Atomic Energy Agency
811:laboratories, headed by Hungarian
182:, which have been applied to pump
178:MHD dynamos are the complement of
25:
1889:, 1969, Chapman and Hall, London.
1044:Shanghai Power Research Institute
197:and are of great interest to the
148:, increasing overall efficiency.
1852:Engineering Magnetohydrodynamics
1777:Energy Conversion and Management
1750:Energy Conversion and Management
1670:Rohatgi, V. K. (February 1984).
1155:
527:, which depends directly on the
327:
319:
303:
279:, an alternative design was the
34:
1214:Medin, S.A. (2 February 2011).
900:and had significant experience.
756:U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
583:power plants easily reach 40%.
1289:Sherman, A. (September 1966).
1126:Magnetohydrodynamic turbulence
821:European Nuclear Energy Agency
363:is the charge of the particle,
132:to increase the efficiency of
1:
1676:Bulletin of Materials Science
1003:m long. The field was to be 5
940:Tokyo Institute of Technology
867:Former Yugoslavia development
124:in that they operate without
95:magnetohydrodynamic converter
87:magnetohydrodynamic generator
1789:10.1016/0196-8904(96)00036-2
1762:10.1016/0196-8904(94)90061-2
1185:. Tennesse Valley Authority.
1057:The 1994 study proposed a 10
999:, for an MHD demonstration 8
477:very sensitive to its load.
1588:10.12693/aphyspola.115.1170
1037:Chinese Academy of Sciences
1975:
1354:Journal of Applied Physics
1084:Russian Academy of Science
613:Material and design issues
556:electrothermal instability
165:molten carbonate fuel cell
159:in which the exhaust of a
136:, especially when burning
882:U.S. Department of Energy
545:thermodynamic equilibrium
389:is perpendicular to both
1959:Power station technology
1429:Velikhov, E. P. (1962).
1183:"How a Coal Plant Works"
826:Since membership in the
809:Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
521:direct energy conversion
223:coal-fired power station
1558:Acta Physica Polonica A
1529:(19): 191502–191502.3.
1523:Applied Physics Letters
958:MWe natural gas plant.
281:gaseous fission reactor
1078:
1010:, with a taper of 0.15
962:Australian development
519:The efficiency of the
490:
462:
379:is the magnetic field.
340:
1939:Electrical generators
1828:, Mc Graw Hill, 1978
1803:"MESSERLE, Hugo Karl"
1298:The Physics of Fluids
1201:University of Calgary
1076:
488:
460:
341:
1934:Chemical engineering
1887:MHD Power Generation
1111:Electromagnetic pump
1106:Electrohydrodynamics
1089:Ryazan Power Station
1069:Russian developments
1051:Southeast University
930:Japanese development
708:natural gas turbines
568:degree of ionization
515:Generator efficiency
299:
239:electrical generator
1949:American inventions
1570:2009AcPPA.115.1170P
1535:2005ApPhL..86s1502M
1501:1978PZhTF...4..393S
1454:1963pig4.conf..511V
1408:1968AIAAJ...6.1685T
1366:1967JAP....38.5233A
1310:1966PhFl....9.1782S
1254:1964AIAAJ...2.1080H
1121:Magnetic flow meter
1026:Chinese development
977:Italian development
719:Brayton power cycle
594:or steam generator
525:plasma conductivity
227:nuclear power plant
134:electric generation
122:electric generators
1868:Hugo K. Messerle,
1689:10.1007/BF02744172
1079:
1061:W (electrical, 108
992:m long, storing 66
952:thermal efficiency
880:In the 1980s, the
642:magnesium peroxide
598:, MHD can convert
537:nonthermal plasmas
529:plasma temperature
491:
463:
336:
53:You can assist by
1944:Energy conversion
1783:(12): 1753–1764.
1656:. OSTI: 21167909.
1607:Acta Polytechnica
1543:10.1063/1.1926410
1374:10.1063/1.1709306
1360:(13): 5233–5239.
1318:10.1063/1.1761933
919:Billings, Montana
727:energy efficiency
675:electrodes at 900
425:Faraday generator
401:according to the
293:Lorentz Force Law
269:solar power tower
146:steam power plant
83:
82:
75:
16:(Redirected from
1966:
1902:(archive) - 2004
1865:
1837:
1822:
1816:
1814:
1809:. Archived from
1799:
1793:
1792:
1772:
1766:
1765:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1698:
1696:
1691:
1667:
1658:
1657:
1641:
1635:
1634:
1632:
1622:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1581:
1564:(6): 1170–1173.
1553:
1547:
1546:
1520:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1484:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1426:
1420:
1419:
1402:(9): 1683–1694.
1393:
1384:
1378:
1377:
1351:
1342:
1336:
1335:
1333:
1332:
1326:
1320:. Archived from
1304:(9): 1782–1787.
1295:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1277:
1276:
1270:
1264:. Archived from
1248:(6): 1072–1087.
1239:
1230:
1224:
1223:
1211:
1205:
1204:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1179:
1160:
1159:
1151:
1136:Plasma stability
1077:U-25 scale model
1064:
1060:
1020:
1013:
1006:
1002:
995:
991:
969:
957:
876:U.S. development
841:
790:Toxic byproducts
741:
737:
678:
607:gas core reactor
409:Power generation
400:
394:
388:
378:
370:
362:
356:
345:
343:
342:
337:
335:
331:
330:
322:
306:
180:MHD accelerators
97:that transforms
78:
71:
67:
64:
58:
38:
37:
30:
21:
1974:
1973:
1969:
1968:
1967:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1924:
1923:
1896:
1862:
1849:
1846:
1844:Further reading
1841:
1840:
1823:
1819:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1728:
1727:
1723:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1694:
1692:
1669:
1668:
1661:
1643:
1642:
1638:
1600:
1599:
1595:
1579:10.1.1.621.8509
1555:
1554:
1550:
1518:
1513:
1512:
1508:
1495:(12): 393–396.
1486:
1485:
1481:
1473:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1443:
1442:
1438:
1428:
1427:
1423:
1391:
1386:
1385:
1381:
1349:
1344:
1343:
1339:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1293:
1288:
1287:
1283:
1274:
1272:
1268:
1237:
1232:
1231:
1227:
1213:
1212:
1208:
1197:"Rankine cycle"
1195:
1194:
1190:
1181:
1180:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1154:
1146:
1097:
1071:
1062:
1058:
1028:
1018:
1011:
1004:
1000:
993:
989:
979:
967:
964:
955:
932:
915:Sneads, Florida
878:
869:
839:
801:
792:
739:
735:
704:
694:
690:
686:
682:
676:
673:stainless steel
666:
662:
658:
654:
647:
639:
635:
628:For MHDs, both
623:superconducting
615:
552:Evgeny Velikhov
517:
496:Helmholtz coils
483:
455:
427:
415:computer models
411:
403:right hand rule
396:
390:
384:
374:
366:
360:
352:
317:
313:
297:
296:
289:
273:nuclear reactor
219:
190:, and plasmas.
157:combined cycles
79:
68:
62:
59:
52:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1972:
1970:
1962:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1926:
1925:
1922:
1921:
1915:
1909:
1903:
1895:
1894:External links
1892:
1891:
1890:
1883:
1876:
1873:
1866:
1861:978-0486450322
1860:
1845:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1817:
1813:on 2008-07-23.
1794:
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1756:(4): 281–291.
1740:
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985:MHD Modelling.
978:
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886:Butte, Montana
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813:Bela Karlovitz
800:
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772:parasitic load
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258:kinetic energy
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195:plasma physics
111:magnetic field
105:directly into
103:kinetic energy
99:thermal energy
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1348:
1341:
1338:
1327:on 2018-04-12
1323:
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1271:on 2019-08-19
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1016:
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731:
728:
724:
720:
715:
713:
712:Rankine cycle
709:
701:
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696:
674:
668:
649:
643:
631:
626:
624:
619:
612:
610:
608:
603:
601:
597:
596:Rankine cycle
593:
592:Brayton cycle
589:
584:
582:
581:Rankine cycle
576:
572:
569:
565:
561:
557:
553:
548:
546:
542:
538:
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419:MHD generator
416:
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387:
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277:nuclear power
274:
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266:
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254:rocket nozzle
249:
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246:Rankine cycle
242:
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236:
235:steam turbine
232:
231:working fluid
228:
224:
216:
214:
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208:
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196:
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185:
184:liquid metals
181:
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173:steam turbine
170:
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130:topping cycle
127:
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118:
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100:
96:
92:
91:MHD generator
88:
77:
74:
66:
56:
50:
48:
43:This article
41:
32:
31:
19:
18:MHD generator
1886:
1885:G.J. Womac,
1879:
1869:
1851:
1825:
1820:
1811:the original
1806:
1797:
1780:
1776:
1770:
1753:
1749:
1743:
1734:
1730:
1724:
1715:
1711:
1705:
1693:. Retrieved
1682:(1): 71–82.
1679:
1675:
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1430:
1424:
1399:
1396:AIAA Journal
1395:
1382:
1357:
1353:
1340:
1329:. Retrieved
1322:the original
1301:
1297:
1284:
1273:. Retrieved
1266:the original
1245:
1242:AIAA Journal
1241:
1228:
1219:
1209:
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1029:
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870:
845:
837:
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805:Westinghouse
802:
793:
776:
768:
753:
749:
732:
723:Carnot cycle
716:
705:
697:
669:
650:
627:
620:
616:
604:
600:fossil fuels
585:
577:
573:
549:
518:
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220:
203:astrophysics
192:
177:
153:fossil fuels
150:
126:moving parts
119:
90:
86:
84:
69:
60:
47:copy editing
45:may require
44:
1878:R.J. Rosa,
1630:10467/67041
1220:Thermopedia
659:, and 2% Ta
588:fossil fuel
533:shock tubes
467:Hall effect
446:Hall effect
383:The vector
171:to power a
161:gas turbine
142:natural gas
107:electricity
1928:Categories
1836:page 11–52
1695:19 October
1331:2018-04-11
1275:2018-04-11
1169:References
1131:MHD sensor
1116:Ferrofluid
560:magnetized
434:conductive
217:Background
199:geophysics
55:editing it
1574:CiteSeerX
783:zirconium
781:oxide or
702:Economics
655:, 18% ZrO
324:×
287:Principle
63:June 2023
1654:21167909
1095:See also
188:seawater
1566:Bibcode
1531:Bibcode
1497:Bibcode
1450:Bibcode
1404:Bibcode
1362:Bibcode
1306:Bibcode
1250:Bibcode
908:fly ash
807:in its
799:History
779:yttrium
764:Montana
630:alumina
541:kelvins
348:where
93:) is a
1920:- 2015
1914:- 2003
1908:- 2003
1858:
1832:
1652:
1576:
1162:Energy
1148:Portal
1063:
1059:
1019:
1012:
1008:teslas
1005:
1001:
994:
990:
968:
956:
861:UNESCO
848:UNESCO
840:
740:
736:
677:
640:) and
265:plasma
167:heats
115:plasma
1737:: 77.
1519:(PDF)
1474:(PDF)
1392:(PDF)
1350:(PDF)
1325:(PDF)
1294:(PDF)
1269:(PDF)
1238:(PDF)
760:Butte
207:Earth
169:steam
1856:ISBN
1830:ISBN
1718:: 9.
1697:2019
1650:OSTI
1042:The
857:ENEA
855:and
828:ENEA
687:- Fe
644:(MgO
550:But
395:and
291:The
209:and
201:and
138:coal
101:and
1785:doi
1758:doi
1684:doi
1625:hdl
1615:doi
1584:doi
1562:115
1539:doi
1412:doi
1370:doi
1314:doi
1258:doi
947:MWe
632:(Al
609:.
271:or
225:or
211:Sun
163:or
140:or
1930::
1805:.
1781:37
1779:.
1754:35
1752:.
1733:.
1714:.
1678:.
1674:.
1662:^
1623:.
1611:53
1609:.
1605:.
1582:.
1572:.
1560:.
1537:.
1527:86
1525:.
1521:.
1491:.
1410:.
1398:.
1394:.
1368:.
1358:38
1356:.
1352:.
1312:.
1300:.
1296:.
1256:.
1244:.
1240:.
1218:.
1199:.
997:MJ
892:.
823:.
762:,
667:.
405:.
241:.
186:,
175:.
85:A
1864:.
1815:.
1791:.
1787::
1764:.
1760::
1735:2
1716:2
1699:.
1686::
1680:6
1633:.
1627::
1617::
1590:.
1586::
1568::
1545:.
1541::
1533::
1503:.
1499::
1493:4
1456:.
1452::
1418:.
1414::
1406::
1400:6
1376:.
1372::
1364::
1334:.
1316::
1308::
1302:9
1278:.
1260::
1252::
1246:2
1222:.
1203:.
1150::
921:.
693:4
691:O
689:3
685:4
683:O
681:2
665:5
663:O
661:2
657:2
653:2
646:2
638:3
636:O
634:2
398:B
392:v
386:F
376:B
368:v
361:Q
354:F
333:)
328:B
320:v
315:(
311:Q
308:=
304:F
89:(
76:)
70:(
65:)
61:(
57:.
51:.
20:)
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